Post on 17-Jun-2015
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Instrumentation: Liquid and Gas SensingReference Designs and System Applications
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Today's Agenda
Understand challenges of precision high impedance sensing applications
Electrochemical gas detection (CN0234)
Spectroscopy application using transimpedance amplifiers for photodiode preamplifiers (CN0312) Design problems
Low current measurement Noise Maintaining required bandwidth
Applications selected to illustrate important design principles applicable to a variety of high impedance sensor conditioning circuits
See tested and verified Circuits from the Lab® signal chain solutions chosen to illustrate design principles Low cost evaluation hardware and software available Complete documentation packages:
Schematics, BOM, layout, Gerber files, assemblies
Circuits from the Lab
Circuits from the Lab® reference circuits are engineered and tested for quick and easy system integration to help solve today’s analog, mixed-signal, and RF design challenges.
4
Complete Design Files on CD and Downloadable Windows Evaluation Software Schematic Bill of Material PADs Layout Gerber Files Assembly Drawing Product Device Drivers
Evaluation Board Hardware
System Demonstration Platform (SDP-B, SDP-S)
The SDP (System Demonstration Platform) boards provides intelligent USB communications between many Analog Devices Evaluation Boards and Circuits from the Lab boards and PCs running the evaluation software.
5
EVALUATIONBOARD
SDP-B
USB
POWER
USB
SDP-SEVALUATION
BOARD
POWER
SDP-S (USB to serial engine based) One 120-pin small footprint connector. Supported peripherals:
I2C SPI GPIO
SDP-B (ADSP-BF527 Blackfin® based) Two 120-pin small footprint connectors Supported peripherals:
I2C SPI SPORT Asynchronous Parallel Port PPI (Parallel Pixel Interface) Timers
6
Gas Detectors
Commonly used for industrial safety Area monitors permanently mounted near potential gas sources Portable detectors worn on worker’s clothing
Capable of detecting sub-ppm levels of toxic gases
Use infrared light, electrochemical sensors, heat, or a combination Multiple-gas detectors will typically have one sensor per target gas
7
Gas Detection Using Electrochemical Sensors
Typically used as toxic gas detectors Carbon monoxide, chlorine, hydrogen sulfide and other nasty industrial
chemicals Can detect down to sub-ppm levels of gas concentration Could have VERY long settling times (10s or minutes)
A potentiostat circuit is used to keep the reference electrode and working electrode at the same voltage by controlling the voltage at the counter electrode
A transimpedance amplifier converts the current in/out of the working electrode into a voltage
+
−
…To make the voltage between RE and WE 0V…
...and this current is proportional to gas concentration…
Inject currenthere…
8
CN0234: Single Supply, Micropower Toxic Gas Detector Using an Electrochemical Sensor
Circuit Features Low power gas detection 110 µA total current Buck-boost regulator for high
efficiency
Circuit Benefits Detects dangerous levels of gas Low power, battery operated
Target Applications Key Parts Used Interface/Connectivity
IndustrialMedicalConsumer
ADA4505-2ADR291 ADP2503 AD7798
SPI (AD7798)SDP(EVAL-CN0234-SDPZ)USB (EVAL-SDP-CB1Z)
EVAL-CN0234-SDPZ
ADAPTER BOARDTO EVAL-SDP-CB1Z
Industry-StandardFootprint
9
5V, AVCC 3.3V
AIN1(+)
AIN1(−)
AVDD
VIN VOUT
REFIN(+) DVDD
REFIN(−)GND
DOUT/RDY
DIN
SCLK
CS
AD7798
TOSDP
2.5V
46
5
C610µF
C110.1µF
C132.2µF
C120.1µFC10
22µF
R5100kΩ
R811.5kΩ
R7330kΩ
R636.5kΩ
R433Ω
AVCC
R31MΩ
R211kΩ
R111kΩ
R61kΩ
G
D
Q1MMBFJ177
S
G
D
Q2NTR2101PT1GOSCT
S
C50.02µF
C922µF
4
5
8
7
SW1
PVIN
VIN
EN AGND
SYNC/MODE
SW2
VOUT
FB
PGND
2
1
10
3
6 9
C40.02µF
C30.02µF
C20.1µF
C10.1µF
2.5V
GND
VREF
L11.5µH
ADP2503ACPZ
1
1CE
RE
WE2
3
U3
CO-AX
2
AGND
U2-BADA4505-2U2-A
ADA4505-2
U1ADR291GR AVCC
832 6
4
J2-1
J2-2
DGND 1
2B2
1
2B1
21
AVCC
2.5V TO 5.5VEXTERNAL
INPUT
L21k AT 100MHz
+
+
5VVCC
5VAVCC
CN0234: Single Supply, Micropower Toxic Gas Detector Using an Electrochemical Sensor
Total current consumption is 110 μA for normal operation (not including ADC).
