Post on 04-Jun-2018
JURISPRUDENCE&
COMPARATIVE LAW
Dr. N. Krishna KumarB.Sc, LL.M., PGDCr. J.A., Ph.D.
(Lecturer, Government Law College, Thrissur, KeralaFormerly : Lecturer, Central Law College, Salem; Govt. Law College, Ernakulam;
Govt. Law College, Thiruvananthapuram; School of Indian Legal Thought. Kottayam;School of Legal Studies, Cochin University of Science and Technology
and Centre for Legal Studies of Kannur University)
CENTRAL LAW PUBLICATIONSLAW BOOKSELLERS AND PUBLISHERS
107, DARBHANGA CASTLE, ALLAHABAD—211002
CONTENTS
CHAPTER 1INTRODUCTION
PageNATURE AND SCOPE OF JURISPRUDENCE ... 1DEFINITION OF JURISPRUDENCE ... 1
Jurisprudence as a Science ... 1Austin's Definition ... 1Holland's Definition ... 1Salmond's Definition ... 2
Jurisprudence—Modern Concept ... 2Professor Julius Stone ... 2
CLASSIFICATION OF JURISPRUDENCE ... 2Criticism and Conclusion ... 3Criticism of Holland's View ... 3
SCOPE OF JURISPRUDENCE ... 3Jurisprudence in Historical Perspective ... 3
EMERGENCE OF JURISPRUDENCE ... 41. Greek Period ... 4
Law as an Instrument of Social Control ... 42. Roman Period ... 4
Higher Ideal Universal Law ... 4Jus Naturale, Jus Civile and Jus Gentium ... 5
3. Medieval Period ... 54. Modern Period ... 55. Nineteenth Century ... 6
Jurisprudence—Two Separate Branches ... 6(i) Historical Method in Germany ... 6(ii) Analytical Method in England ... 6
6. Twentieth Century ... 6Application of Natural Law ... 7Conclusion ... 7
NORM ... 7NORMS AND THE NORMATIVE SYSTEMS ... 8NORMATIVE APPROACH OF LAW ... 8
Utilitarianism ... 8Deontology ... 9
viii JURISPRUDENCE AND COMPARATIVE LAW
CHAPTER 2SCHOOLS OF JURISPRUDENCE
PageANALYTICAL SCHOOL (ANALYTICAL POSITIVISM) ... 10BENTHAM'S APPROACH ... 10
Bentham's Utilitarianism ... 11Illustration ... 11Bentham's Contribution ... 12Criticism of Bentham 12
AUSTIN'S ̂ APPROACH 13LAW AS THE COMMAND OF THE SOVEREIGN 13
1. Particular Command. 132. General Command. 1 > 5
THEORY OF SOVEREIGNTY ... 13Definition 13Characteristics ... 14Theory of Sovereignty ••• 1 4
Criticism of Analytical School ... 14Neo-Austinian School ... 15
NATURAL LAW ... 16Natural Law and Social Contract ... 17
HISTORICAL SCHOOL ... 18Main Principles ... 18Savigny's Theory ... 18Criticism ... 19Sir Henry Maine's Historical Theory ... 19
Conclusion ... 20SOCIOLOGICAL SCHOOL ... 20
Definition and Explanation ... 20Exponents ... 20
Conclusion ... 23ECONOMIC INTERPRETATION OF LAW ... 23
Factors that led to the Growth of Economic School ... 23Karl Marx's Economic and Socialistic Theory ... 24Soviet Practice ... 24Development after 1981 in Soviet Russia ... 24Working System of Courts in Soviet Russia ... 25Conclusion ... 25
THE BHARATIYA JURISPRUDENCE ... 25DHARMA ... 26
Concept of Dharma ... 26Basic Aspect of Dharma ... 27Different Contextual Meanings of Dharma ... 27Different kinds of Dharma ... 28Vyavahara Dharma and Raja Dharma ... 29Dharma as Justice ... 30
CONTENTS
Sources of DharmaVedasVedangasUpanishadsSMRITHISDharmasutrasGautama DharamasutraBoudhayana DharmasutraApastamba DharmasutraVasistha Dharmasutra (Harita)Vishnu DharmasutraDharmasastrasManusmritiY;;j navalkya Sm rithiParusara SmrithiNarada SmrithiBrihaspathi SmirithiKatyayana SmrithiThe EpicsThe PuranasCommentaries and DigestsAsahayaVisvaroopaMedatithiVijnaneswaraJimutavahanaKautilya's ArthasasthraSukranitisaraRajatarangini
THE MODERN : PIL, SOCIAL JUSTICE, COMPENSATORYJURISPRUDENCEPublic Interest Litigation (Pinnacle of Judicial Populism)
Nature of PILRight to get medical treatmentLimits of PILSuggestionsConclusion
Social JusticeAdvantages of invoking social justiceThe principle of a social justice has two aspectsExceptions recognized to the principle of non-
discriminationSocial Justice and Indian Constitution
Compensation
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x JURISPRUDENCE AND COMPARATIVE LAW
CHAPTER 3DIFFERENT THEORIES OF LAW
PageDEFINITION OF LAW ... 48
Difference between Ethics and Law ... 49Difference between Law and Positive Morality ... 49
