JOHN ROFF, ACADIA UNIVERSITY, CANADAGEOHAB, TASMANIA, MAY 2003

john.roff@acadiau.ca

PLANNING FORPLANNING FOR CONSERVATION CONSERVATION OFOF

Acknowledgements to:WORLD WILDLIFE FUND CANADACONSERVATION LAW FOUNDATION USACOMMISSION FOR ENVIRONMENTAL COOPERATION (NAFTA)CANADA PARKS AND WILDERNESS SOCIETYMARINE CONSERVATION BIOLOGY INSTITUTESCOTTISH NATURAL HERITAGE (EU)

Development of protected areas has been Development of protected areas has been driven..”more by opportunity than design, driven..”more by opportunity than design, scenery rather than science”scenery rather than science” (HACKMAN 1993)(HACKMAN 1993)

How to synthesize the How to synthesize the ‘Science’ in ‘Marine ‘Science’ in ‘Marine

Conservation?Conservation?

FOUR approaches to Marine Conservation:

Scotian Scotian Shelf Shelf SeascapesSeascapes

SPECIESSPECIES

SPACESSPACES

FISHERIESFISHERIES COASTAL ZONE COASTAL ZONE MANAGEMENTMANAGEMENT

Each approach has virtues and limitations Each approach has virtues and limitations BUT: How should we BUT: How should we COMBINECOMBINE THEM ? THEM ?

How do we How do we USE USE geophysical data?geophysical data?

Single Species approach:Single Species approach: PassPassé, é, never-ending, arbitrarynever-ending, arbitrary BUT – interest in FOCAL SPECIES (Charismatic megafauna)BUT – interest in FOCAL SPECIES (Charismatic megafauna) AND - Meta-population studies – integrate species and genetic levelsAND - Meta-population studies – integrate species and genetic levels

Spaces-Habitat approach:Spaces-Habitat approach: Ignores individual speciesIgnores individual species BUT - integrates: community / ecosystem, and potentially genetic levelsBUT - integrates: community / ecosystem, and potentially genetic levels

Fisheries approach:Fisheries approach: Attention on commercial species only Attention on commercial species only BUT – ‘ecosystem’ level approach?BUT – ‘ecosystem’ level approach?

Coastal Zone management approach: Coastal Zone management approach: Emphasis on engineering and environmental qualityEmphasis on engineering and environmental quality

EECCOOLLOOGGIICCAALL HHIIEERRAARRCCHHYY

COMPOSITIONACOMPOSITIONALL

STRUCTURALSTRUCTURAL FUNCTIONALFUNCTIONAL

GenesGenes Genetic Genetic structurestructure

Genetic Genetic processesprocesses

Species, Species, PopulationsPopulations

Population Population structurestructure

Demographic Demographic processes, Life processes, Life historieshistories

CommunitiesCommunities Community Community compositioncomposition

Organism-Organism-Habitat Habitat relationshipsrelationships

EcosystemsEcosystems Ecosystem Ecosystem structurestructure

Physical and Physical and Chemical Chemical processesprocesses

After Zacharias and Roff 2000, Cons. Bio.

Population Community EcosystemStructure (static) Process (function) Structure (static) Process (function) Structure (static) Process (function)Population structure[a, b]

Migration[a, b]

Transition areas[a]

Succession[a, b]

Water properties[a, b, c]

Biogeochemical cycles[a, b, c]

Distribution[a, b]

Recruitment[a]

Functional groups[a, b]

Predation[a]

Bottom topography[a, b, c]

Productivity[a, b, c]

Dispersion[a]

Reproduction[a]

Meta populations[a, b]

Competition[a]

Boundaries[a, b, c]

Water motion[a, b, c]

Keystone species[a]

Retention[a]

Heterogeneity[a]

Parasitism[a]

Wave exposure[a, b, c]

Events/disturbance[a, b, c]

Indicator species[a, b, c]

Evolution[a]

Endemism[a]

Mutualism[a]

Substrate type[a, b, c]

Anomalies[a, b, c]

Umbrella species[a]

Diversity[a, b]

Disease[a]

Depth[a, b, c]

Coupling[a, b, c]

