Language Motivation:From the Theoretical

to the Practical

Matthew AppleRitsumeikan University

Dept. of Communication

Are you WEIRD?

Western

Educated

Industrialised

Rich

Democratic

Are you WEIRD?

“the social psychological period” (1959-1990)

“The cognitive situated period” (1990s)

“The process-oriented period” (2000 ~ )

“Three Phases of L2 Motivation Research”

(Dörnyei, 2005, pp. 66-67)

Gardner

Deci &

Ryan

Dörnyei

Are you WEIRD?

“the social psychological period” (1959-1990)

“The cognitive situated period” (1990s)

“The process-oriented period” (2000 ~ )

“Three Phases of L2 Motivation Research”

Canada

The US

Europe

Are you WEIRD?

Motivational theories stem from those in WEIRD contexts

Cultural assumptions about educational systems, language choices, family roles, self-perceptions

• Published in October 2013• Multilingual Matters

- E. Ushioda- K. Noels- T. Yashima- M. Apple, J. Falout, & G. Hill- H. Hayashi- R. Nishida- K. Irie & D. Brewster- S. Aubrey & A.G.P. Nowlan- Y. Munezane- T. Taguchi- M. Johnson- K. Kikuchi- J Lake- J. Falout, Y. Fukada, T. Murphey, & T. Fukuda- R. Nitta- T. Hiromori- Y. Nakata

• Published in November 2016• Multilingual Matters

- T. Fellner, M. Apple, & D Da Silva- P Gobel, S-M Thang, & S. Mori- T-Y Kim- H-T Huang & I-L Chen

- S-A Chen- M. Lopez & R. Gonzales- M. Ueki & O. Takeuchi- M. Gu & X. Qu- A. Padwad & K. Dixit- Q-M Zhang- M. Lamb, S. Astuti, & N. Hadisantosa- N. Rudolph

Questions to ponder…

1. What is “motivation”?

2. What are “language motivation theories”?

3. How do we measure motivation?

4. How do we use motivation in class?

Motivation explains …

- why a particular activity? - how long they will persist? - what effort they invest in it?

1. What is “motivation”?

Motivation explains …

- why? - how long? - how hard?

1. What is “motivation”?

Motivation explains …

- why? - how long? - how hard?

ChoicePersistenceEffort

1. What is “motivation”?

“[M]otivation can be defined as the dynamically changing cumulative arousal in a person that initiates, directs, coordinates, amplifies, terminates, and evaluates the cognitive and motor processes whereby initial wishes and desires are selected, prioritised, operationalised, and…acted out.”

(Dörnyei & Otto, 1998, p. 65)

1. What is “motivation”?

“[M]otivation can be defined as the dynamically changing cumulative arousal in a person that initiates, directs, coordinates, amplifies, terminates, and evaluates the cognitive and motor processes whereby initial wishes and desires are selected, prioritised, operationalised, and…acted out.”

(Dörnyei & Otto, 1998, p. 65)

1. What is “motivation”?

Motivation is a

dynamic

cumulative

active process

1. What is “motivation”?

(Dörnyei & Otto, 1998, p. 48)

a. Gardner’s Socioeducational model

b. Deci & Ryan’s Self-determination theory

c. Dörnyei’s L2 Motivational Self-system

d. Complex dynamic systems and “person-in-situation”

e. Expectancy-value theories

f. Goal-setting theory

g. Self-worth theory

h. Attribution theory

2. What are “language motivation theories”?

a. Gardner’s Socioeducational model

b. Deci & Ryan’s Self-determination theory

c. Dörnyei’s L2 Motivational Self-system

d. Complex dynamic systems and “person-in-situation”

e. Expectancy-value theories

f. Goal-setting theory

g. Self-worth theory

h. Attribution theory

2. What are “language motivation theories”?

a. Gardner’s Socioeducational model

b. Deci & Ryan’s Self-determination theory

c. Dörnyei’s L2 Motivational Self-system

d. Complex dynamic systems and “person-in-situation”

2. What are “language motivation theories”?

2a. The Socioeducational model (AMTB)

Integrativeness Integrative orientation

Interest in foreign languages Attitudes toward English-speaking

people

Attitudes toward learning situation English teacher evaluation

English course evaluation

MotivationMotivational intensityDesire to learnAttitudes toward learning English

(Gardner, 1985)