P-Channel JFET keepsRE and WE shorted when circuit is powered off.
ADP2503 buck-boost regulates battery input or external power to 5 V
ADR291 generates 2.5 V to offset circuit for single supply operation
Efficient reverse voltage protection
ADA4505-2 has 2 pA max Input bias current and 10 μA quiescent current per amp
AD7798 provides differential input, and allows full evaluation of front end circuit.Can be in power down mode most of time @ 1 µA
0.16Hz BW
10
Gas Detection Using Electrochemical Sensors
Most instruments are portable, battery powered.
Low power consumption is absolute highest priority. Impractical to power down analog circuitry due to long sensor settling times. Bandwidth is less than 1 Hz, so micropower op amps are a good fit.
Typical accuracy of 1% to 5% is required.
11
CN0234 Features and Hints
Provides a convenient platform to experiment with electrochemical sensors
Sensor can measure up to 2000 ppm of carbon monoxide 2000 ppm of carbon monoxide will kill you, so test with less than 100 ppm
unless using a fume hood.
Electrochemical sensors’ offset is very sensitive to temperature and humidity Best practice is to calibrate with a known gas concentration periodically.
On-board 16-bit ADC allows evaluation of entire sensor circuit Using a 16-bit ADC results in high dynamic range without the need for
programmable gains.
10-pin header allows easy access to ADC’s serial port Easy to interface to your own microcontroller or Analog Devices' SDP board
using adapter board.
12
CN0234 Circuit Evaluation BoardEVAL-CN0234-SDPZ
SDP CONNECTOR
10-PIN FEMALECONNECTOR
10-PIN MALE CONNECTOR ON BOTTOM OF PCBSOFTWARE DISPLAY
Complete Design Files Schematic Bill of Material PADs Layout Gerber Files Assembly Drawing
EVAL-CN0234-SDPZ
ADAPTER BOARDTO EVAL-SDP-CB1Z
Industry-StandardFootprint
13
Spectroscopy and Colorimetry Fundamentals of Spectroscopy Signal Conditioning Synchronous Detection Photodiode Fundamentals Photodiode Preamp Design Challenges and Solutions
Bias Current Stability Noise
Programmable Gain Transimpedance Amplifiers (PGTIA) CN0312 Dual Channel Spectroscopy/Colorimetry Demo Board Illustrates a System Solution
14
Quick Intro to Spectroscopy
Spectroscopy is the study of the interaction of matter and radiated energy. Matter = liquids and gases Radiated energy = light
We can use spectroscopy techniques to answer two questions about an unknown sample:
What is it? How much is there?
Light after passingthrough a prism
15
What Is It? (Absorption Spectra)
All atoms and molecules have unique and well known spectra By measuring a material’s spectra, we can determine the chemical composition,
concentration, etc. No need to look at the entire spectrum—measuring a subset of wavelengths
may be sufficient
Absorption spectrum A sample absorbs light at specific wavelengths according to the compounds or
molecules present in it After obtaining the absorption spectrum of a sample, we can refer to libraries
containing thousands of spectrums for known substances
Absorption Spectra for Hydrogen
16
How Much Is There? (Beer-Lambert Law)Measure the Concentration
“ The [light] absorbed is directly proportional to the path length through the medium and the concentration of the absorbing species.” This works for gases or liquids.
c = Concentration l = Path length ε = Molar absorptivity
(Known constant for a given compound)
17
Beer-Lambert Law in the Real World …
In real life, whatever we are measuring needs to be in a container of some sort. The container walls will cause reflections, extra absorption, and light scattering,
making it impossible to apply the simple Beer-Lambert Equation.
To compensate for the effects of the container, we can compare the absorption between two containers. One container holds the sample, while the other container holds a known
substance (such as water, air, or whatever solvent was used to prepare the sample)
Instead of looking at the difference between transmitted and received light, we look at the ratio of light received through the sample cell, and light received through the reference cell.
18
So Where Is This Stuff Used Anyway?