Charismatic species[a]

Alternate stable states[a]

Amensalism[a]

Illumination[a, b, c]

Retention[a, b]

Vulnerable species[a, b]

Species richness[a, b, c]

Stratification[a, b, c]

Entrainment[a, b]

Economic species[a]

Species evenness[a, b, c]

Patchiness[a, b, c]

Desiccation[a, b]

Species abundance[a, b, c]

Dissolved gasses[a, b]

Representative anddistinct areas [a, b, c]

Representative anddistinct areas [a, b, c]

Biomass [a, b, c]

a – observable b – measurable c - applied to conservationa – observable b – measurable c - applied to conservation

From Zacharias and Roff 2000, Cons. Bio.From Zacharias and Roff 2000, Cons. Bio.

Ecological Hierarchy – Structures and Processes Structures and Processes

StructureStructure MutationMutation StructureStructure MigrationMigration StructureStructure SuccessioSuccessionn

WatermasWatermasss

CurrentsCurrents

GenotypeGenotypes s

DifferentiatioDifferentiationn

AbundancAbundancee

DispersioDispersionn

S.DiversitS.Diversityy

PredationPredation TempTemp TidesTides

FitnessFitness DriftDrift DistributDistribut RetentionRetention S. S. RichnessRichness

Competit.Competit. SalinitySalinity Disturban.Disturban.

DiversityDiversity FlowFlow Focal SppFocal Spp Mig/ DriftMig/ Drift S. S. EvennessEvenness

ParasitismParasitism PropertiesProperties GyresGyres

StocksStocks Nat. Nat. SelectSelect

KeystoneKeystone GrowthGrowth AbundancAbundancee

MutualismMutualism BoundarieBoundariess

RetentionRetention

InbreedinInbreedingg

Ind. Cond.Ind. Cond. Reprod.Reprod. RepresentRepresent..

DiseaseDisease Depth/Depth/PresPres

P-B P-B couplecouple

MatingMating Ind. Ind. Comp.Comp.

RecruitRecruit DistinctivDistinctivee

ProductioProductionn

LightLight Entrain.Entrain.

Dir. SelectDir. Select UmbrellaUmbrella BiomesBiomes Decomp.Decomp. StratificatStratificat..

B-G cyclesB-G cycles

Stab. Stab. selectselect

CharismatCharismat..

BiocoenosBiocoenos..

TopograpTopographh

Seasonal.Seasonal.

Dis. selectDis. select VulnerablVulnerablee

S-A relns.S-A relns. SubstrateSubstrate Product.Product.

Micro. Micro. Evol.Evol.

EconomicEconomic TransitionTransitionss

AnomaliesAnomalies H-A equil.H-A equil.

ErosionErosion PhenotypPhenotypeses

Fun.groupFun.groupss

ExposureExposure H-L equil.H-L equil.

SpeciationSpeciation FragmentFragmentss

Heterog.Heterog. PatchinesPatchinesss

TurbulencTurbulencee

Macro. Macro. EvolEvol

Meta-Meta-popspops

EndemismEndemism NutrientsNutrients MixingMixing

Alt. Alt. S.StatsS.Stats

Dis. GasesDis. Gases UpwellingUpwelling

SymbioseSymbiosess

AnoxiaAnoxia DivergencDivergencee

BiomassBiomass Ecol.IntegEcol.Integ..

ErosionErosion

ExpandedExpanded fromfrom Zacharias Zacharias &&

Roff 2000Roff 2000 DesiccatioDesiccationn

Genetic Structure Process

Species/ PopulationStructure Process

CommunityStructure Process

EcosystemStructure Process

• If marine environments are to be If marine environments are to be systematically protected - we systematically protected - we require: require: – Identification of habitat types Identification of habitat types – Identification of community types Identification of community types – Delineation of boundaries Delineation of boundaries

• These are fundamental prerequisites These are fundamental prerequisites to determine location and size of to determine location and size of MPA’sMPA’s

1. Approach based on 1. Approach based on Representative Representative HabitatsHabitats

• Classifications based only on Classifications based only on biological data are generally biological data are generally prohibited at larger scales, due to prohibited at larger scales, due to lack of data. lack of data.

