Introducing Sociology

Chapter OutlineIntroductionThe Sociological PerspectiveSociological Theories and Theorists Conducting ResearchThe Main Methods of Sociological ResearchHow Sociology Helps Us Deal with Today’s

Challenges

SociologyThe systematic study of human behavior in

social context.

Four Sociological ExplanationsFunctionalismConflict TheorySymbolic InteractionismFeminism

FunctionalismSocial phenomenon persist if they contribute

to social stability—and die off if they don’t

Conflict TheoryHighlights the tensions underlying existing

social arrangementsExamines the capacity of those tensions to

burst into the open and cause social change

Symbolic InteractionismExamines how various aspects of social life

convey meaning and thereby assist or impede communication

FeminismFocused on gender: one’s sense of being

masculine or feminineInterrogates patriarchy: the system of male

domination of women

C. Wright MillsWrote that the sociologist’s main task is to

identify and explain the connection between people’s personal troubles and the social structures in which they are embedded.

Coined the term “sociological imagination”

Sociological ImaginationThe quality of mind that enables one to see

the connection between personal troubles and social structures.

The Four Levels of Social Structure

Levels of Social StructureMicrostructures are patterns of intimate

social relations.Mesostructures are patterns of

organizational social relationsMacrostructures are social relations

outside your circle of intimates and acquaintances.

Global structures are international organizations, worldwide travel and communication, and economic relations between countries.

Origins of the Sociological Imagination1. The Scientific Revolution suggested that a

science of society is possible.2. The Democratic Revolution suggested

people can intervene to improve society.3. The Industrial Revolution presented

social thinkers with social problems in need of a solution.

Scientific RevolutionBegan in Europe about 1550.Encouraged the view that sound conclusions

about the workings of society must be based on solid evidence, not just speculation.

Democratic RevolutionBegan about 1750, during which the citizens

of the United States, France, and other countries broadened their participation in government.

This revolution suggested that people organize society and that human intervention can therefore resolve social problems.

Industrial RevolutionThe rapid economic transformation that

began in Britain in the 1780s.Involved the application of science and

technology to industrial processes, the creation of factories, and the formation of a working class.

Created a host of new and serious social problems that attracted the attention of many social thinkers.

Founders of SociologyDurkheimParsons and MertonMarxWeberDuBoisMeadMartineau and Addams

Durkheim’s Explanation of SuicideShowed that suicide rates are strongly

influenced by social forces.Argued that suicide rates vary because of

differences in the degree of social solidarity in different groups.

Social SolidarityThe degree to which group members share

beliefs and values and the intensity and frequency of their interaction.

Sociological Theory of Suicide

Altruistic Suicide Occurs when norms tightly govern behavior,

so individual actions are often in the group interest.Example: When soldiers knowingly give up

their lives to protect members of their unit.

Egoistic Suicide Results from a lack of integration of the

individual into society because of weak social ties to others.Example: The rate of egoistic suicide is likely

to be high among people who lack friends and are unmarried.

Anomic SuicideOccurs when norms governing behavior are

vaguely defined.Example: When people live in a society lacking

a widely shared code of morality, the rate of anomic suicide is likely to be high.

Talcott ParsonsLeading proponent of functionalism.Argued that society is integrated and in

equilibrium when: the family raises new generationsthe military defends societyschools teach students the skills and values

they need to function as adultsreligions create a shared moral code among

people

Robert MertonLeading functionalist in the United StatesProposed that social structures may have

different consequences for different groups.Some of those consequences may be disruptive

or dysfunctional. Some functions are manifest (intended),

others are latent (unintended).

Features of Functionalism1. Human behavior is governed by social

structures.2. Theories show how social structures

maintain or undermine social stability.3. Theories emphasize that social structures

are based on shared values. 4. Suggests that reestablishing equilibrium

can best solve most social problems.

Karl MarxGerman social thinker who originated conflict

theory. Class conflict, the struggle between classes

to resist and overcome the opposition of other classes, lies at the center of his ideas.

Max WeberNoted the rapid growth of the service sector

of the economy, with nonmanual workers and professionals.

Argued that members of these occupational groups stabilize society because they enjoy higher status and income than manual workers in the manufacturing sector.

Features of Conflict Theory1. Macro-level structures: class relations or

patterns of domination, submission and struggle

2. Inequality: patterns of inequality produce social stability

3. Conflict: members of privileged groups try to maintain their advantage over subordinate groups

4. Lessening privilege: will lower the level of conflict

W.E.B. DuBoisThe first African American to receive a Ph.D.

from Harvard.A founder of the National Association for the

Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) and of the country’s second Department of Sociology, at Atlanta University.

George Herbert MeadThe driving force behind the study of how the

individual’s sense of self is formed in the course of interaction with other people.

Mead and his colleagues developed symbolic interactionism.

Features of Symbolic Interactionism1. Focus on interpersonal and micro-level

communication2. Social life is possible only because people

attach subjective meaning to things3. As active agents people create their social

circumstances4. Increases our tolerance of people who may

be different from us

Harriet MartineauOften called the first woman sociologist.Martineau translated Comte into English and

wrote one of the first books on research methods.

