Post on 20-Mar-2020
Int.J.Curr.Res.Aca.Rev.2019; 7(5): 13-27
13
International Journal of Current Research
and Academic Review ISSN: 2347-3215 (Online) Volume 7 Number 5 (May-2019)
Journal homepage: http://www.ijcrar.com
doi: https://doi.org/10.20546/ijcrar.2019.705.004
Review on Ethiopian Traditional Fermented Foods, its Microbial Ecology and
Nutritional Value
Chala Dandessa*
1Jimma Teachers College, Department of Biology, P.O.Box 95, Jimma Ethiopia
*Corresponding author
Abstract Article Info
Fermented foods and beverages, whether of plant or animal origin, play an important role in the
diet of people in many parts of the world. Fermented foods not only provide important sources
of nutrients but have also great potential in maintaining health and preventing diseases. Lactic
acid bacteria and yeasts are the major group of microorganisms associated with traditional
fermented foods. Yoghurt is one of a fermented dairy product, having several health benefits.
Yoghurt starter culture consists of a blend of Streptococcus thermophilus and Lactobacillus
delbrueckii subsp Bulgaricus. Yoghurt is mainly of two types i.e. set yoghurt and stirred yoghurt.
Yoghurt properties can be enhanced by the addition or treatment with various additives.
Alternative methods to improve quality of low-fat yoghurt become an area of considerable
research interest. Soymilk and maize steep water were used as alternative raw materials to cow
milk and commercial starter, respectively, for production of yoghurt. Ayib, a traditional
Ethiopian cottage cheese, is a popular milk product consumed by the several local groups of the
country. It is prepared from sour milk after the butter is removed by churning. Injera is made
using teff, a tiny, round grain that flourishes in the highlands of Ethiopia. While teff is very
nutritious, it contains very little gluten (which makes it poorly suited for the making of raised
bread). However, it still takes advantage of the inherent properties of yeast, as fermentation lends
it an airy, bubbly texture. Injera may be made solely from teff, as it most commonly is in
Ethiopia, or it may be made using a combination of teff, wheat, and other substitute flours.
Wakalim is a spiced traditional Ethiopian fermented beef sausage. Early stages (0–12 h) of
wakalim fermentation were dominated by lactic acid bacteria and aerobic mesophilic bacteria
including staphylococci and members of Enterobacteriaceae. Gram-negative bacteria were below
detectable level after day 4 of fermentation. Tella is popular Ethiopian traditional beverages,
which is made from diverse ingredients. It is, by far, the most commonly consumed alcoholic
beverage in Ethiopia. It is assumed that over two million hectoliters of tella to be brewed
annually in households and drinking houses in Addis Ababa alone. Some of them consider as
local beer. It is traditionally drunk on major religious festivals, saint‘s days and weddings.
Accepted: 20 April 2019
Available Online: 20 May 2019
Keywords
Ayib, Ethiopian Traditional
Fermented Foods, Injera, Tella,
Wakalim
Introduction
Fermented foods and beverages, whether of plant or
animal origin, play an important role in the diet of people
in many parts of the world (Kabak, 2011). Fermentation
was evolved as a preservation or prevention technique
and during lean periods to counter spoilage of food
products. It is one of the oldest and most economical
Int.J.Curr.Res.Aca.Rev.2019; 7(5): 13-27
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methods for producing and preserving foods. In addition
to preservation, fermented foods can also have added
benefits of enhancing flavour, increased digestibility, and
improving nutritional and pharmacological values (Satish
Kumar et al., 2013). Fermented foods not only provide
important sources of nutrients but have also great
potential in maintaining health and preventing diseases.
Lactic acid bacteria and yeasts are the major group of
microorganisms associated with traditional fermented
foods. Many different types of traditional fermented
foods and beverages are produced at household. These
include fermented milks, cereal-based fermented food,
and non-alcoholic beverage, fermented fruits, and
vegetables, and fermented meat (Kabak, 2011).
Traditional fermented foods are popularly consumed and
form an integral part of our diet since early history. It can
be prepared in the household or in cottage industry using
relatively simple techniques and equipments (Satish
Kumar et al., 2013).
Fermentation technologies play an important role in
ensuring the food security of millions of people around
the world, particularly marginalised and vulnerable
groups (Mejia, 2011). Fermentation is a process that has
been used by humans for thousands of years, with major
roles in food preservation and alcohol production.
Fermentation is primarily an anaerobic process
converting sugars, such as glucose, to other compounds
like alcohol, while producing energy for the
microorganism or cell. Bacteria and yeast are
microorganisms with the enzymatic capacity for
fermentation, specifically, lactic acid fermentation in the
former and ethanol fermentation in the latter. Many
different products around the world are a result of
fermentation, either occurring naturally or through
addition of a starter culture. Different bacterial and yeast
species are present in each case, which contribute to the
unique flavors and textures present in fermented food
(Chilton et al., 2015). The main purpose of this review is
to access available information on traditional fermented
food practiced in Ethiopia starting from available journal
information.
Fermented dairy products (Yoghurt, Cheese)
Yoghurt
Yoghurt is a fermented dairy product, having several
health benefits. Yoghurt starter culture consists of a
blend of Streptococcus thermophilus and Lactobacillus
delbrueckii subsp Bulgaricus. Yoghurt is mainly of two
types i.e. set yoghurt and stirred yoghurt. Yoghurt
properties can be enhanced by the addition or treatment
with various additives. Alternative methods to improve
quality of low-fat yoghurt become an area of
considerable research interest. Lactic acid can be
produced by the yoghurt. Yoghurts that have past their
‗best before‘ date constitute a waste that has to be
environmentally treated. It can be used as a source for
lactic acid production by Lactobacillus casei. Yoghurt
can be supplemented with various useful ingredients.