Language anxietyEnglish class anxietyEnglish use anxiety

Instrumental orientation Parental encouragement

2a. The Socioeducational model

Integrativeness Integrative orientation

Interest in foreign languages

Attitudes toward the French community

Attitudes toward learning situation French teacher evaluation

French course evaluation

MotivationMotivational intensityDesire to learnAttitudes toward learning French

Language anxietyFrench class anxietyFrench use anxiety

Instrumentality

Aptitude

(Gardner, 2006)

Language Achievement

“Other factors”

Integrativeness

Attitudes toward learning situation

Motivation

2a. The Socioeducational model

(Gardner, 2002)

Integrativeness

Attitudes toward learning situation

Motivation

“Integrative Motivation”

2a. The Socioeducational model

(Gardner, 2002)

Integrativeness

Attitudes toward learning situation

Motivation

“Integrative Motivation”

2a. The Socioeducational model

(Gardner, 2002)

Integrativeness

Attitudes toward learning situation

Motivation

“Integrative Motivation”

2a. The Socioeducational model

(Gardner, 2010, p. 88)

“The construct, , reflects a genuine interest in learning…for the purposes of communicating with members of the other language community…

“In the extreme, this might involve complete identification with and membership in the other community…

“…in less extreme form it might simply reflect a willingness to incorporate behavioral patterns in the form of the language from the other group…”

Integrativeness

2a. The Socioeducational model

(Yashima, 2000)

interest in communicating with members of the other language community…

complete identification with and membership in the other community…

willingness to incorporate behavioral patterns in the form of the language from the other group…”

“Intercultural Friendship”

(Clément & Krudenier, 1983)

“Friendship Orientation”

(Kimura, Nakata, & Okumura, 2001)“Intrinsic-Instrumental-Integrative Motive”

(Yashima, 2000, 2004)“International Posture”

“Integrativeness”

2b. Self-determination theory

Cognitive Evaluation Theory (CET)

Organismic Integration Theory (OIT)

feeling competent and a sense of control

leads to internalizing of external rewards and goals

a series of steps or categories

shows the degree to which motivation is self-directed

(Deci & Ryan, 2000)

2b. Self-determination theory

feeling competent and a sense of control

leads to internalizing of external rewards and goals

a series of steps or categories

shows the degree to which motivation is self-directed

People have these innate needs:1. Autonomy

a capacity to choose to engage in certain activities

2. Competencean ability to carry out an activity and

to rise to a challenge

3. Relatednessfeeling of security between learner

and others (family, friends, teacher, classmates)

Cognitive Evaluation Theory (CET)

Organismic Integration Theory (OIT)

2b. Self-determination theory

feeling competent and a sense of control

leads to internalizing of external rewards and goals

a series of steps or categories

shows the degree to which motivation is self-directed

People have these innate needs:1. Autonomy

a capacity to choose to engage in certain activities

2. Competencean ability to carry out an activity and

to rise to a challenge

3. Relatednessfeeling of security between learner

and others (family, friends, teacher, classmates)

Cognitive Evaluation Theory (CET)

Organismic Integration Theory (OIT)

2b. Self-determination theory

feeling competent and a sense of control

leads to internalizing of external rewards and goals

a series of steps or categories

shows the degree to which motivation is self-directed

Cognitive Evaluation Theory (CET)

Organismic Integration Theory (OIT)

leads to internalizing of external rewards and goals

a series of steps or categories

2b. Self-determination theory

(Ryan & Deci, 2002)

Development of internalization of the autonomous self

Identified Regulation

Intrinsic Motivation

Integrated Regulation

External Regulation

Amotivation

Introjected Regulation

2b. Self-determination theory

Intrinsic Motivation

1. Autonomy

2. Competence

3. Relatedness

internalization (self-regulation)

2c. L2 Motivational Self System

• Reconceptualization of integrativeness in terms of L2 self concept

• Three main aspects/components:

1. Ideal L2 Self

2.Ought to L2 Self

3.L2 learning experience

• Reconceptualization of integrativeness in terms of L2 self concept

• Three main aspects/components:

1. Ideal L2 Self

2.Ought to L2 Self

3.L2 learning experience

2c. L2 Motivational Self System

The self one desires to become

The self one is obliged to become

The immediate situation

• Reconceptualization of integrativeness in terms of L2 self concept

• “Possible selves” (Markus, 1986):

1.Ideal L2 Self

2.Ought to L2 Self

2c. L2 Motivational Self System

“hopes, aspirations, or wishes…”

“someone else’s sense of duties, obligations, or…

responsibilities….”