• We are therefore obliged to classify We are therefore obliged to classify habitat types habitat types

• Mapped from enduring and recurrent Mapped from enduring and recurrent geophysical features geophysical features (STRUCTURES)(STRUCTURES)– (oceanographic and physiographic)(oceanographic and physiographic)– as surrogates for community types.as surrogates for community types.

1. Approach based on 1. Approach based on Representative HabitatsRepresentative Habitats

Map the marine Map the marine environmentenvironment

• TemperatureTemperature• SalinitySalinity• Water depthWater depth• Water ‘colour’Water ‘colour’• CurrentsCurrents• Substrate typesSubstrate types• Habitat typesHabitat types• Fish distributionsFish distributions• Marine mammalsMarine mammals• ETC. ETC.ETC. ETC.

Water depth

Scotian Shelf Seascapesof Representative Habitats

Roff et al. 2003 Roff et al. 2003 Aquat. Cons.Aquat. Cons.

Habitat Habitat heterogeneitheterogeneity y

How MANY How MANY different kinds of different kinds of Representative Representative Habitats? Habitats?

Roff et al. 2003 Aquat. Cons.Roff et al. 2003 Aquat. Cons.

What can we do with these What can we do with these seascapes?seascapes?

Scotian Shelf / Gulf of Maine – Scotian Shelf / Gulf of Maine – bottom Water Massesbottom Water Masses (T – S (T – S combinations)combinations)

Scotian Shelf / Gulf of Maine – Scotian Shelf / Gulf of Maine – bottom Water Massesbottom Water Masses (variability)(variability)

2.2. Approach based on:Approach based on:

• For analysis of For analysis of habitats, we must habitats, we must consider consider StructuresStructures and and ProcessesProcesses across the entire ecological hierarchyacross the entire ecological hierarchy

ANDAND

• ProcessesProcesses– Upwelling, Gyres, CurrentsUpwelling, Gyres, Currents

• Environmental AnomalyEnvironmental Anomaly– Temperature, Topography, Sea Height, Chlor Temperature, Topography, Sea Height, Chlor

aa

• Focal SpeciesFocal Species– Flagships, Umbrellas, Parasols, IndicatorsFlagships, Umbrellas, Parasols, Indicators

STRUCTURES STRUCTURES ANDAND PROCESSES PROCESSES

Roff and Evans 2002 Aquat. Cons.Roff and Evans 2002 Aquat. Cons.

Characteristics, Characteristics, Processes, Focal Processes, Focal SpeciesSpecies

Upwellingareas

Vents Coral Reefs

GyresCirculation

Seamount Shelf EdgeCanyons

Sponge Beds

Nutrient addition

Sulphur bacteria

Symbiotic and other algae

Physical accumul-ation

Sedimentflux enhanced

?

low diversity

high diversity

high diversity

low diversity

high diversity

high diversity

Flagships Parasols

Indicatorspecies

Indicatorspecies

Flagships Parasols

? ?

Resources ElevatedResources Elevated

High Primary Production AreasRetention Areas

Resources advected / focused

Resources depleted

Caves

Sediment by-pass ?

high diversity

Indicators

Roff and Evans 2002 Aquat. Cons.Roff and Evans 2002 Aquat. Cons.

Anomalies and Focal SpeciesAnomalies and Focal Species - - ExamplesExamples

AnomalyAnomaly LocationLocation Physical Physical ProcessProcess

Focal Focal SpeciesSpecies

BiologicBiological al ProcessProcess

Low temp/ Low temp/ high chlor ahigh chlor a

SW Nova SW Nova ScotiaScotia

UpwellingUpwelling Many larval Many larval speciesspecies

RecruitmenRecruitment Cellst Cells

TopographyTopography Saguenay Saguenay FjordFjord

Estuarine Estuarine circulationcirculation

Whales Whales EuphausiidEuphausiidss

FeedingFeeding

TopographyTopography Islands Islands everywhereverywheree

Isolation / Isolation / GeographicGeographic

Seals Seals

BirdsBirdsReproductioReproduction n FeedingFeeding

TopographyTopography / / CurrentsCurrents

Fundy / Fundy / P’quoddy P’quoddy BayBay

Gyre / Tidal Gyre / Tidal CirculationCirculation

Whales Whales (Copepods)(Copepods)

FeedingFeeding

High temp/ High temp/ high chlor ahigh chlor a

Minas Minas Basin Basin MudflatsMudflats

Tidal Tidal ResuspensioResuspensionn

Migrant Migrant BirdsBirds

FeedingFeeding

Roff and Evans 2002 Aquat. Cons.Roff and Evans 2002 Aquat. Cons.