THE IMPERATIVE THEORY OF LAW OR THE AUSTINIANTHEORY OF LAW ... 501. Sovereign ... 50
Austin's conception of Sovereignty ... 50Positive and negative marks of Sovereignty ... 50Austin conception analysed ... 50Criticism ... 51(a) Limitations in fact ... 51(b) Limitations in Law ... 51
2. Command ... 51Law as command ... 51Law and Morality ... 52Law and International Law ... 52Law—A general and not a particular command ... 52
3. Sanction ... 52Criticism of Austinian theory of law ... 52Criticism of Henry Maine ... 54Criticism of Bryce ... 54Salmond's Reply to Maine's Criticism ... 54
SALMOND'S DEFINITION OF LAW OR GRAY'S DEFINITIONOF LAW ... 64Explanation ... 54Merits of Salmond's/Gray's Definition ... 55Criticism ... 55
(i) Vinogradoff's Criticism ... 55(ii) Prof. Lewellyn's Criticism ... 55(iii) Paton's Criticism ... 55(iv) General Criticism ... 56(v) Salmond's answer to the Criticisms ... 56Conclusion ... 56
KELSEN'S PURE THEORY OF LAW ... 56PURE THEORY OF LAW OR GRUND NORM ... «7
Necessity of Grund Norm ... 57Comparative Analysis of Austin's and Kelsen's Views ... 58Delegated Legislation ... 58Advantages of Kelsen's Pure Law ••• 58Criticism ... 59Conclusion ••• 59
Nature of International Law ... 59Definition ... 59
CONTENTS
International law is a LawConclusion
Nature of Constitutional LawDefinition of Constitutional LawNature of Constitutional LawCriticismSalmond's View
Constitution—A Matter of Fact and Matter of LawKINDS OF LAW
1. Imperative LawEssential characteristics of Imperative Law
2. Physical or Scientific Laws3. Natural Law or Moral Law
The views of Dias and Hughes4. Conventional Law5. Customary Law6. Practical or Technical Law7. International law8. Civil Law
CIVIL LAWMeaning of Civil LawDistinction between 'law' and 'the law"Purpose and Function of LawDifferent viewsUses or Advantages of LawDisadvantages of LawLegal FictionsLegal PresumptionsPresumptions are of two kindsQuestions of Law and FactQuestions of Law
(i) First Sense(ii) Second Sense(iii) Third Sense
Questions of factMixed Questions of Law and FactTransformation of Questions of Fact into LawGeneral Law and Special LawKinds of special law
(a) Local Law(b) Foreign Law(c) Conventional Law(d) Autonomic Law or Bye-Law(<_•) Martial Law
Martial law distinguished from Military law
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xii JURISPRUDENCE AND COMPARATIVE LAW
PageGeneral Law of England ••• 74Common Law ••• 74Equity law ••• 75Constitutional Law ••• 76Administrative Law ••• 77Classification of Law into International law and
Municipal Law ••• 77Law and Morals ••• 78Distinction between Law and Morals • •• 78
1. Importance ••• 792. Immunity from Deliberate Change ... 793. Voluntary character of moral offences ... 794. Form of moral pressure ... 80
Relationship between Law and Morals ... 80(i) Morals as basis of law ••• 81(ii) Morals as test of law ••• 81(iii) Morals as end of law ... 81
Legal Enforcement of Morals ... 81Influence of Morals on Law ••• 81
CHAPTER4DIFFERENT THEORIES OF JUSTICE
DEFINITION OF JUSTICE ... 83View of Salmond ... 83English Position • •• 84Indian Position ••• 85U.S. Position ... 85
JUSTICE AS A BODY OF NORMS ... 85Justice, Legal & Natural ••• 87Advantages ... 87
1. Uniformity & Certainty ••• 872. Security against bias ••• 873. Impartiality ... 874. Freedom from errors ••• 87
Demerits ... 881. Formalism ••• 882. Rigidity ... 883. Facility for Evasion ••• 884. Undue and Needless Complexity ... 88
Conclusion ... ^Classification of justice ••• 88Delineation of Justice in Greek mythology ••• 88Hebrew's Contributions to Justice ••• 89
Lex Talionis ... 89Hebrew Doctrine of'Justice According to Law' ... 90
CONTENTS XIII
PageAncient Indian Context ... 90
Concept of Dharma ... 90THE EVOLUTION OF THE PRINCIPLES OF JUSTICE ... 91
Traditional Legal restraint and liberty of contract ... 91Property and Inheritance ... 91No Liability without Fault ... 92Role of Principle of Justice ... 92The Subject of Justice ... 92The Main Idea of the Theory of Justice ... 93