Addition of herbs or their active components like oils
could be an effective strategy to improve functionality of
milk and milk products with respect to the health
benefits, food safety and biopreservation. Recent
developments in this regard have been thoroughly
discussed (Priyanka Aswal, 2012).
Yoghurt is a functional food. The functional food
includes probiotics, prebiotics and synbiotics. Probiotics
can be defined as ―live microbial feed supplements that
beneficially affect the host animal by improving its
intestinal microbial balance‖ (NJ, 2005). Prebiotics as
―non-digestible food ingredient that beneficially affects
the host by selectively stimulating the growth and/or
activity of one or a limited number of bacteria in the
colon‖. Synbiotic is a combination of probiotics and
prebiotics that ―beneficially affects the host by
improving the survival and the implantation of live
microbial dietary supplements in the gastro-intestinal
tract by selectively stimulating the growth and/or by
activating the metabolism of one or a limited number of
health promoting bacteria‖ (DB, 2000).
Soymilk and maize steep water were used as alternative
raw materials to cow milk and commercial starter,
respectively, for production of yoghurt. The cow milk
used was both Fresh milk and dried powdered milk
(DANO). The cost of production of the yoghurt samples
as well as their chemical, microbial and organoleptic
properties was compared with that of the commercially
available yoghurt (FAN MILK). There was no
significant difference (P<0.05) in the protein content of
soymilk yoghurt (either fermented with commercial
starter or maize steep water) and that of the dried
powdered milk yoghurt fermented with maize steep
water. Soymilk yoghurt fermented with commercial
starter contained the highest moisture, the least
carbohydrate and the least total solid, 94.07%, 0.81%
and 5.89 g/100 g, respectively. The commercial yoghurt
recorded the highest phosphorous and calcium 59.09 and
49.60 ppm, respectively. There was no significant
difference (p<0.05) in the total viable count of soymilk
yoghurt fermented with commercial starter and soymilk
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yoghurt fermented with maize steep water. Soymilk
yoghurt fermented with maize steep water compares well
with the other yoghurt samples organoleptically and
costs less to produce (Farinde et al., 2008).
Cheese
Ayib, a traditional Ethiopian cottage cheese, is a popular
milk product consumed by the several local groups of the
country. It is prepared from sour milk after the butter is
removed by churning. Churning of the sour milk is
carried out by slowly shaking the contents of the pot
until the butter is separated. The defatted milk is heated
to about 50°C until a distinct curd forms. It is then
allowed to cool slowly, and the curd is filtered through a
muslin cloth. Ayib comprises 79% water, 14.7% protein,
1.8% fat, 0.9% ash and 3.1% soluble milk constituents(F,
1998).
In a study on the microbiological quality of ayib(A,
1990), samples collected from an open market in Awassa
had counts of mesophilic aerobic bacteria (AMB), yeasts
and enterococci of 108, 107 and 107 cfu/g, respectively.
Above 60% of the samples had psychotropic count of 10
log cfu/g and about 55% of the samples were positive for
coliforms and fecal coliforms. The pH values of the
samples varied between 3.3 and 4.6 with about 40%
having pH lower than 3.7. During preparation of ayib,
the high initial count of microbes in milk, which raises
the fermentation process, is shown to fall by the
combined action of cooking and low pH. The presence of
high microbial load of ready-to-consume ayib is assumed
to be introduced from plant parts used for packaging and
imparting flavor, and from handlers, too. Its low pH
value should also assist in maintaining the low count for
a certain period of time (Anteneh and Tetemke, 2011).
Further analysis of ayib micro flora revealed that
bacterial and yeast counts did not relate with pH value of
ayib samples. It is clear that ayib samples with pH
greater 4.0 contained more bacterial groups than those
with pH less than 4.0. The Gram-positive rods dominated
the aerobic mesophilic bacterial flora, being the most
abundant. Enterobacteriaceae and Pseudomonas species
constituted the bulk of the Gram-negative rods. The
count of LAB was around 106 cfu/g and L. fermentum
and L. plantarum dominated the flora. Though the low
pH of ayib inhibits the growth of many food-borne
pathogens, higher numbers of LAB and yeasts are not
desirable in ayib. A considerably lower pH due to the
activity of LAB may result in a too sour product with a
low sensory quality (Anteneh and Tetemke, 2011).
The main ingredient in cheese is milk. Cheese is made
using cow, goat, sheep, water buffalo or a blend of these
milks. The type of coagulant used depends on the type of
cheese desired. For acid cheeses, an acid source such as
acetic acid (the acid in vinegar) or gluconodelta-lactone
(a mild food acid) is used. For rennet cheeses, calf rennet
or, more commonly, a rennet produced through microbial
bioprocessing is used. Calcium chloride is sometimes
added to the cheese to improve the coagulation
properties of the milk. Flavorings may be added
depending on the cheese. Some common ingredients
include herbs, spices, hot and sweet peppers, horseradish,
and port wine(―Milk Facts Info,‖ 2018).
The milk used for cheese production should be fresh,
good quality and free from dirt and excessive
contamination by bacteria. Older milk may impart an
unpleasant flavour to the final product. Technical Brief:
Dairy processing - an overview gives details of the
methods needed to ensure that good quality milk is used.
Cultures for cheese making are called lactic acid bacteria
(LAB) because their primary source of energy is the
lactose in milk and their primary metabolic product is
lactic acid. There is a wide variety of bacterial cultures
available that provide distinct flavor and textural
characteristics to cheeses.
Starter cultures are used early in the cheese making
process to assist with coagulation by lowering the pH
prior to rennet addition. The metabolism of the starter
cultures contribute desirable flavor compounds, and help
prevent the growth of spoilage organisms and pathogens.
Typical starter bacteria include Lactococcus lactis subsp.
lactis or cremoris, Streptococcus salivarius subsp.
thermophilus, Lactobacillus delbruckii subsp. bulgaricus
and Lactobacillus helveticus.