Relations between Anomalies and Focal SpeciesRelations between Anomalies and Focal Species

Relations between Anomalies and Focal SpeciesRelations between Anomalies and Focal Species

3. Approaches based on 3. Approaches based on Fisheries ConservationFisheries Conservation

• SeveralSeveral strategies strategies toto determin determinee conservation conservation areas based on fisheries areas based on fisheries are possibleare possible::

Roff et al. 2002 MS.Roff et al. 2002 MS.

1.1. Habitat Suitability Indices (HSI) Habitat Suitability Indices (HSI)

22.. Traditional Ecological Traditional Ecological Knowledge (TEK)Knowledge (TEK)

33..  Knowledge of spawning Knowledge of spawning / / recruitment recruitment areasareas

4.4. Minimum Viable Population Minimum Viable Population and Home Range and Home Range

5. Correspondence of fish 5. Correspondence of fish communities to water massescommunities to water masses

66. Species-Area (S-A) curves. Species-Area (S-A) curves

CORRESPONDENCE BETWEENCORRESPONDENCE BETWEENFISH COMMUNITIES AND OCEANOGRAPHYFISH COMMUNITIES AND OCEANOGRAPHY

COURTESY KEES ZWANENBURGCOURTESY WWF / CLF

WATER MASSES T-SWATER MASSES T-S FISH COMMUNITIESFISH COMMUNITIES

How large should an MPA How large should an MPA be? be? SPECIES – AREA CURVESSPECIES – AREA CURVES

AREAAREA

NU

MB

ER

OF

SP

EC

IES

NU

MB

ER

OF

SP

EC

IES

ASYMPTOTE

AREA ESTIMATE

For combined fish community

e.g. Frank and Schackell 2001, CJFAS

SPECIES – AREA CURVESSPECIES – AREA CURVES

AREAAREA

NU

MB

ER

OF

SP

EC

IES

NU

MB

ER

OF

SP

EC

IES

ASYMPTOTES

For separate ‘guilds’ of fish community

Determination of Community Typesand relations to geophysicsis critical to MPA planning

4. Approach based on Coastal 4. Approach based on Coastal Zone ManagementZone Management

1. Pristine areas2. Affected areas

- land use- water use-engineered areas

3. Socio-economic concerns4. First Nations5. Historic / Archaeological sites

Restrictions /Limitations / PreferencesRestrictions /Limitations / Preferences

How toHow to SYNTHESIZESYNTHESIZE thesethese approaches?approaches?

• THREE PHASESTHREE PHASES

1.1.Mapping / Overlays – Mapping / Overlays – REPRESENTATIVE & DISTINCTIVE AREASREPRESENTATIVE & DISTINCTIVE AREAS

1.1.Define Define SETSSETS of candidate MPA’s of candidate MPA’s2.2.Select Select THETHE NETWORKNETWORK of MPA’s of MPA’s

PHASE ONEPHASE ONE MAPPING / OVERLAYMAPPING / OVERLAY

1.1. Map Representative Habitats (Geophysical 1.1. Map Representative Habitats (Geophysical data)data)

1.2. Map Distinctive Habitats (Anomalies / Focal 1.2. Map Distinctive Habitats (Anomalies / Focal Species)Species)

1.3. Map Fisheries Areas (Fished and Closed)1.3. Map Fisheries Areas (Fished and Closed)1.4. Map Existing Protected Areas1.4. Map Existing Protected Areas1.5. Decide which Distinctive, Fisheries and 1.5. Decide which Distinctive, Fisheries and