Chromatography Gas Liquid
Spectroscopy Ultraviolet (UV) Visible (VIS) Near infrared (IR) Fourier Transform IR (FT-IR) Raman Fluorescence Atomic Absorption
Particle Analysis
Nondispersive Infrared (NDIR) Gas Detection
Colorimetry
Water Quality
Flame Detection
19
UV-VIS Spectroscope Sensor Signal Chain
Programmable gain transimpedance amp
AC couplingbuffering
Synchronous detector (full-wave rectifier)
24-bit sigma-delta ADC
Signal bandwidths tend to be < 5 kHz, but front-end op amp may have very high gain.
Liquid
20
Synchronous Detection in the Frequency Domain (Similar to RF Demodulation or Full-Wave Rectification)
It is equivalent to having a band-pass filter around the modulation frequency Unlike a discrete component band-pass filter, it can easily be made very narrow
at the expense of response time.
Using a square wave makes modulation very simple Noise at harmonics of the fundamental does not get rejected, so select
modulation frequency carefully!
21
Ultraviolet-Visible (UV-VIS) Sensor: “Large Area” Silicon Photodiode
Modeled as a light-dependent current source
Cj can be 50 pF to 5000pF depending on the size of the diode
Rsh can be from 500 MΩ to 5 GΩ at 25°C for different diodes
Rs is typically a few ohms and can be ignored for most calculations
Dark current is the amount of current generated when no light hits the photodiode Should ideally be zero, but increases with reverse bias voltage
CjRshId
Rs
Photodiode Transfer Function
Operating the photodiode with zero reverse bias results in the lowest dark current (photovoltaic mode) Manufacturers typically spec dark current at Vr = 10 mV
22
(a) (b)
PHOTODIODECURRENT
DARKCURRENT
PHOTODIODEVOLTAGE
SHORT CIRCUITCURRENT
SHORT CIRCUIT
VOLTAGE
LIGHTINTENSITY
idark
10mV
23
Measuring Photodiode Output
Photodiode voltage is very nonlinear with light input
Photodiode current is linear with light input Need to convert photodiode current to an output voltage
Transimpedance amplifier Current-to-voltage converter
Transimpedance "gain" = Rf In dB: 20log(Rf/1Ω)
24
Transimpedance Amplifier
Looks like a short to the photodiode
Photodiode current flows through the feedback resistor and is converted to a voltage
Ideally, ALL of the photodiode current goes through Rf In reality, all op amps have input bias current that introduces error to the output
Op amp offset voltage causes offset due to itself and to increased dark current
Op amps with pA-class Ib and low input offset voltages are typically preferred (usually FET inputs) AD8605 (1 pA Ib, 300 μV Vos), AD8615 (1 pA, 60 μV Vos),
ADA4817 (20 pA Ib, 2 mV Vos) AD549 (0.06 pA Ib, 500 μV Vos)
25
Transimpedance Amplifier Stability
Example Photodiode: Cs = 150 pF, Rsh = 600 MΩ
Op Amp: AD8615 Ib = 1 pA max (200 fA typical!), Cin = 9.2 pF, 24 MHz unity gain frequency
Assume Rf = 1 MΩ so 5 V out when Id = 5 μA
Rf and Cin form a pole in the open-loop transfer function
Don’t forget op amp’s differential and common-mode input capacitance!
Ci = CDIFF + CCM
1MΩ
150pF
9.2pF
26
Transimpedance Amplifier Stability
The amplifier has no phase margin It’s an oscillator, not an amplifier
The phase must be ‘a healthy distance’ away from 180° when the unity gain crosses 0 dB
To guarantee stability, design for 45° of phase margin Unless you KNOW you need less
phase margin, consider this a minimum 60° or more makes it easier to sleep
at night.
