Transcript of Investigating Behaviour Non Experimental Methods.
- Slide 1
- Investigating Behaviour Non Experimental Methods
- Slide 2
- Surveys Questionnaires written or verbal Interviews Structured
pre determined questions (questionnaire that is delivered face to
face) Unstructured Each question is developed as a result of the
previous answer. (Clinical interview) Both can be used to collect
quantitative or qualitative data. What ethical issues should be
considered? (3)
- Slide 3
- Task What do you think the strengths and limitations would be
for: Questionnaires (2strengths, 2 weaknesses) Structured
interviews (3 and 3) Unstructured (2 and 3) Work in pairs or 3s to
discuss the development, use and analysis of data using these
techniques to help you come up with your answers. Consider how you
would feel if you were the participant. Compare and contrast
them.
- Slide 4
- Evaluation StrengthsWeaknesses Questionnaires Once
questionnaire has been designed it is quick and easy to replicate
to collect a large number of responses. Dont require specialists
administrators. More willing to give information as feedback would
be confidential rather than in interviews/ Leading questions/social
desirability bias - answers not truthful. Biased sample as only
certain types of people are willing to fill in questionnaires.
Structured Interviews Easily repeated. Requires less skill than
unstructured. Easier to analyse as answers are more
structured/predictability. Interviewer bias. Data is
restricted/limited People feel less comfortable about revealing
information Unstructured Interviews More detailed information can
be elicited. Information is less restricted Interviewer bias (more
likely than in structured) Requires well trained interviewers. Data
may not be comparable (questions would differ) More difficult to
analyse data/unpredictable
- Slide 5
- Glossary of terms Leading questions a question which is worded
in a way that makes one answer more liked. Wouldnt you agree...?
Social Desirability Bias what people think they should say rather
than genuinely think/feel. Interviewer Bias what the interviewee
thinks the interviewer wants.
- Slide 6
- Reliability Consistency. Experimenters must ensure that the
questionnaire they use is reliable to ensure that they are testing
what they aim to. Ie If the same questionnaire is used with the
same participant on 2 different occasions but gain different
responses, if the questionnaire was reliable then we can assume
that the difference can be attributed to the participant.
Test-retest reliability repeating questionnaire with same
participants to see if the same results are obtained and measured
using a correlation coefficient.
- Slide 7
- Validity That the questionnaire is measuring what it was
designed to measure. If answers are affected by social desirability
bias, interviewer bias etc then the results lack validity.
Concurrent validity comparing results from new questionnaire with
an established study.
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- Good Questionnaires: Are clear. Lack bias Easy to analyse
closed questions (options given, likert scale) but this makes the
data quantitative rather than qualitative. Good Surveys: Include
filler questions misleads interviewee to reduce interviewer bias.
Easy qstns at start more difficult at end. Pilot study
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- Correlational Design and Analysis Correlational analysis is
used to analyse non-experimental methods (surveys/observations/case
studies) as the IV is not being manipulated and there is very
little control over extraneous variables. It is not a research
method!
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- Correlational Design and Analysis Correlation a relationship
between two variables (co- variables). Positive correlation when 2
variables increase together. Negative correlation when 1 variable
increases and the other decreases.
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- Zero Correlation Zero correlation no relationship between the 2
variables.
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- Visual Display Correlations are displayed using a scattergram.
A dot is plotted on a scattergram for each participants two
answers. Eg weight and hours spent exercising per week.
- Slide 13
- Statistical Test In the same way we used T-test for our
experimental methods in order to reject our null hypothesis so too
do we use statistics in non-experimental methods. Correlation
co-efficient never greater than 1 (+1 for positive correltaions and
-1 for negative correlations). 1 Is the perfect correlation but is
very rare. The strength of correlation is expressed as weak,
moderate or strong. The closer to 1 the number is the stronger the
correlation: +0.76 (there is a positive and strong correlation
between the co- variables) -0.76 (there is a negative and strong
correlation between the co- variables) +0.002 (There is a very weak
positive correlation between the co- variables)
- Slide 14
- Significance A table of significance is used to determine
whether the strength of the correlation (the number) is
significant. The significance is dependent upon the number of
participants who took part/responded (N). Even small numbers (0.02)
can be significant if the N is very large.
- Slide 15
- Evaluation of investigations using correlational analysis
StrengthsWeaknesses Can be used when it would be ethically wrong to
manipulate variables. Even with a correlation it does not mean
there is a cause-effect between the two variables. If the
correlation is significant then further research should be carried
out/justified. There may be other untested variables that could
explain the correlation. If there is a zero correlation then causal
relationships can be ruled out. (they dont cause each other find
other variables)
- Slide 16
- Observation The starting point for all investigations. Must be
objective. If used as part of an experiment then it is a research
technique. However, if used on its own it is a research method. The
design of these observations may vary:
- Slide 17
- Naturalistic Observation Behaviour is studied in a completely
natural setting. The researcher does not change anything. This is
different from a natural experiment as the experimenters are not
looking for a relationship between an IV and a DV.