Adjunct cultures are used to provide or enhance the
characteristic flavors and textures of cheese. Common
adjunct cultures added during manufacture include
Lactobacillus casei and Lactobacillus plantarum for
flavor in Cheddar cheese, or the use of
Propionibacterium freudenreichii for eye formation in
Swiss. Adjunct cultures can also be used as a smear for
washing the outside of the formed cheese, such as the use
of Brevibacterium linens of gruyere, brick and limburger
cheeses.
Yeasts and molds are used in some cheeses to provide
the characteristic colors and flavors of some cheese
varieties. Torula yeast is used in the smear for the
ripening of brick and limberger cheese. Examples of
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molds include Penicillium camemberti in camembert and
brie, and Penicillium roqueforti in blue cheeses.
Nutritional value of cheese
Cheese can be the perfect component to complete your
meal or snack. A few ways to use cheese are for cheese
plates with grapes, egg white and cheddar cheese
breakfast burritos, Swiss cheese and ham sandwiches,
Greek salads with feta cheese, pasta with Parmesan
cheese and chicken baked with mozzarella cheese.
Cheese is a source of many essential nutrients, including
high-quality protein, and it can be a regular part of a
healthy, balanced diet (Birhanu Gashe, 1985).
Caloric content
An ounce of most kinds of cheese has 95 to 120 calories,
although feta cheese is slightly lower, with 75 calories
per ounce. High-calorie foods, such as full-fat cheese,
can lead to weight gain. Monitor your portion sizes and
eat them with lower-calorie foods to avoid this. Try
shredded Swiss cheese as a topping for onion soup,
grated Parmesan in an omelet made with egg whites and
a green salad with diced apple and blue cheese.
Fat in cheese
An ounce of cheddar cheese has 9.4 grams of fat and 6
grams of saturated fat, and an ounce of brie cheese 7.8
grams of fat and 4.9 grams of saturated fat. Saturated fat
raises your cholesterol levels, and healthy adults on a
2,000-calorie diet should limit consumption to 20 grams
per day. Cheese is among the top sources of solid fats in
the typical American diet, according to the 2010 Dietary
Guidelines for Americans. Choose reduced-fat dairy
products to limit your consumption of saturated fat and
calories. An ounce of low-fat cheddar cheese has 2
grams of total fat and 1.2 grams of saturated fat.
Calcium in cheese
An ounce of cheddar cheese provides 200 milligrams of
calcium, or 20 percent of the daily value based on a
2,000-calorie diet. Soft cheese has less calcium per
serving, with 52 milligrams in a 1-ounce serving of Brie
cheese. Calcium is necessary for maintaining strong
bones. Eat your cheese with a source of vitamin D to
improve your body‘s ability to absorb calcium from the
cheese. Choose cheese fortified with vitamin D or have a
pizza with cheese and anchovies.
Sodium in cheese
An ounce of regular cheddar cheese has 247 milligrams
of sodium. Most cheese contains sodium because of the
salt added during the cheese-making process. Not
counting dishes with cheese such as pizza and pasta
dishes, cheese provides 3.5 percent of the total amount of
sodium in Americans‘ diets, according to the 2010
Dietary Guidelines for Americans. A high-sodium diet
can increase your risk for heart disease, kidney disease
and stroke, and healthy individuals should limit daily
intake to 2,300 milligrams per day. An ounce of reduced-
sodium cheese has only 4 milligrams of sodium ( Gashe,
1985).
Fermented cereal products (Injera Fermentation)
Injera is made using teff, a tiny, round grain that
flourishes in the highlands of Ethiopia. While teff is very
nutritious, it contains very little gluten (which makes it
poorly suited for the making of raised bread). However,
it still takes advantage of the inherent properties of yeast,
as fermentation lends it an airy, bubbly texture. Injera
may be made solely from teff, as it most commonly is in
Ethiopia, or it may be made using a combination of teff,
wheat, and other substitute flours, as it sometimes is in
the United States, yielding a formative batter which is
usually slightly thinner than conventional North
American pancake mix. Regardless of the ways in which
it is modified around the world, teff-bearing injera
constitutes a unique delicacy, and one for which the
worldwide demand increases each year (Tesfaye, 2017).
Fermented foods and beverages play a significant role in
most societies and major contribution in fulfil the protein
requirements of large population. There is a relation
between microbial diversity of food products and health
benefits. Cereals are most important sources of dietary
proteins, carbohydrates, vitamins, minerals and fibre for
people all over the world. Fermented foods have been
with us since humans arrived on earth. They will be with
us far into the future as they are the source of alcoholic
foods/beverages, vinegar, pickled vegetables, sausages,
cheeses, yogurts, vegetable protein amino acid/peptide
sauces and pastes with meat-like flavours, and leavened
and sour-dough breads. Fermentation improves the shelf
life, texture, taste and aroma, nutritional value and
digestibility and also lowers the content of antinutrients
of cereal products. All consumers today have a
considerable portion of their nutritional needs met
through fermented foods and beverages. There is a need
to encourage researches in the area of cereal-based
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fermented foods in direction of more mechanistic
approaches (Tesfaye, 2017).
Preparation procedures
Injera is thin, fermented Ethiopian dish made from grains
particularly, teff flour by mixing water and starter
(ersho), which is a fluid, saved from previously
fermented dough. Teff [Eragrostis tef (Zucc) Trotter] is
the most widespread grain for making injera, although
other grains such as sorghum, maize, barley, wheat and
finger millet are sometimes used. Teff has the largest
part of area (23.42%, 2.6 million hectares) under cereal
cultivation and third (after maize and wheat) in terms of
grain production (18.57%, 29.9 million quintals) in
Ethiopia (CSA, 2008). Due to its nutrition value, there is
an increasing concern in teff grain utilization. For
instance, the protein is essentially free of gluten. Gluten
is a protein found in wheat, rye, barley and some lesser
known grains (Tesfaye, 2017).