Existing Areas should become MPA’sExisting Areas should become MPA’s1.6. Produce overlay maps of Distinctive, Fisheries 1.6. Produce overlay maps of Distinctive, Fisheries

and Existing Areas onto Representative Areasand Existing Areas onto Representative Areas1.7. Determine the proportion of each type of 1.7. Determine the proportion of each type of

Representative Area captured within the Representative Area captured within the selected Distinctive, Fisheries and Existing selected Distinctive, Fisheries and Existing AreasAreas

Whale sanctuary

Closed fishing area

SCOTIAN SHELF SeascapesRepresentative Areas

Existing protected area

Distinctive / Existing areas

Polluted coastal area

PHASE TWOPHASE TWO DEFINEDEFINE SETSSETS OF CANDIDATE MPA’sOF CANDIDATE MPA’s

EMPHASIS NOW ON REPRESENTATIVE EMPHASIS NOW ON REPRESENTATIVE AREASAREAS

2.1. 2.1. Species diversity versus areaSpecies diversity versus area - for macrobenthos / demersal fish- for macrobenthos / demersal fish

2.2. 2.2. Habitat heterogeneityHabitat heterogeneity – – identify regions of high heterogeneity identify regions of high heterogeneity - where all Representative Habitats exceed critical S-A - where all Representative Habitats exceed critical S-A

asymptote asymptote

QUESTIONS:QUESTIONS:2.3. How to set SIZE and BOUNDARIES for MPAs ?2.3. How to set SIZE and BOUNDARIES for MPAs ?

(Roff et al. in prep.)(Roff et al. in prep.)

2.4. How many MPA’s to establish ?2.4. How many MPA’s to establish ?2.5. Total area to be protected ?2.5. Total area to be protected ?

PHASE TWOPHASE TWO - - cont.cont.

DEFINE DEFINE SETSSETS OF CANDIDATE MPA’sOF CANDIDATE MPA’s

2.6. Eliminate non-viable sites for reason 2.6. Eliminate non-viable sites for reason – Too remote to manageToo remote to manage– Areas affected by human activityAreas affected by human activity

2.7. Apply geographic/ environmental 2.7. Apply geographic/ environmental criteria criteria – Proximity to existing areasProximity to existing areas– Maximum distance from existing sitesMaximum distance from existing sites– Areas of defined ‘naturalness’Areas of defined ‘naturalness’

2.8. Apply further selection criteria 2.8. Apply further selection criteria – SocioeconomicSocioeconomic– LegislativeLegislative– First nations, etc.First nations, etc.

THIS DEFINES VARIOUS THIS DEFINES VARIOUS SETSSETS OF CANDIDATE OF CANDIDATE MPA’sMPA’s

PHASE THREEPHASE THREE SELECT SELECT THETHE NETWORKNETWORK OF MPA’s OF MPA’s

NUMBER OF SITES, DISTANCES APART NUMBER OF SITES, DISTANCES APART

We are now moving from: We are now moving from:

A SETA SET of CANDIDATE MPA’s to of CANDIDATE MPA’s to

THETHE preferred preferred NETWORKNETWORK of of MPA’sMPA’s

PHASE THREE PHASE THREE - cont.- cont.

SELECT SELECT THETHE NETWORKNETWORK OF MPA’s OF MPA’s

•SETSSETS of MPA’s implies that we have of MPA’s implies that we have multiple possible sites designated, but says multiple possible sites designated, but says NOTHING about CONNECTIVITY among them NOTHING about CONNECTIVITY among them (connectivity = terrestrial corridors)(connectivity = terrestrial corridors)

• THE THE NETWORKNETWORK of MPA’s implies that we of MPA’s implies that we have considered CONNECTIVITY among have considered CONNECTIVITY among them them (I.e. their physical /biological inter-(I.e. their physical /biological inter-relationships)relationships)

• The most important PROCESS in The most important PROCESS in connectivity is connectivity is RECRUITMENTRECRUITMENT

i.e. i.e. GENETICGENETIC STRUCTURES AND PROCESSES STRUCTURES AND PROCESSES

PHASE THREE PHASE THREE - cont.- cont.