120dB
80dB
60dB
40dB
20dB
0dB
100dB
100Hz 1kHz 10kHz 100kHz
0°
180°
90°
p1f p2fcf
27
Transimpedance Amplifier Stability
Adding a capacitor in parallel with Rf introduces a zero to the open-loop transfer function and stabilizes the amplifier We want to guarantee at least 45° of phase margin
Using a larger Cf results in more phase margin
But also lowers the signal bandwidth. For now, select Cf = 4.7 pF
• Could go as low as 1 pF, but parasitic capacitances start to dominate
28
Compensated Open-Loop Gain
Phase Margin ≈ 85°Zero
29
Closed-Loop Bandwidth and Gain
f3db signal ≈ 34kHz
30
Transimpedance Amplifier Noise Sources
Major Contributors: Resistor Johnson Noise Current Noise Voltage Noise
1MΩ
4.7pF
31
Transimpedance Amplifier Resistor Noise
Feedback Resistor Johnson Noise Appears on the output unamplified
4.7pF
1MΩ
33
Transimpedance Amplifier Op Amp Current Noise
Op Amp Current Noise Appears on the output as a voltage
Multiplied by Rf
1MΩ
4.7pF
AD8615
50fA/√Hz
34
Transimpedance Amplifier Voltage Noise-1
Op Amp Voltage Noise Modeled as a voltage source on the + input Vout = Input Noise × Noise Gain
In a ‘DC’ circuit, the noise gain is equal to the noninverting gain.
1MΩ
4.7pF
AD8615
35
Transimpedance Amplifier Voltage Noise-2
Op Amp Voltage Noise Modeled as a voltage source on the + input Vout = Input Noise × Noise Gain
In a ‘DC’ circuit, the noise gain is equal to the noninverting gain. …actually, the noise gain is still simply the noninverting gain, it’s just that the noninverting gain is a function of frequency!
1MΩ
4.7pF
AD8615
36
Noise Gain vs. Signal Gain
Unlike other amplifier configurations, the noise gain is very different from the signal gain.
The op amp’s noise appears at the output multiplied by this gain (~35× at the peak)
1MΩ
4.7pF
150pF+9.2pF
AD86157nV/√Hz,24MHz GBW
24MHz
37
Op Amp Output Noise
To get the output noise in V rms, integrate the square of the noise density over frequency and take the square root.
Or take a shortcut!
Approximation: 254 µV rms
Using Integration: 266 µV rms (I dare you to do it by hand!)
38MHz
38
By the Way… Are FET Input Op Amps Always the Best Choice?
AD8615
FET
AD8671
Bipolar
In=50fA/√Hz
In=300fA/√Hz
LESS DRIFT
LOWER 1/F NOISELOWER VOLTAGE NOISE
HIGHER CURRENT NOISE
7nV/√Hz
2.5nV/√hz
INPUT VOLTAGE NOISE INPUT BIAS CURRENT
INP
UT
BIA
S C
UR
RE
NT
(p
A)
INP
UT
BIA
S C
UR
RE
NT
(n
A)
39
TIA Output Noise
The three main noise contributors are all Gaussian and independent of each other, so we can RSS them together
This is just transimpedance amplifier noise Johnson noise of photodiode shunt resistor, Rsh, is integrated over the signal
noise bandwidth: 1.57 × (1/2πRfCf). Negligible if Rsh >> Rf Shot noise of photodiode is negligible
Contributor Output Noise
Feedback Resistor 30 µV rms
Op amp Current Noise 12 µV rms
Op amp Voltage Noise 254 µV rms
40
Add Filter after Amplifier to Reduce Noise
Op Amp noise over large noise gain bandwidth dominates…
But the signal bandwidth is much lower Signal Bandwidth = 34 kHz
What if we simply add an RC low pass filter after the amplifier? Cut-off frequency similar to the signal
bandwidth
Reduce RMS noise from 256 µV rms to 49 µV rms with simple 34 kHz RC filter For the cost of about US$0.03 (assuming you
use expensive C0G caps!) If the output is going to an ADC, you may
also need to buffer it.
34kHz BW
1MΩ
4.7pF
41
The Need for Programmable Gain
The same equipment may need to test samples with very different light absorption. Almost-clear liquids like water or alcohol-
based solutions Very opaque liquids like petroleum-
based compounds Sometimes simultaneously Concentration ratios
Programmable gain amplifiers help increase the system’s dynamic range
VS.
42
System Output Noise
A good PGA will contribute very little noise when G = 1
When G = 10, the TIA noise is also amplified 10×
Limit the PGA bandwidth to reduce noise
43
Two Alternatives: TIA + PGA vs. PGTIA
TIA + PGA Traditional Photodiode Amplifier Programmable Gain Amp
Possibly Followed by ADC Driver
PGTIA Programmable Gain Transimpedance
Amplifier Lower Noise
44
An Alternative Architecture: PGTIA
For G = 1 MΩ and the same bandwidth, the noise remains the same
For G = 10 MΩ and the same bandwidth, the noise goes up about 3× (not 10×) Cf = 0.47 pF
Further noise reduction by adding a low-pass filter at the output Attenuate everything beyond the signal bandwidth
Do not have to consider additional errors due to a second amplifier
45
So, How Do You Build a PGTIA?