Justice as fairness consists of two parts : ... 93THEORIES OF JUSTICE ... 93
A. Classification of Universalist Theory ... 93B. Criteria of Justice ... 94
CHANGE IN MODERN THEORIES OF JUSTICE ... 94Characteristics of Justice ... 95
THE KANTIAL SCHOOL OF NATURAL LAW ... 95The Kantian Doctrine of Free-will and The Categorical
Imperative ... 95National Law and 'a Priori Concepts' ... 95
IHERING'S SOCIAL UTILITARIANISM ... 96The Law of purpose ... 96Individual purrxjses and Social purposes ... 96Social Purpose ... 97Social Mechanics ... 97Law as a means to secure conditions of social life ... 97
SOCIAL SOLIDIARISM ... 97THEORY OF JUSTICE BY RUDOLF STAMMLER ... 98
Recht, Gerecht and Richtig ... 98Grace ... 98Principles for Just Law ... 98Community of free-willing men ... 98Stammler's Special Community ... 99Neighbour ... 99Criticism ... 99
NEO-KANTIAN SCIENCE OF ETHICS—LEONARD NELSON ... 100Justice is approached in three steps : ... 100
NEO-HEGELIAN CIVILIZATION THEORY ... 101Joseph Kohler's Approach ... 101
The Idea ... 101Specific functions of law are : ... 101Jural Postulates—Postulates of Law ... 101Kohler's notion of Jural Postulates ... 102
ROSCOE POUND'S THEORY OF JUSTICE ... 102The Scheme of Interests ... 102Procedural Justice ... 103
xiv JURISPRUDENCE AND COMPARAT'VE LAW
PageAllocative Justice ... 103Classical Utilitarianism ... 103
JOHN RAWLS THEORY OF JUSTICE ... 104'Justice as fairness' ... 104Why Justice as Fairness? ... 104The Primary Subject of Justice ... 104The Problem of Establishing Standards of Justice ... 105
The Nature of Human beings ... 105Rawls and well-ordered Society ... 105Utilitarianism v. Choice ... 106
Establishing principles of justice ... 106The original position and the veil of ignorance ... 106Rawls'two Principles of Justice ... 107The First Principle ... 108
The principle of greatest equal liberty ... 108The Second Principle ... 108
POWER OF THE SUPREME COURT OF INDIA TO DOCOMPLETE JUSTICE IN A CASE : (ART. 142) ... 109
FEMINIST JURISPRUDENCE ... 110Feminist Methodology ... I l l
CHAPTER 5ADMINISTRATION OF JUSTICE
CLASSIFICATION ... 113Difference between Civil and Criminal Administration
of Justice ... 113ADMINISTRATION OF CRIMINAL JUSTICE ... 113
Theories of Punishment ... 1131. Deterrent Theory ... 1142. Retributive Theory ... 1143. Preventive Theory ... 1144. Reformative Theory ... 115
Death sentence and Reformative Theory ... 116Analysis of Deterrent and Reformative Theories ... 117Forms of Punishment ... 117Flogging ... 117Mutilation ... 118Branding ... 118Stoning ... 118Pillory ... 118Banishment .. 118Capital Punishment (Death Penalty) ... 119
Section 354 (3) ... 119Rarest of Rare Cases ... 120
(i) Manner of commission of Murder ... 120(ii) Motives for commission of Murder ... 120
CONTENTS xv
(iii) Anti-Social Abhorrent Nature of the Crime(iv) Magnitude of the Crime(v) Personality of Victim of Murder
ADMINISTRATION OF CIVIL JUSTICETypes of Civil Justice
1. Specific Enforcement2. Sanctional Enforcement
(i) Compensation(ii) Penalty(iii) Secondary functions of Civil Court
Legal SanctionDefinition and Meaning
Types of SanctionsLegal sanctions are divided into :1. Civil and Criminal Sanctions2. Ultimate and Intermediate Sanctions
Capital Punishment Retention and AbolitionCHAPTER 6
THEORY OF STATEDefinition
ORIGIN & EVOLUTION OF THE STATE1. The Divine Theory2. The Natural Theory3. Social Contract Theory
Hobbes (1586-1679)John Locke (1632-1704)Rousseau (1712-1778)
4. Patriarchal Theory5. Matriarchal Theory
ELEMENTS OF STATE1. A Government2. A Stable Organization3. A Territory4. A Large Population
State and SocietyState and GovernmentState and Nation
CLASSIFICATION OF STATESIndependent and Dependent States
Independent StateDependent States
Unitary and Composite StatesFederationFederation and Confederation
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xvi JURISPRUDENCE AND COMPARATIVE LAW
Page