SELECT SELECT THE NETWORKTHE NETWORK OF MPA’s OF MPA’s

This is a complex issue; some This is a complex issue; some reasoning:reasoning:

3.1. Determine number of replicates of each 3.1. Determine number of replicates of each habitat type required from the habitat type required from the SETSET of of Candidate MPA’sCandidate MPA’s

3.2. Determine flow patterns among 3.2. Determine flow patterns among replicatesreplicates

3.3. Determine meroplanktonic/ larval 3.3. Determine meroplanktonic/ larval phases and recruitment patterns of phases and recruitment patterns of macrobenthos and demersal fish speciesmacrobenthos and demersal fish species

PHASE THREE PHASE THREE - cont.- cont.

SELECT SELECT THE NETWORKTHE NETWORK OF MPA’s OF MPA’s

To comprise the To comprise the NETWORKNETWORK - - a a SETSET of of MPA’s must be oceanographically MPA’s must be oceanographically connected so that:connected so that:

• Smaller species will Smaller species will auto-recruitauto-recruit within within each MPAeach MPA

• Larger species would Larger species would allo-recruitallo-recruit among MPA’samong MPA’s

• No species would lose ALL its recruits No species would lose ALL its recruits to areas outside the NETWORK, unless to areas outside the NETWORK, unless they recruited to another NETWORKthey recruited to another NETWORK

Recruitment among Recruitment among MPA’sMPA’s

Prevailing current

Recruitment may be uni-directional Recruitment may be uni-directional OR subject to retention OR subject to retention mechanismsmechanisms

Auto-recruitmentAuto-recruitment

Allo-recruitmentAllo-recruitment

To another networkTo another network

From another networkFrom another network

Allo-recruitmentAllo-recruitment

One Dimensional One Dimensional dispersiondispersion

Lx

A(y) = ∫ J(x).L(x,y)dx 0

x – is the origin (source) of a dispersing individualy - is the destination of a dispersing individualThe domain [0, Lx] defines the ‘source’ space of releaseThe domain [o, Ly] defines the space over which individuals settleIf J(x) individuals (the # of juveniles at point x), settle according to a distribution L(x,y), then the # of individuals at point y is defined by:

Where: L(x,y) e-D(y-x-d)2

/D

D = parameter controls breadth of

distribution

and: d = v . t

D = distance, v = velocity, t = time

3-D Statistical solutions:3-D Statistical solutions:

Nx,p,t = ni (( (p+x/2) –pi+(t-ti) / 2(t-ti))

- ( (p-x/2) –pi+(t-ti) / 2(t-ti))

From: p+w/2

Nw,p,t = N0,0 ∫ t,2t (u) du p-w/2

BUT: How do we know if we BUT: How do we know if we have ‘finished’ the task and have ‘finished’ the task and ‘captured’ ‘captured’

We need an We need an INVENTORY INVENTORY across the across the

ECOLOGICAL ECOLOGICAL HIERARCHYHIERARCHY

The Ecological The Ecological HHIIEERRARARCCHHYY

COMPOSITIONCOMPOSITION STRUCTURALSTRUCTURAL FUNCTIONALFUNCTIONALGenesGenes Genetic structureGenetic structure Genetic processesGenetic processes

Species, Species, PopulationsPopulations

Population Population structurestructure

Demographic Demographic processes, Life processes, Life historieshistories

CommunitiesCommunities Community Community compositioncomposition

Organism-Habitat Organism-Habitat relationshipsrelationships

EcosystemsEcosystems Ecosystem Ecosystem structurestructure

Physical /Chemical Physical /Chemical processesprocesses

After Zacharias and After Zacharias and Roff 2000, Cons. Bio. Roff 2000, Cons. Bio. andandRoff and Evans 2002 Roff and Evans 2002 Aquat Cons.Aquat Cons.

Representative Representative

HabitatsHabitats

DistinctiveDistinctive HabitatsHabitats

Ecological Ecological

IntegrityIntegrity

FisheriesFisheries

Coastal Coastal ZoneZone

ConservationConservation

ManagementManagement

StructureStructure MutationMutation StructureStructure MigrationMigration StructureStructure SuccessioSuccessionn

WatermasWatermasss

CurrentsCurrents

GenotypeGenotypes s

DifferentiatioDifferentiationn

AbundancAbundancee

DispersioDispersionn

S.DiversitS.Diversityy

PredationPredation TempTemp TidesTides

FitnessFitness DriftDrift DistributDistribut RetentionRetention S. S. RichnessRichness

Competit.Competit. SalinitySalinity Disturban.Disturban.