The basic idea:
Gain and frequency response depends on switch on and off impedance Changes with temperature, supply voltage, and signal voltage
C lp
Rlp
Rf
Cf
Rf
Cf
−+
46
Improved PGTIA
Kelvin switching Twice as many switches, but switch resistance does not matter very much. Looks like an op amp output with slightly higher output resistance
Rf2
Cf2
Rf1
Cf1
-+
CpCp
47
PGTIA: Frequency Domain Effects-1
Cp is typically less than 1 pF In our G = 10 MΩ example, Cf is only 0.47 pF
Even Cp = 0.5 pF can make a big difference!
Rf2
Cf2
Rf1
Cf1
-+
CpCp
48
PGTIA: Frequency Domain Effects-2
Cp is typically less than 1 pF
In our G = 10 MΩ example, Cf is only 0.47 pF
Even Cp = 0.5 pF can make a big difference!
Rf2
Cf2
Rf1
Cf1
-+
2*C p
Total Feedback Capacitance
2*C pCf12*C p+ Cf1
Cf2 +=
49
PGTIA: Adding More Switches-1
Adding a set of switches in series reduces Cp by half
Better, but what if you need more?
50
PGTIA: Adding More Switches-2
Even more switches to keep Cp away from the feedback path
51
PGTIA: Adding More Switches-3
Even more switches to keep Cp away from the feedback path
There is no free lunch! One switch in series with feedback path will affect the DC gain
But less than ~5 ppm for a typical 50 Ω switch and Rf = 10 MΩ.
2 pF here won’t do much of anything.
0.5 pF in series with Cf1 = <0.5 pF from In– to ground.This is negligible when compared with the photodiode’s 150 pF capacitance!
52
CN-0312 PGTIA Switch Configuration
ADG633 Ron ~ 50Ω
53
CN0312: Dual-Channel Colorimeter with Programmable Gain Transimpedance Amplifiers and Synchronous Detectors
Circuit Features Three modulated LED drivers Two photodiode receive channels Programmable gain
Circuit Benefits Ease of use Self contained solution Dual channel, 16-bit ADC for data
analysis
Target Applications Key Parts Used Interface/Connectivity
IndustrialMedicalConsumer
AD8615/AD8618AD8271ADG633, ADG733 ADR4525AD7798
SPI (AD7798)SDP (EVAL-CN0312-SDPZ)USB (EVAL-SDP-CB1Z)
EVAL-SDP-CB1Z
EVAL-CN0312-SDPZ
54
CN0312 Dual Channel Spectroscopy/ Colorimetry Demo Board
AD8615AD8615
AD8615AD8615
ADG733
ADG733
AD8271
AD8271
AD7798
ADR4525
55
CN0312 Addresses Challenges of Precision Photometry
Convenient platform for exploring programmable gain TIAs
Features Three square-wave modulated LEDs Two photodiode channels with selectable gain Hardware lock-in amplifiers AD7798 16-bit sigma-delta ADCs
J2 -J2 +
120 PIN SDP
LEDs
Beam-splitter
Reference Container
SampleContainer
D2
D3Photodiodes
(Notice correct orientation of
anode tab)
External6-12VDC120 PIN
SDP
EVAL-SDP-CB1Z
CON A OR
CONB
EVAL-CN0312-SDPZ
USB
PC
USB
EVAL-SDP-CB1Z
EVAL-CN0312-SDPZ
56
Summary
Many chemical analyzer applications are based on light and photodiodes.
Designing with photodiodes presents unique challenges: Photodiode’s large shunt capacitance makes the amplifier unstable, requiring
compensation Compensation reduces the signal bandwidth Reduced signal bandwidth may not be so bad (if you don’t need it!), since it
also implies lower noise gain Signal bandwidth is dominated by Rf and Cf Noise gain bandwidth can be much higher than the signal bandwidth, and
its magnitude is mainly determined by the ratio of the diode’s shunt capacitance
to Cf.
ADI’s amplifier portfolio allows you to customize a solution for very low input bias currents, low noise, and/or low drift, depending on each specific application!