Involved microorganisms
Tef injera, a pancake-like acidic food is prepared from
fermented tef (Eragrostis tef), flour. A complex group of
microorganisms is involved in the fermentation.
Fermentation is initiated by members of the
Enterobacteriaceae. Their activities during the first 18 hr
of fermentation reduce the pfi of the dough to about 5.8.
They are then succeeded by Leuconostoc mesenteroides
and Streptococcus faecalis.
As the pH is further reduced to about 4.7, Pediococcus
cerevisiae, Lactobacillus brevis, Lactobacillus
plantarum and Lactobacillus fermentum become the
predominating flora and remain so until the fermentation
is terminated at 72 hr. These lactic acid bacteria are
responsible for the acidic characteristics of the dough.
Yeasts only appear in significant numbers at a later stage
of the fermentation (Gashe, 1985).
Nutritional value
Spongy, flat and dotted with tiny holes, injera is a
traditional African flatbread served in both Ethiopia and
Eritrea. Injera is served alongside various meat and
vegetable stews and is used to scoop up pieces of food
with your hands, as well as soak up the sauces part of
every Ethiopian and Eritrean meal. Made with teff flour,
a short fermentation period gives the bread its distinctive
sour taste (Michelle, 2017) (Table 1).
Macronutrients
A single serving of injera bread has 379 calories.
Because it is cooked in a pan with oil, there are 1.2
grams of fat per serving, although it has minimal
saturated fat, with only 0.2 grams per serving. When
cooking injera, use a mild-tasting cooking oil like
vegetable or grapeseed oil. A single serving of injera has
almost no sugar and almost 12 grams of protein.
Dietary fiber and sodium
A single serving of injera has 868 milligrams of sodium,
and 4.2 grams of dietary fiber. According to Colorado
State University, most Americans routinely get too much
sodium and not enough dietary fiber in their daily diets.
The upper limit of sodium per day is 2,300 milligrams
but only 1,500 milligrams for people who are over 51
years old, who have heart disease or are African-
American. In turn, between 21 and 38 grams of dietary
fiber is the dietary reference intake per day for adult men
and women.
Minerals in Teff
Teff — the tiny, poppy seed-sized grain used to make
injera — is rich in a variety of nutrients, providing those
from harsh growing conditions — flooding and droughts,
high altitudes — a source of many essential vitamins and
minerals. A one-quarter-cup serving of teff has 3.68
milligrams of iron, 87 milligrams of calcium, 206
milligrams of potassium, 207 milligrams of phosphorous,
89 milligrams of magnesium and 1.75 milligrams of zinc
per serving. All these essential minerals help your body
with various functions, including transporting oxygen
throughout your body, in the case of iron; maintaining
your heart‘s electrical activity; in the case of potassium;
and making it possible for you to taste and smell, in the
case of zinc.
Vitamins in Teff
Teff is rich in a number of essential vitamins, including
many from the vitamin B group and vitamins A and K. A
one-quarter-cup serving of teff has almost 0.2 milligrams
of thiamin, 0.13 milligrams of riboflavin, 1.6 milligrams
of niacin and 0.2 milligrams of vitamin B-6. It also has 4
international units of vitamin A and 0.9 micrograms of
vitamin K. Members of the vitamin B complex provide
support for your immune system, and help you process
carbohydrates into glucose. Vitamin A is essential for
eye health, as well as being a natural antioxidant,
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protecting your body from damage from free radicals,
created when your body digests food or encounters
environmental toxins, such as exhaust fumes. Toxins and
free radicals can cause cell damage and death, increasing
your risk of heart disease and cancer. Vitamin K is
known as the clotting vitamin, essential for blood
coagulation (Michelle, 2017).
Fermented meat (Wakalim)
Wakalim is a spiced traditional Ethiopian fermented beef
sausage. Early stages (0–12 h) of wakalim fermentation
were dominated by lactic acid bacteria and aerobic
mesophilic bacteria including staphylococci and
members of Enterobacteriaceae. Gram-negative bacteria
were below detectable level after day 4 of fermentation.
Staphylococci were detected at low levels (around 4 log
cfu/g) until the end of fermentation. Lactic acid bacteria
grew and dominated the flora at the end of fermentation.
Various species of Lactobacillus and Pediococcus
initiated the fermentation and the lactic flora was finally
dominated by Lb. plantarum1 and Ped. pentosaceus1.
The pH of the fermenting wakalim dropped from 5.5 ±
0.22 to 4.1 ± 0.19 while the titratable acidity increased
from 0.09 to 0.6% in the course of fermentation.
Moreover, moisture content of the fermenting wakalim
dropped from 66.5% ± 2.12 to 22.0% ± 0.71 during the 6
days of fermentation (Table 2). Molecular
characterization, using 16S rDNA partial sequence
analysis and repetitive sequence-based polymerase chain
reaction, of the isolates confirmed some of the earlier
phenotypic identification made based on API
carbohydrate fermentation profile. Some of the strains
were, however, identified as different species of the same
genus or entirely different genus. The findings of this
study are the first of their kind from traditional Ethiopian
fermented sausage and could have paramount importance
as a baseline data for large-scale production of the
traditional product using defined starter cultures.
Moreover, the strains characterized in this study could be
exploited as potential starter cultures for the
commercialization of wakalim ( Ketema Bacha, 2010).
Preparation procedures
First the meat and a few heads of onion are cut into small
pieces, and put into a vessel, where they are mixed with
several spices - cardamom, coriander. cinnamon, cloves,
chamomile, black pepper, cumin-seeds, and hurdinci.