Federal and Unitary Constitutions ... 131Conditions necessary for Federation ... 131Leading Characteristics of a Federal State ... 1311. Federal Compact ••• 131
Advantages of a Federal Constitution ... 132Disadvantages ••• 132
2. Division of Sovereign Power ••• 1333. Federal Judiciary ••• 1334. Rigidity of Constitution ••• 133
CHAPTER 7SOURCES OF LAW
LEGISLATION AS A SOURCE OF LAW ... 134Definition ••• 134Classification ••• 134
1. Direct and Indirect Legislation ••• 1342. Supreme Legislation and Subordinate Legislation ... 134
(i) Colonial ••• 135iii) Executive (Delegated Legislation) ••• 135'iii; Judicial ••• 135(iv) Municipal ••• 135(v) Autonomous ••• 135
Delegated Legislation ••• 136Control of Delegated Legislation ••• 136
1. Parliamentary Control ••• 1362. Procedural Control ... 1363. Judicial Control ... 1364. Internal control ••• 1375. Public opinion ... 1376. Expert opinion ••• 137
PRECEDENTS ... 137Principles in Precedents ... 140
Stare Decisis ... 140England ... 142Doctrine of Stare Decisis in Different Countries ••• 1421. English Rule of Stare Decisis ••• 142
Development of Precedent in England ••• 1422. France ... 1433. India ... 144
Ancient Hindu Law ... 144Modern Position ... 144Muslim Laws ... 144
4. Australia ... 1445. United States of America ... 144
Privy Council ... 145
CONTENTS xvii
Page6. Continental Practice ... 145Conclusion ... 145Supreme Court and Stare Decisis ... 145Stare Decisis and Res judicata ... 147Ratio Decidendi ... 148Tests for determining ratio decidendi : ... 148
1. The reversal test of Prof. Wambaugh ... 1482. Dr. Good Harts test ... 148
Obiter Dicta ... 149Doctrine of Prospective Overruling ... 150Classification of Precedent ... 151
1. Original Precedent ... 151Decision per incuriam ... 152
2. Declaratory precedents ... 1523. Authoritative precedent ... 152
Absolutely Authoritative Precedents in India ... 1524. Persuasive Precedents ... 153Advantages of Legislation over Precedent ... 153
Circumstances Destroying the Binding Force of Precedents ... 154CUSTOM ... 154
Definition ... 154Holland Definition ... 154
Reasons for the Acceptance of Customs ... 155How a Custom is Developed ... 155Classification of Custom ... 155
1. Legal and conventional custom ... 155Conventional Custom or Usage ... 155Distinction between legal and conventional custom... 155
2. Local and General Custom ... 156Elements of a Valid Custom ... 156
1. Immemorial Antiquity ... 1562. Reasonableness ... 156
Illustrations ... 1563. Continuity ... 1574. Compulsory observance ... 1575. Certainty ... 1576. Consistency ... 1577. Conformity with statute law ... 157
CUSTOM AS A SOURCE OF LAW ... 1571. Custom is the formal source of law (Historical School) ... 1572. Custom is the sole source of law (Savigny) ... 157
Criticism ... 1573. Custom has only persuasive value ... 158
Criticism ... 158Importance of Customary Law ... 158
xviii JURISPRUDENCE AND COMPARATIVE LAW
PageDistinction between Custom and Prescription ... 158
JURISTIC WRITINGS ... 158OTHER SOURCES OF LAW ... 159
Professional Opinions ••• 1591. Obiter Dicta ... 1592. The legal profession ... 1593. The opinions oi the text-books ... 159
Religion ... 160Agreement ... 161Equity ... 161
Definition of Equity ... 161Origin and Development of Equity ... 161
CHAPTER 8LEGAL RIGHTS AND DUTIES
ELEMENTS OF LEGAL RIGHT ... 163CLASSIFICATION OF RIGHTS ... 164
1. Perfect and Imperfect Rights : (Stressing onenforceability) ... 164Scope of protection accorded to Imperfect rights ... 164
2. Positive and Negative Rights : (Stressing on effecton others) ... 164
3. Rights in Rem and Rights in Personam : (Stressingon field of operation) ... 165
4. Proprietary and personal Rights : (Stressing theeconomic value) ... 165
5. Rights in re propria and rights in re aliena(Stressing on object concerned) ... 165
6. Principal and Accessory Rights : (Stressing on relationto other rights) ... 166
7. Legal and Equitable Rights. ... 1668. Antecedent (Primary) and Remedial (Sanctioning)