- Slide 18
- Example: Children aged 3- 5 observed in a playground.
Activities were categorised as male, female or neutral. Praise and
imitation was recorded as positive responses while criticism and
stopping play were recorded as negative responses. Children
generally reinforced peers for gender-appropriate play and
criticised gender-inappropriate play. Lamb and Roopnarine,
1979
- Slide 19
- Controlled Observation Some variables can be controlled eg
setting, objects etc. Participants are likely to know they are
being studied. Reduces chances of behaviour being completely
natural.
- Slide 20
- Example Lamb and Roopnarines experiment could also have been
carried out as a controlled observation. ie The children could have
been out in a playroom where the toys would have been pre chosen by
the experimenters. NB this is different from Banduras Bobo Doll
experiment as they directly affected the IV (showing the children a
video in advance). In this instance observation was used as a
technique not a method.
- Slide 21
- Other types of Observation Content Analysis observing
written/verbal texts. Non-participant observer does not involve
themselves simply observes. Participant Observers participate.
Disclosed participant knows they are being observed. Undisclosed
participant unaware they are being observed.
- Slide 22
- Example (page 119) Leon Festinger, a social psychologist,
1950s. Religious cults receiving messages from aliens detailing the
end of the world. Believed they would be rescued by a UFO and
arranged to meet a set time and location. Festinger posed as a
convert in order to observe their reactions when their beliefs were
unfounded. The night before the predicted flood, when it was
apparent that there would be no flood, the cult leader claimed that
it was because of their combined prayers. Observed a mixture of
reactions some didnt believe and left the cult, others took it as
evidence of the cults powers.
- Slide 23
- Reliability To ensure reliability (consistency) it is always
better to have at least 2 observers who produce the same record (if
2 observers have conflicting recordings their observations are not
reliable). Observers should be trained to increase level of
reliability. The extent of this consistency is call inter-observer
reliability Measured by correlating the results. To have
inter-observer reliability the correlation must be >.80.
- Slide 24
- Validity (measuring what its supposed to) Can be affected by
observer bias the observer sees what they want/expect to see rather
than being objective. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1GEEvvTiiQk
Using more than one observer and averaging their responses can help
with this. If participants know they are being observed they may
change their behaviour (eg social desirability bias). Results will
not be valid if the coding system is flawed.
- Slide 25
- Task: In pairs decide who is A and who is B. Take it in turns
to complete the task. Each task should take 5 minutes. While one
person is completing the task the other person should be recording
all aspects of their behaviour: ie facial expressions, verbal cues,
body language, etc
- Slide 26
- Observational techniques Structured vs Unstructured.
Unstructured (what you did): Observer records everything they
believe to be relevant. No system for observing or recording
behaviour. Observer will note only the most obvious behaviour but
these may not be the most important (did you see the moonwalking
bear?).
- Slide 27
- Structured Systems are put in place to ensure observations are
organised and systematic. Sampling procedure knowing who you are
observing and when. Observation schedule how to record the
behaviour you are studying. Continuous observation Every instance
of the relevant behaviour is recorded in great detail. Difficult as
it requires a lot of recording if the behaviour is common. Event
sampling counting the amount of times it occurs. Time sampling
recording behaviour at set intervals (every 30 seconds). Can be
selected from a checklist.
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- Observational Schedule/Coding system/Behaviour checklist Having
a pre-made list of relevant behaviour to be observed which helps
the observer to deconstruct the behaviour. They should be objective
and leave no room for observer bias. Be wide spread cover all
possibilities. Should be discrete no room for overlaps
http://www.cs.cmu.edu/afs/cs/project/face/www/facs.ht m
http://www.cs.cmu.edu/afs/cs/project/face/www/facs.ht m
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- Research Methods - Summary Part 1 -
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Lkwsrh10OXM Part 2 -
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QwcuHaJ7q0I
- Slide 30
- Case studies A detailed study of an individual/place/event. How
Freud collected his data Anna O. Requires a variety of research
methods to develop an informed picture interviews, tests etc.
Extremely in depth. Time consuming (longitudinal) carried out over
a long period of time. Task: What are the advantages and
disadvantages of this method? Try to come up with 3 of each and use
your prior knowledge of this topic to help.
- Slide 31
- Evaluation AdvantagesDisadvantages Sensitive to the
individualInterviewer/observer bias (interpreting what they expect
rather than interpreting objectively) Very detailed and in-depth
information is gained. Nothing is overlooked. Lack of scientific
validity no cause/effect. High ecological validity.Cant generalise
the results Can be used to investigate rare phenomenon that would
be unethical to use experiment for. Impossible to replicate lacks
reliability. Reports of past events cannot be validated self report
techniques are not reliable
- Slide 32
- Revision Scholar Work through the Unit 2 section of Scholar,
adding to your notes and completing the interactive activities.
Particularly the data analysis nominal, ordinal and interval data
section which we havent covered. 1,3,4,2