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http://asj.sagepub.com/Acta Sociologica
http://asj.sagepub.com/content/43/1/3.citationThe online version of this article can be found at:
DOI: 10.1177/000169930004300101
2000 43: 3Acta SociologicaRoar Hagen
Introduction: Observing Luhmann
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Introduction: Observing Luhmann
Roar Hagen
Department of Sociology, University of Troms, Norway
From his inauguration as a professor at the
University of Bielefeld in 1968. Niklas Luh-manns research project was to develop a theoryof society. This was presented in several mono-
graphs on the different function systems ofmodern society and was concluded with histwo-volume magnum opus on the Society ofSocietyDie Gesellschaft der Gesellschaft, 199 71.
To fulfil his program Luhmann had to
develop sociology as general theory, to clarifyits vocabulary, and to invent new concepts. He
did this in a truly interdisciplinary spirit. Inparticular, he made use of advances within thefield of general systems theory, wherein he foundthe inputs he believed sociology needed.A
system must always be seen in relation to itsenvironment; social systems are closed and do
not import elements from the outside. Theirinternal events are not caused by events in theenvironment. Only because the system is closedcan it be open to observe itself as a system in an
environment. Social systems are autopoieticsystems that produce themselves of out of theirown operations. Luhmann also proposed a new
conception of the basic social element. Social
systems are not made up of human beings, andnot even of actions, but consist only of commu-nication as the synthesis of the differentiation
among information, utterance and understand-
ing. Human bodies are not part of social systems.but belong to the environment. Not evenconsciousness can communicate.
Onlycommu-
nication can. The main contribution in this field
is his Social Systems (Soziale Systeme, 1984).With respect to this unity of a theory of
society and general theory as a system of
concepts. Niklas Luhmanns new systems the-
ory is today without rivals (for an updated list ofreferences to Luhmanns rather voluminous
production, see Soziale Systeme 1998:4, ? 3 3-
264). Luhmann has a new proposal for whatmodern
societyis about and the concepts we
could use to analyse it. His theory promises to
fertilize discussions on several of sociologysmost important subjects. Unfortunately sociol-
ogy has so far been reluctant to take up the
challenge. True enough, within Germany,Luhmanns work belongs to the canon and iscounted among the classics of the sociologicaltradition. There, he is among the most cited
authors, and some of his presumptions seem tohave acquired the status of self-evident truths,in particular his views concerning the over-
complexity and non-governability of modernsociety. That is perhaps not so good either.
Outside Germany the response has thus farbeen modest. Translations of the works are few,
and his main work within general theory,published in 1984. appeared in English only in1995. Luhmanns suggestions are to a largeextent neglected or rejected on the false premisethat his work is simply a continuation of TalcottParsons systems theory. Luhmann therefore is
often known best through the writing of hisopponents. However, it could be that the
concept Jurgen Habermas has extracted fromLuhmanns project and incorporated into hisown framework in terms of system integrationis not at all the same concept of system that we
find in Luhmanns own writings.This is an unfortunate situation. On the
one hand, the English-speaking social science
community needs systems theory to shake off itsmatter-of-course uses of terms like action,actor and systems as relations of actions. Onthe other hand, systems theory could do with alittle more discussion on the status of the same
terms within its own paradigm. The aim of this
special issue of acta Sot,iologica is to contribute tothis kind of cross-fertilization.
In the first article, Rudolph Stichweh
explains why the concepts of action and systemare not real theoretical alternatives to each
other, and what led Luhmann to replace actions
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with communications as the constitutive ele-
ments of society. Stichweh is well qualified forthis task.As both a student of Luhmann and
now professor in the Faculty of Sociology at the
University of Bielefeld, he has intimate knowl-
edge of the subject.Dag 0sterberg begins his contribution with
an attempt to substantiate the claim that
Luhmann is a conservative thinker who sprin-kles his text with ideological and cynicalremarks. This disfigures the subject matter ofI,uhmanns work, but is in itself not a sufficient
reason to reject its basic tenets. Osterbergsmain critique is directed against Luhmanns
imaginary and equivocal use of the term
functional differentiation, which allows himto conflate differentiation and autonomization.
Osterberg argues that a more plausible accountof modern society is achieved through a blend ofthe theories of Karl Marx and Talcott Parsons.
The concept of functional differentiation
implies that subsystems are observed as usefulor harmful to society by society, but, accordingto Luhmann, modern society is without anyapex or centre which might make this observa-tion.
Instead of trying to resolve this ambiguityby taking recourse to the alternatives ofnormative integration proposed by action the-
ory, Hagen attempts in his article to provide anew solution to the problem of order within theframework of systems theory. By rethinkingcollective action as communication, he developsa concept of collective rationality that allows thetheorist to appreciate how the public economyand the welfare state have the capacity to guidethe
operationsof other
subsystemswhenever
there is a process of communication bringingforth what he calls rational solidarity.
NilsAkersrmAndersen in his article deals
empirically with the state and market asalternative mechanisms for allocating resourcesto the subsystems of medical treatment and carefor elderly people. Based on a study of an
attempt at privatization taking place in Den-mark,Andersen shows that when the codes for
determiningsocial needs are to be
coupledwith
resources by organizations oriented towards
profit, new complexities arise for the business
organization. The surprising conclusion to his
analysis is that the political code threatened toswallow up the economic one, and in fact it was
private business that found it in its best interest
to withdraw from this confused and alienenvironment. In the end privatization led tomore politics, not less.
The last article in our collection is written
by the rare case of a French philosopher with aninterest in Luhmanns systems theory. JeanClams main focus is on the concept of the
operation as a social systems sole constituent. Itis a risky undertaking of Luhmann to build histheoretical edifice on a concept involving a
protologic that has a precarious standing bothwithin and outside systems theory. Clam seeksto demonstrate that the notion of operativity as
pure actuality is not without antecedents. He
goes on to show how Luhmann inaugurates anew type of relation between a theory of societyand the foundational or categorical work of
philosophy.The effort behind this special issue ofActa
Sociologica is motivated by a conviction that
Luhmanns contributions to sociological theoryhave not yet been allotted the necessaryattention for the debate to reach a point ofsaturation where a verdict on what should be
accepted and what is to be rejected within this
huge intellectual effort can be made. Fortu-
nately, systems theory is itself an example ofwhat it calls a super theory, and that shouldmake the task of assessing it easier. Supertheory, which at first could be seen as an insultto a
sociologythat has dismissed
aspirationstowards grand theory, may actually represent anew possibility for epistemological grounding.
As a theory that covers everything, includingitself, systems theory knows that it is its owninvention.As a closed system of self-referential
premises, everything can be looked upon anddiscussed, not at the same time, but in turn from
one or another place in the system. With respectto their self-awareness as scientific construc-
tions,super
theories are revisable and humble
projects.
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