These spices, ground into powder and with the addition
of a measured quantity of salt and red-pepper, are mixed
with the meat so that every piece of meat is well covered
with the powder. Next the tube or skin from intestine,
called maraci, is prepared. Usually the small intestine of
an ox makes the tube. This undergoes a series of
washings and cleanings. First the tube is turned inside
out and washed with ash in order to remove the dirt and
the slippery mucous from its wall. After this it is put into
a vessel of pure water and cleaned. Here the first
washing ends. The second washing is made with soap
and water, and again it is put into a vessel with fresh
water. The third and the last washing is with lemon and
salty water. By this time the tube has become white
membrane; it is turned right side out and tied at one end,
blown up with the mouth and the other end tied to make
a kind of bladder. This inflation causes the tube to coil
automatically. It is twisted around a cane and exposed to
the sun to dry for about one hour. After the skin is
completely dry it is cut into small pieces of about 9
inches long, which is the length of an average wakalim.
Then the spiced meat is forced into the tube with the
finger; when the skin is quite full it is bent into a U-
shape, and the two ends are twisted together to form a
closing. Sometimes while the meat is being inserted, the
tube breaks due to old age or to too much drying. To
avoid this the tubes are usually damped beforehand by
inserting them into the meat. When all the meat has been
used up and the wakalim are ready, they are taken to the
kitchen and strung on a rope stretched a little way above
the hearth so that they receive only the heat and not the
direct flame, otherwise the tube will crack. When
sufficiently warm the tubes are pricked here and there.
After some time moisture oozes from them and falls drop
by drop. This process of drying the wakalim does not end
in one day. It has to be repeated for three or four days.
Usually they are brought to the kitchen when the fire is
set for the preparation of lunch or dinner, and taken back
after that, or else the kitchen is locked. These precautions
are necessary as the young people love wakalim, and
would never miss the opportunity to steal one or two,
especially during a marriage feast. Now the wakalim
which has passed the stage of drying is ready to be eaten.
It is eaten either cooked or uncooked. If it is for an
official meal it is dipped into a dish of soup and cooked
for a few minutes. But if not an official meal it may be
roasted or taken raw. The young people prefer it
uncooked. It is believed that the wakalim can keep for a
long time, at least for several months, provided proper
care it taken of it. Firstly to avoid dampness it is
advisable to hang it on a rope. Secondly it should be
carried to the kitchen and smoked once every one or two
weeks. This action prevents it from spoiling.
Consequently it will keep for a long time. It is for this
reason that wakalim is considered as the best provision
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19
for pilgrims who go to the hagg. Lastly it should be made
clear that wakalim is not an every-day food, but is
prepared or served on notable occasions, such as the
marriage feast, Ramadan fast, Arafa feast and for the
pilgrims. It is essential at a marriage feast when it is
prepared in large quantity. At every meal to which the
bride is invited some wakalim as a customary rule should
be offered. Also it is impossible to think of a meal that is
sent, as is the custom, to the newly-married pair, without
a few wakalim added as a compliment (Ahmed, 2018).
Beverages (Tella, Shamita, Borde)
Tella
Tella is popular Ethiopian traditional beverages, which is
made from diverse ingredients. It is, by far, the most
commonly consumed alcoholic beverage in Ethiopia. It
is assumed that over two million hectoliters of tella to be
brewed annually in households and drinking houses in
Addis Ababa alone (Shale, 1991). Some of them
consider as local beer. It is traditionally drunk on major
religious festivals, saint‘s days and weddings.
Depending on the type of cereal ingredients used to
make, tella has different names: Amhara tella, Oromo
tella, and Gurage tella(Fite A, Tadesse A, Urga K, 1991).
Amhara tella has gesho (Rhamnus prinoides) and
concentrated. Gurage tella is delicately aromatized with a
variety of spices. Oromo tella has no gesho (R.
prinoides), and it is thick and sweet (Vogel, 1983).
Generally, tella is brewing from substrates such as
barley, wheat, maize, millet, sorghum, teff or other
cereals. The quality of tella is variable from local to
local, from individual to individual. Even within the
same individual, the quality is variable from time to time.
Preparation procedures
The way of making tella varies among the ethnic groups
and depends on traditional and the economic situation.
The clay container (insera) is washed with grawa
(Vernonia amygdalina) and water numerous times and
then smoked with wood from weyra (Olea europaea
subsp. cuspidate) for about 10 min, in order to get it as
clean as possible. Germinated grain of barley, or corn, or
wheat (bikil), bought in the local market or prepared at
home, are dried and milled. For making bikil, the grains
are moistened in water and the moist grains are placed
between fresh leaves, left to germinate for 3 days and
after that dried. Gesho (R. prinoides), local hops, is
available dried in the local market. The leaves of gesho
are separated from the stem and dried again in the sun for
about ½ h and then pounded. The ground gesho leaves
are placed in a clay container with water and left to
ferment for 2 to 3 days. Gesho is responsible for the
bitter taste of tella. It is also thought to be the source of
various chemicals (Shale, 1991; Kebede, 2006). It is
assumed that gesho maintains acidic pH during tella
fermentation so as to modify the nature of the mash and
impedes the growth of unwanted microorganism
(Kebede, 2006).
Some of the grains intended for tella preparation are
toasted and milled, and then mixed with water and baked
on the mitad to prepare what is known as kita (a thin, 5
to 10 mm thick, pancake- like bread). This kita, broken
into small pieces, part of the milled bikil and the
pounded gesho stems are added to the water and allowed
to ferment for 1 to 2 days. The rest of the flour is toasted
on mitad, sprinkled with water and toasted until dark
brown to form what is known as enkuro. This mixture of
enkuro, the rest of the germinated grains (bikil), some
gesho, and water are added to the container. The mixture
is kept covered overnight, after which more water is
added and the container is kept sealed for 5 to 7 days,
until when the beverage is ready. Tella can be kept for 10
to 12 days. According to Shale and Gashe (1991), who
made a detailed study of tella fermentation, there are
numerous recipes for preparing tella and it appears as if
every housewife has her own version of the recipe. The
fermenting organisms of tella are composed of S.
cerevisiae and Lactobacillus spp. Increase in ethanol
content [2.2 to 5% (v/v)] is directly associated with
growth in the population of yeasts and decrease in
reducing sugar and total carbohydrate. The pH of tella is
in the range of 4.5 to 4.8.