Rights ... 1679. Vested and Contingent Right : A vested right is one
in which the right is vested to a person. It is anabsolute right ... 167
10. Public and Private Rights ... 16711. Ordinary Rights and Fundamental Rights ... 167
DUTIES ... 168KINDS OF DUTIES 168
RIGHT-DUTY: CORRELATION ... 168Relationship of 169
1. Right with Liberty ... 1692. Right and Power 1693. Right and Immunity 1704. Right and Duty 170
CONTENTS xix
Page5. Right and claim ... 170
Austin's View of Rights and Duties ... 1701. Relative Duties ... 1702. Absolute Duties ... 170
(i) Self Regarding Duties ... 170(ii) Duties to Non-human beings ... 171(iii) Duties to Indeterminate Persons ... 171
Conclusion ... 171CHAPTER 9
JURISTIC ACT(INTENTION AND NEGLIGENCE) ... 172AUSTIN'S DEFINITION OF ACT ... 172
Difference between Act and Consequence ... 172SALMOND'S DEFINITION OF ACT ... 172
Comparison of the views of Salmond and Austin ... 172CLASSIFICATION OF ACT ... 172
1. Acts in Law and Acts of the Law ... 1732. Positive and Negative Acts ... 1733. Inward and Outward Acts ... 173Intentional and Negligent Acts ... 173Intentional Act or Intention ... 173Difference between 'Intention' and 'Motive' ... 173
NEGLIGENCE ... 173Subjective Theory ... 174Objective Theory ... 175The Justification of Punishment for Negligence ... 177Contributory Negligence and Composite Negligence ... 177Degrees of Negligence ... 178Recklessness ... 178
1. Subjective recklessness ... 1782. Objective Recklessness ... 179
CHAPTER 10PERSONS
ORIGIN OF THE CONCEPT OF JURISTIC PERSONALITY ... 181KINDS OF PERSONS ... 181
1. Natural Persons ... 1822. Legal Persons ... 182
Legal Status of Unborn Child ... 182Legal Status of Dead Man, Minor and Drunken Person ... 183Double Capacity and Double Personality ... 183Legal Status of Animals ... 184Legal Status of a Firm • ... 184Legal Status of a Hindu Joint Family ... 184
xx JURISPRUDENCE AND COMPARATIVE LAW
PageLEGAL PERSONS ••• 184
Legal Status of Corporation or Company(Corporate Personality) ... 185
Types of Corporation ••• 185(i) Corporation Aggregate ... 185(ii) Corporation Sole ••• 185
Theories Regarding the Nature of Corporate Personality ... 185(i) Fiction Theory ... 185(ii) Realist Theory ... 186(iii) Bracket Theory ... 186(iv) Concession Theory ••• 186
CHAPTER 11
POSSESSIONReason why Possession is Protected ••• 187
MEANING OF THE TERM 'POSSESSION' ... 187Possession can be of two kinds ••• 187
1. Possession in Fact : (De facto possession) ... 1872. Possession in Law : (De jure Possession) ... 188
ESSENTIALS OF POSSESSION ... 188Corpus Possessionis ... 188
1. Physical Power of the Possessor ••• 1892. Personal Presence of the Possessor ••• 1893. Secrecy ... 1894. Respect for Rightful Claim ... 1895. Protection afforded by the Possession of
other Things ... 1896. Visibility of Claim ... 189
Animus Possidendi ••• 189KINDS OF POSSESSION ... 190
1. Corporeal and Incorporeal Possession ••• 1902. Mediate and Immediate Possession ••• 1903. Concurrent Possession or Duplicate Possession ... 1914. Constructive Possession ... 1915. Adverse Possession ... 191Acquisition of Possession ... 191
1. Taking ... 1922. Delivery ... 1923. Operation of Law ... 192
Relationship between Ownership and Possession ... 192Justification for Granting Possessory Remedies ... 192Conclusion ... 192
CHAPTER 12OWNERSHIP
DEFINITION OF OWNERSHIP ... 193
CONTENTS
Austin's DefinitionHolland's DefinitionSalmond's view
KINDS OF OWNERSHIP1. Corporeal and Incorporeal Ownership2. Sole ownership and co-ownership
Example of co-ownership3. Trust and Beneficial Ownership4. Vested and Contingent Ownership
Condition Precedent and Condition SubsequentCondition PrecedentCondition Subsequent
5. Legal and Equitable Ownership6. Duplicate OwnershipDuplicate Ownership is again divided into :Modes of Acquiring OwnershipOwnership under Indian Law
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN POSSESSION AND OWNERSHIPCHAPTER 13
TITLETYPES OF TITLES
Salmond's classification1. Investitive facts.2. Divestitive facts.