DiversityDiversity FlowFlow Focal SppFocal Spp Mig/ DriftMig/ Drift S. S. EvennessEvenness

ParasitismParasitism PropertiesProperties GyresGyres

StocksStocks Nat. Nat. SelectSelect

KeystoneKeystone GrowthGrowth AbundancAbundancee

MutualismMutualism BoundarieBoundariess

RetentionRetention

InbreedinInbreedingg

Ind. Cond.Ind. Cond. Reprod.Reprod. RepresentRepresent..

DiseaseDisease Depth/Depth/PresPres

P-B P-B couplecouple

MatingMating Ind. Ind. Comp.Comp.

RecruitRecruit DistinctivDistinctivee

ProductioProductionn

LightLight Entrain.Entrain.

Dir. SelectDir. Select UmbrellaUmbrella BiomesBiomes Decomp.Decomp. StratificatStratificat..

B-G cyclesB-G cycles

Stab. Stab. selectselect

CharismatCharismat..

BiocoenosBiocoenos..

TopograpTopographh

Seasonal.Seasonal.

Dis. selectDis. select VulnerablVulnerablee

S-A relns.S-A relns. SubstrateSubstrate Product.Product.

Micro. Micro. Evol.Evol.

EconomicEconomic TransitionTransitionss

AnomaliesAnomalies H-A equil.H-A equil.

ErosionErosion PhenotypPhenotypeses

Fun.groupFun.groupss

ExposureExposure H-L equil.H-L equil.

SpeciationSpeciation FragmentFragmentss

Heterog.Heterog. PatchinesPatchinesss

TurbulencTurbulencee

Macro. Macro. EvolEvol

Meta-Meta-popspops

EndemismEndemism NutrientsNutrients MixingMixing

Alt. Alt. S.StatsS.Stats

Dis. GasesDis. Gases UpwellingUpwelling

SymbioseSymbiosess

AnoxiaAnoxia DivergencDivergencee

BiomassBiomass Ecol.IntegEcol.Integ..

ErosionErosion

ExpandedExpanded fromfrom Zacharias Zacharias &&

Roff 2000Roff 2000 DesiccatioDesiccationn

Genetic Structure Process

Species/ PopulationStructure Process

CommunityStructure Process

EcosystemStructure Process

Eco.

level Ecosys.

Comm. Popul. Species Genetic

Approach

↓

Process Structure

Process Structure

Process Structure

Process Structure

Distinct.Habitats

1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10,15,16,18

5,11,13,16

Assumed or N/A

1,2,3,5,6B,12,13,16

1,3,4,5,6,7

4,5,6A,6B,7,8,9,10,11

Inferred from structures

1,2,3,4

Repres.Habitats

10,11,12,13,14,18,19

1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10,12,13,14,15,17

Assumed or N/A, 7,8

1,2,3,4,5,6A,7,8,9,10,11,13,14,15,16

5,6,7, 1,2,3,5,6A,6B,9,10,11

Inferred from structures

1,2,3,4,5

FisheriesConserv.

N/A N/A Assumed or N/A

6A,6B,9,16 fish only

1,2,3,4,5,6,7 fish only

1,2,3,6B,10 fish only

Inferred from structures

1,2,3,4,5 fish only

CoastalZoneManag.

2,3,4,5,7,8,9,10,18

2,3,4,5,6,9,10,12,14

N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Sets ofMPA’s

1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,17

1,2,3,4,5

Assumed or N/A,1

6A,6B,7,8,13,14

1,2,3,4,5,6,7

1,2,3,5,6A,6B,12

Inferred from structures

1,2,4,5

Networksof MPA’s

1,2,4,5,7,17

N/A Assumed or N/A

10,14 1,2,3,4,5,6,7

3,11,12,13

Inferred from structures

1,2,4,5

How the elements of biodiversity are ‘captured’ by various conservation approaches