(Dörnyei, 2005, p. 13)

• People are motivated to reduce the discrepancy between who they currently are and who they want to be or do not want to be (“self-congruency,” Higgins, 1987)

• “Possible L2 selves” are not motivations but motivators (self-guides)

1.Ideal L2 Self

2.Ought to L2 Self

2c. L2 Motivational Self System

promotion focus — “pulls” toward

prevention focus — “pushes” away

• People are motivated to reduce the discrepancy between who they currently are and who they want to be or do not want to be (“self-congruency,” Higgins, 1987)

• “Possible L2 selves” are not motivations but motivators (self-guides)

1.Ideal L2 Self

2.Ought to L2 Self

• In this theory/model, Ideal L2 Self > Ought to L2 Self

2c. L2 Motivational Self System

promotion focus — “pulls” toward

prevention focus — “pushes” away

2d. CDS and person-in-situation

Dynamic Systems Theory (DST)

Chaos Theory

Complex Systems Theory (CST)

Complex dynamic systems theory is a combination of several theories from the hard sciences (mathematics/physics):

2d. CDS and person-in-situation

Complex dynamic systems theory as used in L2 motivation studies:

Motivation is individual

- dependent on social context

- interactions between individual / situation-specific events as “triggers”

Motivation is dynamic

- responds to “attractors”

- part of a larger system

- not linear

- can be measured (but not easily)

2d. CDS and person-in-situation

Person-in-situation: Everyone is individual

Motivation is individual

- dependent on social context

- individual / situation cannot be separated

- generalization not possible

Motivation is dynamic

- changes from moment to moment

- cannot be easily captured

- cannot be quantified

(Ushioda, 2009)

2e. Which model/theory should we use?

[A] key question is whether [WEIRD motivational theories] hold for all

ethnic groups (African American, Asian American, Latino, Native

American, etc.) in western cultures as well as in other nonwestern

cultures. It will not be sufficient for future research to just note that

the generalizations do not hold for these different groups or different

cultures, but rather to grapple with when, why, and how they do or do

not hold for the different groups. (Pintrich, 2003, p. 682)

“Remember that all models are wrong;

the practical question is how wrong do

they have to be not to be useful.”

2e. Which model/theory should we use?

(Box, 1987, p. 74)

3. How do we measure motivation?

Absolutist

Relativist

Universalist

3a. Zusho & Clayton’s (2011) framework

Absolutist

Etic approach

Psychological processes are free from culture

Theories can be applied universally

3a. Zusho & Clayton’s (2011) framework

Relativist

Emic approach

Psychological processes should only be studied within local frames of reference

Cross-cultural generation is not possible

3a. Zusho & Clayton’s (2011) framework

Universalist

Both etic and emic

Some aspects of psychology are universal

Sociocultural context in which psychological processes occur is crucial to understanding individual motives and behaviors

3a. Zusho & Clayton’s (2011) framework

Absolutist RelativistUniversalist

Socioeducational Complex Dynamic Systems

Self-determination

L2 Motivational Self System

person-in-situation

3b. How do we measure motivation (redux)?

Absolutist

(Likert category) self/other questionnaires, exams, grades

Traditional statistical analyses (ANOVA, regression, path)

Invariant measurement (IRT/Rasch, CFA)

Generalization across sample populations

3b. How do we measure motivation (redux)?

Relativist

Open-response questionnaires, interviews, diaries, observations

Intrinsic case studies, narratives, ethnographies, action research

Grounded theory, coding, “retrodictive qualitative modeling”

Rejection of group means and cross-context generalizability

3b. How do we measure motivation (redux)?

Universalist

Mixed methods (Creswell & Clark, 2011):Convergent parallel, explanatory sequential, exploratory sequential, embedded, transformative, multiphase

Can be time-consuming, complicated, difficult to publish…

Need for multiple research partners with multiple fields of expertise

3b. How do we measure motivation (redux)?