Bentham's ClassificationMODES OF ALIENATION OF TITLES
1. Act of Parties or Act in Law1. Unilateral acts2. Bilateral actsClasses of Agreements
2. Operation of LawCHAPTER 14
PROPERTY : THE CONCEPTKINDS OF PROPERTY
Corporeal PropertyIncorporeal Property
MODES OF ACQUISITION OF PROPERTY1. Possession2. Charge3. TrustsModes of Acquiring Property
1. Possession2. Prescription3. Agreements
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Xxii JURISPRUDENCE AND COMPARATIVE LAW
Page(i) Assignments ••• 204(ii) Grants - 204
4. Inheritance ••• 204CHAPTER 15
LIABILITYDefinition of Liability ••• 205
CLASSES OF LIABILITY ••• 205Civil and Criminal Liability ••• 205Remedial and Penal Liability ••• 205
THEORY OF REMEDIAL LIABILITY ... 2051. Duties of imperfect application ••• 2062. Duties which by nature are incapable of specific
performance ••• 2063. Where specific performance is inexpedient or
inadvisable ... 206THEORY OF PENAL LIABILITY (CONDITIONS FOR
IMPOSING LIABILITY) ... 2061. Actus reus ... 206
Elements of act ... 207(i) Origin ... 207(ii) Circumstances ... 207(iii) Consequences ... 207Characteristics of act ... 207
2. Mensrea ... 207Characteristics of'mens rea' ... 208Mens rea in English Law ... 208
WRONGFUL ACT ... 208DAMNUM SINE INJURIA AND INJURIA SINE DAMNUM ... 209Damnum sine injuria (Damage or Loss without violation
of right) ... 209Injuria sine damnum (Injury or violation of right
without damage) ... 210CAUSATION ... 210
Presumption ... 211Abnormal Circumstances ... 211
INTENTION ... 211Constructive Intention ... 212
MALICE ... 212Malice in Law and Malice in Fact ••• 213
NEGLIGENCE ... 213Subjective Theory ... 213Objective Theory ... 214The Justification of Punishment for Negligence ... 215Contributory Negligence and Composite Negligence ... 216
CONTENTS xxiii
PageRECKLESSNESS ... 216
1. Subjective recklessness ... 2162, Objective Recklessness ... 217
DOCTRINE OF STRICT LIABILITY ... 218Exceptions to the Rule of Strict Liability ... 219
(a) Natural Use of Land ... 219(b) Thing which Escaped is not Generally Dangerous ... 219(c) Consent of the Plaintiff (volenti non fit injuria) ... 220(d) Statutory Authority ... 220(e) Act of Third Party ... 220(f) Act of God (vis major) ... 220(g) Default of Plaintiff ... 220
ABSOLUTE LIABILITY ... 221Circumstances which led to the Rule of Absolute Liability ... 221
The Bhopal Gas Leak Case ... 221Criticism by Jurisprudents and Press ... 221
Oleum Gas Leak Case ... 221VICARIOUS LIABILITY ... 222
Vicarious Liability in Civil law ... 224Legal Heirs ... 224Partnership Firm ... 224Agency ... 225Masters and Servants ... 225Essentials to impose the liability on the master are : ... 225
Vicarious Liability in Criminal Law ... 225This general rule is subject to certain exceptions : ... 225(1) Section 155 and 156, IPC ... 225(2) Licences ... 226
Vicarious Liability of the State ... 226Under EnglKi Law ... 226Under Indian L.aw ... 226
Sovereign Immunity ... 227CHAPTER 16
LAW OF OBLIGATIONSSOURCES OF OBLIGATIONS ... 229
1. Contractual Obligation ... 2292. Delictal Obligation (Tortious obligation) ... 2293. Quasi-Contractual Obligation ... 2294. Innominate Obligation ... 229
SOLIDARY OBLIGATION ... 2301. Several Solidary Obligation ... 2302. Joint Solidary Obligations ... 2303. Joint and Several Solidary Obligation ... 230
XXIV JURISPRUDENCE AND COMPARATIVE LAW
CHAPTER 17ANCIENT LAW
Page
The Evolution of Private Property ••• 2 3 2
The Evolution of Wills - 2 2 2
The Evolution of Codification ••• 2 3 3
Evolution of the Law of Nature ••• 2 3 3
The Evolution of Society - 2 3 3
The Evolution of Crime ... 234The Evolution of Contracts ••• 2 3 4
Evolution of Law of Crimes ••• 234Testamentary Succession ••• 2 3 4
Conclusion - 2 3 6
CHAPTER 18THE LAW OF TORTS
MEANING AND DEFINITION OF TORTS ••• 2 37Essential Features ••• 2 3 8
What Constitutes 'Tort'? ••• 2 3 9
Foundation of Tortious liability ••• 240Distinction between Tort and Contract ••• 241Distinction between Tort and Trust ••• 242Distinction between Tort and Bailment ••• 2 4 3
Distinction between Tort and Quasi Contract ••• 243CHAPTER 19
THE LAW OF CRIMESNature of Crime ••• 2 4 4
DEFINITIONS OF CRIME ••• 2 4 4
Kenny defines ••• 2 4 4
Crime is not static ••• 2 45ELEMENTS OF CRIME •• 2 4 6
Tort and Crime distinguished ••• 247CHAPTER 20
THE LAW OF PROCEDURESUBSTANTIVE LAW AND THE LAW OF PROCEDURE ... 249
Elements of Judicial Procedure ••• 249EVIDENCE ... 250
Definition ... 250Oral, Documentary and Real Evidence ••• 25°
KINDS OF EVIDENCE ... 250(i) Judicial and Extra Judicial Evidence ••• 250(ii) Personal and Real Evidence ••• 2 5 0
(iii) Primary and Secondary Evidence ••• 2 5 0
(iv) Direct and Circumstantial Evidence ••• 251(v) Original and Hearsay Evidence - 2 5 1
The Production of Evidence ... 251
CONTENTS xxv
iative Force of Evidence(i) Conclusive Proof(ii) Presumptive Proof (Rebuttable proof or
Conditional proof)(iii) Exclusive Evidence(iv) Insufficient Evidence(v) Facts which are not Evidence
CHAPTER 21GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF INTERPRETATION
Literal or Grammatical InterpretationLogical Interpretation1. Ambiguity2. Inconsistency3. LacunaeMischief Rule of InterpretationGolden rule of interpretation'Ejusdem Generis' RuleRule of Cassus Omissus
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1.2.