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What We Covered
Gas Detection Using Electrochemical Sensors (CN0234) Gas detection fundamentals Electrical equivalent circuit Conditioning circuits
Spectroscopy and Colorimetry (CN0312) Fundamentals of spectroscopy Modulated laser light sources Photodiode receivers Synchronous demodulation Transimpedance amplifiers
Gain Stability Noise
Programmable gain transimpedance amplifiers
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Visit the Single Supply, Micropower Gas Detector Demo in the Exhibition Room
SDP CONNECTOR
10-PIN FEMALECONNECTOR
10-PIN MALE CONNECTOR ON BOTTOM OF PCBSOFTWARE DISPLAY
Complete Design Files Schematic Bill of Material PADs Layout Gerber Files Assembly Drawing
EVAL-CN0234-SDPZ
ADAPTER BOARD TOEVAL-SDP-CB1Z
Industry-StandardFootprint
This demo board is available for purchase: www.analog.com/DC13-hardware
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Visit the Dual Channel Spectroscopy/Colorimetry Demo Board in the Exhibition Room
Circuit Features Three modulated LED drivers Two photodiode receive channels Programmable gain
Circuit Benefits Ease of use Self contained solution Dual channel 16-bit ADC for data
analysis
Complete Design Files Schematic Bill of Material PADs Layout Gerber Files Assembly Drawing
EVAL-SDP-CB1Z
EVAL-CN0312-SDPZ
This demo board is available for purchase: www.analog.com/DC13-hardware
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Design Resources Covered in This Session
Design Tools and Resources:
Name Description URL
Photodiode Wizard Complete design tool for photodiode preamplifiers
http://www.analog.com/photodiode_wizard
System Demonstration Platform (SDP)
SDP provides easy data transfer and analysis of product and reference circuit boards
http://www.analog.com/sdp
Signal Chain Designer™ Complete engineering design environment
http://www.analog.com/scd
AD7798 Tools Tools, software, and simulation models http://www.analog.com/en/analog-to-digital-converters/ad-converters/ad7798/products/product.html#product-designtools
Ask technical questions and exchange ideas online in our EngineerZone™ Support Community
ez.analog.com
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Part Number Description
ADA4505-2 Micropower Rail-to-Rail I/O Dual Op Amp
ADR291 Micropower 2.5 V Voltage Reference
ADP2503 2.5 MHz Buck-Boost DC-to-DC Converter
AD7798 3-Channel 16-Bit Low Power Sigma-Delta ADC
AD8615/AD8618 Precision Single/Quad Rail-to-Rail Input/Output Op Amp
ADG633 CMOS, ±5 V/+5 V/+3 V, Triple SPDT Switch
ADG733 CMOS, 2.5 Ω Low Voltage, Triple SPDT Switches
AD8271 Programmable Gain Precision Difference Amplifier
ADR4525 Ultralow Noise, High Accuracy 2.5 V Reference
Selection Table of Products Covered Today
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References-1
Circuit Notes CN0234, Micropower Toxic Gas Detector Using an Electrochemical Sensor
www.analog.com/CN0234
CN0312, Dual Channel Colorimeter with Synchronous Detection and Programmable Gain Transimpedance Amplifier www.analog.com/CN0312
CN0272, 2 MHz Bandwidth PIN Photodiode Preamp with Dark Current Compensation www.analog.com/CN0272
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References-2
Mini-Tutorials MT-047, Op Amp Noise
www.analog.com/MT-047 MT-048, Op Amp Noise Relationships: 1/f Noise, RMS Noise, and Equivalent
Noise Bandwidth www.analog.com/MT-048
MT-049, Op Amp Total Output Noise Calculations for Single-Pole System www.analog.com/MT-049
MT-050, Op Amp Total Output Noise Calculations for Second-Order System www.analog.com/MT-050
MT-059, Compensating for the Effects of Input Capacitance on VFB and CFB Op Amps Used in Current-to-Voltage Converters www.analog.com/MT-059
MT-088, Analog Switches and Multiplexers Basics www.analog.com/MT-088
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References-3
Textbooks
Sensor Signal Conditioning, Analog Devices, 1999, Chapter 5 www.analog.com/high_impedance_sensors
Hamamatsu Opto-Semiconductor Handbook http://jp.hamamatsu.com/sp/ssd/tech_handbook_en.html
Greame, Jerald. Photodiode Amplifiers: Op Amp Solutions. McGraw-Hill, New York, 1995.