For tella considered to be a good quality, the final
ethanol content is in the range of 2 to 8% (v/v) and pH is
4 to 5. The biochemical changes, the microorganisms
involved in the fermentation and those which bring about
necessary and unwanted changes in the process of tella
making are described (Shale, 1991). According to the
report, the fermentation process of tella is divided into
four phases. The first occurs in the original mixtures of
ingredients, and the second and third phases occur after
successive additions of more carbohydrate materials. The
three main carbohydrate materials are mentioned to be
bikil, kitta and enkuro. The latter phase is where
acidification takes place, which is actually not desirable.
Maximum ethanol production occurs during the third
phase and at the beginning of the fourth phase. Shale and
Gashe (1991), reported that the extent of heat treatment
Int.J.Curr.Res.Aca.Rev.2019; 7(5): 13-27
20
the asharo (roasted barley) receives and the degree of
steaming the enkuro (roasted barley steamed after
grinding) is subjected to have the direct bearing on the
color of tella, which is determined by the housewife
preparing the tella. Tella is actually a beverage of
variable viscosity and having a variety of colors
(grayish-white to dark brown). Several samples of tella
and other traditional alcoholic beverages collected from
three regions of Ethiopia (Gojam, North Shoa, and Addis
Ababa) were analyzed for their ethanol, methanol, and
fuel oil contents by Fite et al., (1991). The mean values
for methanol, fuel oil, and ethanol were found to be 35
ppm, 66 ppm, and 3.6%, respectively.
Shamita
Shamita is another traditional beverage of Ethiopia,
which is low in alcohol content, made by overnight
fermentation of mainly roasted barley flour and,
consumed as meal-replacement (Ketema and Tetemke,
1999). Shamita is a widely consumed beverage in
different regions of Ethiopia. It has a thick consistency
and most people who cannot afford a reasonable meal
consume it as meal replacement. It is produced by
fermenting roasted barely overnight. Malt is not
commonly used in shamita fermentation, although local
shamita brewers in Addis Ababa use it frequently, and
starch is the only principal fermentable carbohydrate.
The microbes liable for fermentation are mostly from
back slopping using small amount of shamita from a
previous fermentation as well as from the ingredients and
equipment. Ready to consume shamita has a high
microbial count made up of mostly LAB and yeast.
These microorganisms make the product a good source
of microbial protein. However, shamita has poor keeping
quality because of these high numbers of live
microorganisms and becomes too sour about four hours
after being ready for consumption (Mogosie, 1995).
According to Anteneh et al., (2011c), study on
antagonism of LAB against foodborne pathogens during
fermentation and storage of borde and shamita, pure
LAB cultures decreased in average the number of test
pathogens by 4 log cycles at 24 h during fermentation
shamita. And also the mixed LAB cultures decreased the
number of pathogens by 5 log units after 24 h of
fermentation shamita. Coming to storage of shamita at
ambient temperature, the test pathogens were reduced by
4 log units at 12 h and totally eliminated at 24 h.
Therefore, they strongly suggest that the isolates are
possible candidates for the formulation of starter cultures
that can be used to produce safe and bioprotective
products (Anteneh and Tetemke, 2011).
According Mogessie and Tetemke, 1995, the pH of ready
to consume shamita in Awassa town was reported to be
4.2 and the product had high microbial counts (106 to
107 cfu/ml) consisting mainly LAB and yeasts. In a
microbiological study of shamita fermentation, In other
case Ketema et al., (1999), reported that all ingredients
and the clay jar rinse water had large numbers of aerobic
mesophilic bacteria (>104 cfu/ml) mainly consisting of
Bacillus and Micrococcus spp. Barley malt contributed
most of the LAB and yeasts, which were important to the
fermentation. They dominated the fermentation flora
reaching final counts of 109 and 107cfu/ml, respectively.
In line with this, according to Negasi et al., 2017, study
on in vitro characteristics of lactic acid bacteria isolated
from traditional fermented shamita and kocho for their
desirable characteristics as probiotics, the genera
Lactobacillus, Leuconostoc, Pediococcus and
Lactococcus were present in shamita. And also
Lactobacillus isolates were the most frequently isolated
groups from shamita.
Borde
Borde is a local beer mostly consumed by people in
southwestern parts of the country. It is considered as a
drink for people in the lower socio-economic status.
Borde is prepared by women from fermented maize,
sorghum, barley, or a mixture of the three. Borde can be
very thick and serve as a substitute for meals during long
trips. According to the villagers attitude borde is also
used for medical and ritual purposes. The users consider
that it enhances lactation and mothers are encouraged to
drink substantial amounts of it after giving birth (Kebede
et al., 2002).
Borde is produced by natural fermentation of a diversity
of locally available cereal ingredients. It is a gassy
whitish-grey to brown colored beverage with thick
consistency and sweet-sour taste. Fermentation of borde
has four phases marked by the introduction of
ingredients into the fermentation pot at different times. In
phase I (primary fermentation), maize grits were mixed
with water and left to ferment at ambient temperature in
a clean insira for 48-72 h. A portion of the fermented
grits from phase I (48 h) was roasted on a mitad into
enkuro, a well-roasted granular mass. Fresh malt flour
and water were carefully mixed by hand in a smoked
insira into a pale brown thick mash. This mixture is
Int.J.Curr.Res.Aca.Rev.2019; 7(5): 13-27
21
called tinsis and it was left to ferment for 24 h. A second
portion of the fermented grits from phase I (68 h) was
slightly roasted into enkuro, carefully kneaded with
mixed flour (wheat, finger millet and teff) and water, and
then moulded into stiff dough balls. The dough balls
were steamed into gafuma and then broken into pieces.