3.4.5.6.
COMPARATIVE LAW
CHAPTER 1INTRODUCTION
Definition ... 263Comparative Law is Different from Jurisprudence ... 263The Nature and Scope of Comparative Law ... 264The Contemporary Significance of Comparative Law ... 265Comparative Law as an Academic Discipline ... 265Comparative Law as a Tool of Construction ... 265Comparative Law as a Means of Understanding Legal Rules ... 265Types of Comparison ... 266Methods of Comparison ... 266An eight-point method of comparison provided in
Peter De Cruz ... 266Reasons for Neglecting Comparative Law ... 267Origin and Development of Comparative Law ... 267Development in India ... 268Types of Comparative Law ... 269Study of Comparison of Laws ... 269Advantages of Comparative Law ... 269Suggestions for Improvement ... 270
xxvi JURISPRUDENCE AND COMPARATIVE LAW
CHAPTER 2WORLD'S MAJOR LEGAL SYSTEMS : AN OVERVIEW
PageClassification of Systems ... 273
ROMAN LAW ... 274JEWISH LAW (HALAKHAH) ... 274GEZEIRAH, TAKKANAH AND MINHAG ... 275ISLAMIC LAW ... 276HINDU LAW ... 276Gradation of Courts ... 276Qualification of the Judges ... 277CHINESE LAW ... 277AFRICAN LAW ... 279COMMON LAW ... 281CIVIL LAW ... 282
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN CIVIL LAW AND COMMON LAW ... 282CHAPTER 3
CONTEMPORARY TRADITIONS OF LAWSOCIALIST LAW AND BOURGEOISIE LAW ... 283
Difference between Civil Law and Socialist System ... 284Similarities ... 285
CHAPTER 4TRENDS IN UNIFICATION OF WORLD LAW
UNIFICATION OF PRIVATE LAW ... 287Definition of Unification ... 287Concept and Function of Unification of Law ... 287Advantages of Unified Law ... 288Disadvantages of Unified Law ... 288Forms of Unification ... 288Objects of Unification ... 289Problems of Unification ... 290Great Britain and the Movement for Unification ... 291The American Uniform Laws ... 291
THE MECHANISM OF UNIFICATION ... 292Process of Unification ... 292
The Preliminary Stage ... 292The Formulatory Stage ... 292The Operative Stage of Unification ... 293
CHAPTER 5PRINCIPAL UNIFICATION AGENCIES AT WORK : A SURVEY
INTERNATIONAL LAW COMMISSION ... 296Origin ... 296Mandate and Area of Work ... 296
THE UNITED NATIONS COMMISSION ON INTERNATIONALTRADE LAW ... 296
CONTENTS xxvii
PageOrigin ... 296Mandate ... 297Composition ... 297Secretariat of UNCITRAL ... 297UNCITRAL working groups ... 297Sessions of UNCITRAL and its working groups ... 297Area of Work ... 297
WORLD INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY ORGANISATION fWIPO)... 298Origin ... 298Mandate and Area of Work ... 298
INTERNATIONAL LABOUR ORGANIZATION ... 298Origin ... 298Mandate and Area of work ... 298Composition of ILO ... 299
THE U.N. HUMAN RIGHTS AGENCIES ... 300General Assembly ... 300Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC) ... 300Commission on Human Rights ... 301Sub-Commission on Prevention of Discrimination and
Protection of Minorities ... 301Procedures and Mechanisms of CHR ... 301Commission on Status of Women ... 302
UNESCO ... 302UNESCO's Plan of Action ... 302Human Rights Committee ... 302Centre for Human Rights ... 303Office of UN High Commissioner for Human Rights ... 303Other UN Organs Principally Concerned With
Human Rights ... 303WORLD TRADE ORGANISATION ... 304
Origin ... 304Mandate and Composition ... 304Area of Work and Achievements ... 304
CHAPTER 6COMPARATIVE STUDIES OF EMERGENCY
AND CONSTITUTIONALISMEmergency Provisions under the Indian Constitution ... 306Suspension of Enforcement of Fundamental Rights ... 307
EMERGENCY POWERS AND CONSTITUTIONALITY,A COMPARATIVE APPROACH ... 307
CHAPTER 7
COMPARATIVE JUDICIAL PROCESSJUDICIAL PROCESS IN INDIA ... 309
Jurisdiction of Civil Courts ... 309
xxviii JURISPRUDENCE AND COMPARATIVE LAW
Page1. Territorial or Local Jurisdiction ... 3092. Pecuniary Jurisdiction ... 3093. Jurisdiction as to the Subject Matter ... 309