She undertook critical studies of slavery, factory laws, and gender inequality and was a leading advocate of voting rights and higher education for women and gender equality in the family.

Jane AddamsJane Addams was cofounder of Hull House, a

shelter for the destitute in Chicago’s slums.She spent a lifetime fighting for social reform

and provided a research platform for sociologists from the University of Chicago.

In 1931, Adams received the Nobel Prize.

Features of Feminist Theory1. Focuses on patriarchy. 2. Holds that male domination and female

subordination are determined by power and social convention.

3. Examines the operation of patriarchy in micro- and macro-level settings.

4. Patterns of gender inequality should be changed for the benefit of all members of society.

Four Theoretical Traditions in Sociology

Polling Question Which sociological perspective do you think

is generally the strongest in explaining things in our society?

a. Structural-functionalb. Conflictc. Symbolic interactionistd. Feminist

ResearchThe process of carefully observing reality to

assess the validity of a theory.

Research Cycle

Ethical ConsiderationsResearchers must respect their subjects’

rights to:Safety PrivacyConfidentialityInformed consent

ExperimentA carefully controlled artificial situation that

allows researchers to isolate hypothesized causes and measure their effects precisely.

Steps in a Simple Experiment

VariablesDependent variable

The presumed effect in a cause-and effect relationship.

Independent variableThe presumed cause in a cause-and effect

relationship.

Experimental GroupsExperimental Group

The group in an experiment that is exposed to the independent variable.

Control GroupThe group in an experiment that is not exposed

to the independent variable.

Reliability vs. ValidityReliability

The degree to which a measurement procedure yields consistent results

ValidityThe degree to which a measure actually

measures what it is intended to measure

SurveysAsks people questions about their knowledge,

attitudes, or behavior, either in a face-to-face interview, telephone interview, or paper-and pencil format.

Sample vs. PopulationSample

Part of the population of research interest that is selected for analysis.

PopulationThe entire group about which the researcher

wishes to generalize.

Closed-ended vs. Open-Ended Questions

Close-endedA type of survey question that provides the

respondent with a list of permitted answers.

Open-endedA type of survey question that allows

respondents to answer in their own words

Four Dangers of Survey Questions1. Exclusion of part of population from

sampling frame2. Refusal of some people to participate in

the survey3. Unwillingness of some respondents to

answer questions frankly4. Asking confusing, leading or

inflammatory questions

Polling Question If a university asks you to complete an

anonymous, written survey asking questions about your sexual attitudes, experiences, and behaviors, how likely is it you will agree to complete the survey?

a. Very likelyb. Somewhat likelyc. Unsured. Somewhat unlikelye. Very unlikely

Field Research Research based on the systematic

observation of people in their natural settings.

Detached ObservationA type of field research that involves

classifying and counting the behavior of interest according to a predetermined scheme.

Two Concerns with Detached Observation1. Reactivity: the tendency of people who are

observed by a researcher to react to the presence of the researcher by concealing certain things or acting artificially

2. The meaning of the behavior may remain obscure to the researcher

Participant ObservationA type of field research that involves

carefully observing people’s face-to-face interactions and actually participating in their lives over a long period, thus achieving a deep and sympathetic understanding of what motivates them to act in the way they do.

Analysis of Existing Documents And Official StatisticsA nonreactive research method that involves

the analysis of diaries, newspapers, published historical works, and statistics produced by government agencies, all of which are created by people other than the researcher for purposes other than sociological research.

Strengths and Weaknesses of Research Methods

Postindustrial RevolutionThe technology-driven shift from

manufacturing to service industries and the consequences of that shift for virtually all human activities.

GlobalizationThe process by which formerly separate

economies, states, and cultures are being tied together and people are becoming increasingly aware of their growing interdependence.

1. Sociologists call stable patterns of social relations:

a. microstructuresb. mesostructuresc. macrostructuresd. global structurese. social structures

Answer: e Sociologists call stable patterns of social

relations: social structures.

2. According to Durkheim, the more a group's members share beliefs and values, and the more frequently and intensely they interact, the more social solidarity there is in a group.

a. True b. False

Answer: True According to Durkheim, the more a group's

members share beliefs and values, and the more frequently and intensely they interact, the more social solidarity there is in a group.

3. Durkheim explained variations in the suicide rate by focusing on:

a. personal troublesb. Microstructuresc. Powerd. social solidarity

Answer: dDurkheim explained variations in the suicide

rate by focusing on social solidarity.

4. The main question of __________ theory is, “how do the institutions of society contribute to social stability and instability?”

a. functionalistb. conflictc. symbolic interactionistd. feminist

Answer: aThe main question of functionalist theory is,

how do the institutions of society contribute to social stability and instability?

5. The process by which formerly separate economies, states and cultures are becoming tied together and interdependent is called:

a. postindustrialismb. inequality of opportunityc. globalizationd. individual freedom

Answer: c The process by which formerly separate

economies, states and cultures are becoming tied together and interdependent is called: globalization.