Pieces of cooled gafuma were blended with the
fermented tinsis and additional water in the same insira
to a thick brown mash called difdif. The difdif was then
allowed to ferment for 18 h.
The last portion of fermented grits from phase I (72 h)
was added into a pan containing a boiling mixture of
whole grains of sorghum and water, further boiled into a
very thick porridge with continuous stirring and then
cooled. The gelled porridge was added to the fermented
difdif, along with a small amount of additional malt.
After a thorough mixing, the thick brown mash was
sieved through a wonnfit (about 1 mm pore size). The
residues were then wet milled using traditional grinding
stones and sieved 2 times. The filtrates were pooled and
poured back into the same rinsed insira and the
fermentation was then continued for 6 h (after the
addition of porridge). Actively fermenting effervescent
borde was then ready for consumption. The production
of borde was repeated three times at room temperature
(20- 23°C) and the results are average of the triplicates.
In addition, preliminary experiments were carried out to
compare the following: (1) the 48 to 72 h fermentation
with 24 to 48 h at Phase I; (2) earthenware pot with
plastic, metal and glass jars; (3) substitution of maize
grits and sorghum grains with flour; and (4) roasting of
enkuro with baking of kita (flat bread) (Fig. 1 and 2).
Table.1 Nutritional information of yogurt (Priyanka Aswal, 2012)
Table.2 Microbiological ecology of Awaze (Asnake, 2012)
Int.J.Curr.Res.Aca.Rev.2019; 7(5): 13-27
22
Production of Different Types of Yoghurt
Figure.1 Processing of Yoghurt
Processing of Set and Stirred Yoghurt (Lucey, 2010)
Figure.2 Processing of Set and Stirred Yoghurt (Lucey, 2010)
Int.J.Curr.Res.Aca.Rev.2019; 7(5): 13-27
23
Flowchart.1 Preparation flowchart of cheese (―Milk Facts Info,‖ 2018)
Int.J.Curr.Res.Aca.Rev.2019; 7(5): 13-27
24
Flowchart.2 Procedures of Injera Preparation (Gebrekidan, 1982)
According to Kebede et al., (2002) report samples of
borde from open markets at five localities in southern
Ethiopia showed average aerobic mesophilic count
(AMC), LAB and yeast counts of 9.9, 10.1, and 8.1 log
cfu/g respectively. Enterobacteriaceae were <1 to 3.5 log
cfu/g. The pH was 3.92±0.14. During the traditional
production of borde with its four phases, the proportions
of ingredients and cooking temperature were measured.
Development of pH, titratable acidity, microbial load and
mash temperature were monitored at 6 h intervals. The
initial pH of 6.01 fell to 3.84 at end of Phase I. However,
the pH increased at the start of Phase II, III and IV
fermentations due to addition of malt and/or unmalted
cooked ingredients and then decreased to below pH 4.0
at the end of each phase. During Phase I, EB increased
from 5.1 to 7.7 log cfu/g at 24 h, but were not detected
after 48 h. AMC, LAB and yeasts increased from their
initial 6.5, 5.3 and 4.5 respectively to 10.5, 10.6 and 7.5
log cfu/g at end of Phase I. The AMC of cooked
ingredients were 4.6-4.9 log cfu/g, while
Enterobacteriaceae, yeasts and LAB were not detected.
Condiment (Awaze, Datta, Siljo)
Awaze
It is known that, fermented food, beverage and
condiment products are commonly produced throughout
the world. Some fermented products produce strong
flavor such that the product is not consumed alone, but is
added as a condiment to make the food more tasty and
enjoyable. In general, different countries of Africa
protein-rich food ingredients are often fermented to make
condiments. Siljo, awaze and data are among the
traditional fermented condiments in Ethiopia and are
consumed with other items on the basis of their desired
Int.J.Curr.Res.Aca.Rev.2019; 7(5): 13-27
25
aromas and flavors. Therefore, these condiments result
from the microbial fermentations of vegetable-spice
mixtures (Hesseltine, 1980).
The main substrates in awaze are red sweet pepper (C.
annum), garlic (Allium ursinum) and ginger (Zingiber
officinale) with which some proportions of different
spices are added. Awaze is commonly known in the
north and central Ethiopia and is often consumed with
sliced raw or roasted meat and other traditional pancakes.
While the microbiology and biochemical properties of
several other traditional Ethiopian fermented foods and
beverages have been studied (Gashe, 1985; Ketema
Bacha, 2009; Shale, 1991), there are no reports on the
fermentation of awaze, indigenous Ethiopian condiment.
However, a study on fermentation of awaze indicated
that the aerobic mesophilic microflora of the ingredients
of awaze was dominated by Bacillus spp. (1.1×106
cfu/g) and LAB (4.5×104 cfu/g). The counts of AMB
dropped during the fermentation period. LAB reached
the maximum count of 5.9×109 cfu/g at day 4 and the
count remained >108 cfu/g throughout the fermentation.
The heterofermentative LAB dominated until day 3;
thereafter, the homolactics dominated the fermentation.
Yeasts appeared at day 6 and increased to 2.5×106 cfu/g.
Hence, fermentation of awaze was accompanied by
declining pH and increasing titratable acidity.
In addition to this, Salmonella typhimurium was
repressed during the fermentation within 48 h. But awaze
had low initial contents of available protein and reducing
sugars and did not show marked differences throughout
the fermentation (Ahmed and Tetemke, 2001).
On the other hand, Asnake and Mogessie, 2010, studied
that LAB were enumerated and isolated from traditional
fermented awaze. According them, a total of 87 LAB
strains were isolated from awaze sample. Therefore, the
isolates were grouped to different genera with their
respective number: Lactobacillus (52), Leuconostoc (1),
Pediococcus (27) and Lactococcus (7). In line with this,
based on their glucose fermentation profile, the isolates
were grouped as homofermentative and
heterofermentative. However, the count of LAB for an
awaze sample was (9.8 log cfu/g).