Hierarchical linear modelling / Latent growth curve modeling

Social network analysis

Bayesian cognitive modeling

Q Methodology

(Quantum cognition?)

3c. How could we measure motivation?

“How can I motivate my students to study English?”

4. How do we use motivation in class?

“How can I motivate my students to study English?”

4. How do we use motivation in class?

“How can I get my students to do what I tell them to do?”

“How can I motivate my students to study English?”

4. How do we use motivation in class?

The quick answer:

“How can I motivate my students to study English?”

4. How do we use motivation in class?

You can’t.

“How can I motivate my students to study English?”

4. How do we use motivation in class?

You can’t…but…

4. How do we use motivation in class?

“How can I motivate my students to study English?” You can’t…but…

…you can help to set the conditions in which motivation can arise…

Creating the basic motivational conditions

Generating initial motivation

Maintaining & protecting motivation

Encouraging positive retrospective self evaluation

(Dörnyei, 2001)(Hiromori, 2013)

4. How do we use motivation in class?

“How can I motivate my students to study English?”

4a. “Motivational interventions”

1.Set a personal example with your own behavior2.Create a pleasant, relaxed atmosphere in the classroom3.Present the tasks properly4.Develop a good relationship with the learners5.Increase the learners’ linguistic self-confidence6.Make the language classes interesting7.Promote learner autonomy8.Personalize the learning process9.Increase the learners’ goal-orientedness10. Familiarize learners with the target language culture

(Dörnyei & Csizér, 1988)

4b. Practical pedagogical suggestions

1. Make use of project-based learning2. Focus on English for Specific Purposes for future needs 3. Introduce L2 English speakers4. Provide effective feedback5. First English teachers should be the best trained teachers 6. Become more aware of changes in students’ motivation7. Make use of student reflection

(Based on studies in Apple et al, eds., 2013)

4b. Practical pedagogical suggestions

1. Make use of project-based learning2. Focus on ESP for future needs 3. Introduce non-native English speakers4. Provide effective feedback5. First English teachers should be the best trained teachers 6. Become more aware that students’ motivation7. Make use of student reflection

4b. Practical pedagogical suggestions

1. Make use of project-based learning2. Focus on English for Specific Purposes for future needs 3. Introduce non-native English speakers4. Provide effective feedback5. First English teachers should be the best trained teachers 6. Become more aware that students’ motivation7. Make use of student reflection

4b. Practical pedagogical suggestions

1. Make use of project-based learning2. Focus on ESP for future needs 3. Introduce L2 English speakers into your classes4. Provide effective feedback5. First English teachers should be the best trained teachers 6. Become more aware that students’ motivation7. Make use of student reflection

4b. Practical pedagogical suggestions

1. Make use of project-based learning2. Focus on ESP for future needs 3. Introduce L2 English speakers4. Provide effective feedback5. First English teachers should be the best trained teachers 6. Become more aware changes students’ motivation can change7. Make use of student reflection

4b. Practical pedagogical suggestions

1. Make use of project-based learning2. Focus on ESP for future needs 3. Introduce L2 English speakers4. Provide effective feedback5. First English teachers should be the best trained teachers 6. Become more aware of changes in students’ motivation7. Make use of student reflection

4b. Practical pedagogical suggestions

1. Make use of project-based learning2. Focus on ESP for future needs 3. Introduce L2 English speakers4. Provide effective feedback5. First English teachers should be the best trained teachers 6. Become more aware of changes in students’ motivation7. Make use of student reflection

4b. Practical pedagogical suggestions

1. Make use of project-based learning2. Focus on ESP for future needs 3. Introduce L2 English speakers4. Provide effective feedback5. First English teachers should be the best trained teachers 6. Become more aware that students’ motivation 7. Make use of student reflection

Final thoughts…from theory to practice

Final thoughts…from theory to practice

Final thoughts…from theory to practice

mapple@fc.ritsumei.ac.jphttp://manzano0627.wix.com/home

@manzano0627http://mthomasapple.com

Language Motivation:From the Theoretical

to the Practical

Thank you!mapple@fc.ritsumei.ac.jp

http://manzano0627.wix.com/home

@manzano0627http://mthomasapple.com

Language Motivation:From the Theoretical

to the Practical