Original and Appellate Jurisdiction ... 309Suits Expressly Barred ... 311Suits Impliedly Barred ... 312Jurisdiction of Criminal Courts ... 312Court of Session ... 312Other judges ... 312High Court ... 312Supreme Court ... 312
COMPARISON WITH THE BRITISH JUDICIARY ... 313Independence of Judiciary ... 314
COMPARISON WITH FRENCH JUDICIARY ... 314Independence of the Judiciary ... 315
CHAPTER 8COMPARATIVE APPROACH OF THE LEGAL PROFESSION
The Advocates Act ... 317Bar Council of India ... 317Comparison between Legal Profession in India and in England ... 318Autonomy of Indian Bar Council ... 319Organisation of Bar ... 320Constitution of State Bar Council ... 320Functions of State Bar Council ... 321Organisation of Bar-A Comparative Approach ... 322Organisation of Bar in England ... 323Organisation of Bar in United States ... 324Organisation of Bar in France ... 324Bar in other Countries ... 326Interrelation between Court and Bar ... 326Importance of the Problems of Misconduct ... 327
CHAPTER 9COMPARATIVE STUDY OF LAW REFORM
Advantages and Disadvantages ... 329LAW REFORMS IN CHINA ... 329JAPANESE LAW REFORM ... 330THAILAND'S JUDICIAL REPLANNING AND
RESTRUCTURING ... 332VIETNAMESE LEGAL REFORMATION ... 332PHILIPPINES JUDICIAL SYSTEM AND REFORMS ... 333MALAYSIAN LAW REFORMS ... 334PAKISTAN JUDICIAL REFORM PROJECT ... 335
CONCLUSION ... 336
CONTENTS xxix
CHAPTER 10COMPARATIVE STUDIES OF GENDER JUSTICE
PageWomen Quota System and Related Issues ... 337Gender Justice : An International Perspective ... 338
CHAPTER 11COMPARATIVE STUDIES OF ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION
Environmental Protection in India ... 340Constitutional Provisions relating to Environmental Protection ... 343Judicial Activism against Environmental Pollution ... 344Comparative Approach to the International Standards ... 347"Stockholm (Sweden) Conference" on Human Environment ... 347United Nations Environmental Programme (UNEP) ... 349Nairobi Declaration ... 349Rio Declaration - 1992 (Earth Summit) ... 350
CHAPTER 12COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF CONTRACT LAW
Law of Contract : A Comparative Approach ... 351CHAPTER 13
COMPARATIVE FAMILY LAWConcept of Marriage ... 353Marriage among Hindus ... 354Christian law on Marriage ... 355Muslim law on marriage ... 356Disputes Relating to Marriage and Family ... 356Why Family Counts? ... 358History and Background of Family Courts ... 360Evolution of Family Courts in India ... 360Matrimonial Litigation ... 360Family Courts : A Comparative Approach ... 364Australia ... 364Japan ... 365Pakistan ... 366United States of America ... 366England ... 367
CHAPTER 14COMPARATIVE STUDY OF ACCESS TO LAW
Access to Law—An Indian Perspective ... 369Developments in Australia—Comparing with Indian Viewpoint ... 370Locus Standi of Public Interest Groups ... 372
CHAPTER 15COMPARATIVE STUDIES OF RELIGION, TRADITION
AND CUSTOMRELIGIOUS RIGHTS ... 375
xxx JURISPRUDENCE AND COMPARATIVE LAW
PageRELIGIOUS FREEDOM UNDER THE CONSTITUTION
OF INDIA ... 375RELIGIOUS RIGHTS UNDER THE GENERAL STATUTES ... 377RELIGIOUS RIGHTS AND PERSONAL LAWS ... 378LEGAL NATURE OF PERSONAL LAW ... 379CLASSIFICATION OF PERSONAL LAWS ... 380STATUTORY PERSONAL LAWS ... 380NON STATUTORY PERSONAL LAWS—CUSTOM AND USAGES... 381
CHAPTER 16COMPARATIVE STUDIES ^F LEGISLATIVE PROCESS
LEGISLATIVE PROCESS IN INDIA ... 384Rajya Sabha—Council of States ... 384Functions of Council of States ... 384Lok Sabha—House of the People ... 385
Composition ... 385Functions of Lok Sabha ... 386Powers and Immunities of Members of Parliament ... 387
COMPARISON WITH BRITISH PARLIAMENT ... 387THE HOUSE OF LORDS ... 387
Powers of the House of Lords ... 388THE HOUSE OF COMMONS ... 388
Functions of the House ... 388CHAPTER 17
COMPARATIVE CRIMINAL JUSTICE SYSTEMThe Constitutional Rights of an Accused in India ... 390French Criminal Justice System ... 391
Index ... 393