Datta
Datta is among the traditional fermented condiments
mainly in the southern parts of Ethiopia and are
consumed with other items on the basis of their desirable
aromas and flavors. It is results from the microbial
fermentations of vegetable-spice mixtures. But the major
substrate in the making of datta is the small chili pepper
(C. frutescenc) at its green stage. Datta was also prepared
following traditional methods. The small green pepper
together with its seeds was carefully washed and cut into
pieces. Garlic and ginger, in small proportion, were
peeled, washed and cut into small pieces. The pepper,
garlic and ginger were mixed with small amounts of
fresh sweet basil and seeds of rue. The mixed ingredients
were manually wet-milled on a flat smooth traditional
stone-mill into a greenish paste. It was then transferred
into a 500 ml screw-cap bottle to ferment at ambient
temperature (20 to 25°C) (Tesfaye, 2017).
According to Ahmed et al., 2001 study in datta
fermentation, the count of AMB remained unchanged
during the fermentation. LAB initiated the fermentation
at a level of 7.1×104 cfu/g and reached 1.2×109 cfu/g at
day 7. The homolactic LAB started and dominated the
fermentation for the first 2 days and the heterolactics
took over thereafter. Datta fermentations were
accompanied by declining pH and increasing titratable
acidity. Salmonella typhimurium was repressed during
both fermentations within 48 h. Datta had low initial
contents of available protein and reducing sugars and did
not show marked differences throughout the
fermentation (Ahmed and Tetemke, 2001).
Siljo
Siljo is one of the traditional fermented condiments of
Ethiopia made up of safflower (Carthamus tinctorius)
extract and faba bean (Vicia faba) flour(Mogosie A,
1995). The black mustard powder, which is added after
cooking the mixture of the safflower and faba bean,
helps as source of starter microorganisms (Mogosie,
1995; Zewdie and Urga, 1995). The fermented product
has protein and fat content of 28 and 25%, respectively,
with improved protein availability and concentration as a
result of fermentation. The heating step in siljo may be
essential in decreasing the level of contamination, but
addition of plant materials, for flavoring purposes, to the
heated gruel during the process of fermentation, the
frequency of serving, and hygienic quality of handlers
are factors that contribute to the exposure of siljo to
pathogens. Siljo is consumed usually during the long
fasting periods when people consume no fatty food of
animal origin that may prevent the proliferation of the
pathogens (Shin and Suzuki, 2002).
Int.J.Curr.Res.Aca.Rev.2019; 7(5): 13-27
26
During the natural fermentations, the type of fermenting
flora is determined by the initial flora of the ingredients.
Thus, different workers have reported diverse
microorganisms to be liable for the fermentation of siljo
(Mogosie, 1995; Zewdie and Urga, 1995). In preparation
of siljo, a volume of 1600 ml of siljo was made from
safflower (Carthamus tinctorius), faba bean (Vicia faba)
and black mustard powder. This was divided into 4
screw-capped bottles, each containing 400 ml of the
gruel. The gruel was left to ferment naturally at ambient
temperature. At around 32 h of fermentation, peeled
garlic, ginger, Ethiopian caraway and rue leaves, about 2
g each, were added into each bottle and the fermentation
was allowed to continue at ambient temperature.
According to Eden and Mogessie (2005), siljo was made
to ferment naturally and the count of LAB reached 9.9
log cfu/ml on day 5. The pH dropped from an initial
value of 5.8–4.65 during this time. The lactic acid flora
was dominated by Leuconostoc spp. At ambient
temperature storage (18 to 22°C), the product spoiled on
day 16. The spoilage was caused by Bacillus spp. At
refrigerated storage (4°C) (Tesfaye, 2017).
In conclusion, fermented foods and beverages, whether
of plant or animal origin, play an important role in the
diet of people in many parts of the world. Fermented
foods not only provide important sources of nutrients but
have also great potential in maintaining health and
preventing diseases. Lactic acid bacteria and yeasts are
the major group of microorganisms associated with
traditional fermented foods. Yoghurt is a fermented dairy
product, having several health benefits. Yoghurt
properties can be enhanced by the addition or treatment
with various additives. Alternative methods to improve
quality of low-fat yoghurt become an area of
considerable research interest. Soymilk and maize steep
water were used as alternative raw materials to cow milk
and commercial starter, respectively, for production of
yoghurt. Ayib, a traditional Ethiopian cottage cheese, is a
popular milk product consumed by the several local
groups of the country. Injera is made using teff, a tiny,
round grain that flourishes in the highlands of Ethiopia.
While teff is very nutritious, it contains very little gluten
(which makes it poorly suited for the making of raised
bread). However, it still takes advantage of the inherent
properties of yeast, as fermentation lends it an airy,
bubbly texture. Injera may be made solely from teff, as it
most commonly is in Ethiopia, or it may be made using a
combination of teff, wheat, and other substitute flours.
Wakalim is a spiced traditional Ethiopian fermented beef
sausage. Tella is popular Ethiopian traditional beverages,
which is made from diverse ingredients. It is, by far, the
most commonly consumed alcoholic beverage in
Ethiopia. It is assumed that over two million hectoliters
of tella to be brewed annually in households and drinking
houses in Addis Ababa alone. Some of them consider as
local beer. It is traditionally drunk on major religious
festivals, saint‘s days and weddings.
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How to cite this article:
Chala Dandessa. 2019. Review on Ethiopian Traditional Fermented Foods, its Microbial Ecology and Nutritional
Value. Int.J.Curr.Res.Aca.Rev. 7(5), 13-27. doi: https://doi.org/10.20546/ijcrar.2019.705.004