Post on 28-Oct-2018
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Images of 'African Leadership and Management in Organisation Studies: Tensions, Contradictions and Re-visions
Professor Stella M. Nkomo Graduate School of Business Leadership
University of South Africa Pretoria 0003 South Africa
Work phone: 27 11 652 0365 Fax: 011 652 0299
Email: nkomosm@unisa.ac.za
Inaugural Lecture University of South Africa
7 March 2006
Do not cite or quote without permission of the author.
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Introduction
This paper is the product of a reflective process instigated by a specific event: my
anxiety about whether twenty years of teaching leadership and management in the United
States would serve me well in South Africa, my new home. That anxiety evaporated when I
arrived five years ago only to learn there was little adjustment required since the texts
prescribed for the modules assigned to me were all from the United States and more than
familiar. Despite the momentary relief, engagement with my students was unsettling. Not
only was Africa invisible in the texts and materials for the module, the prescriptions were
inadequate for the kinds of questions students raised. For the past four years, I have been
thinking deeply about Africa and leadership and management, especially the project of writing
‘African1 leadership and management’ into the field of organisation studies.2
The interest in this project is heightened by the urgency of the issues faced on the
continent. Transformation and change are dominant themes on the African continent today as
leaders in Africa seek ways to address the persistent challenges of poverty, illness, and
unemployment. Initiatives like NEPAD and the African Union reflect a growing belief among
African leaders that Africa must solve its own problems and look for answers from within.
Effective leadership and management are viewed as critical elements to facilitate successful
change for the continent.
Within organisation studies, theories of leadership and management have generally
omitted the voice of the racial ‘Other’ whether it is Africans or other non-Western perspectives
(Cox & Nkomo, 1990; Nkomo, 1992; Prasad, 1997; Prasad, 2006). The West has defined
whether, where, and how these ‘Others’ were supposed to exist; to be seen or to be ignored
(Said, 1979). The result has been stereotyped images of the ‘Others’ including Africa and the
solutions to its development challenges. Western leadership and management discourse has
1 African leadership and management is placed in quotes to indicate the discomfort with reducing a large, diverse continent to a single label as well as to denaturalise the idea of ‘African’ 2 Organisation studies has its proximate historical roots in the socio-political writings of nineteenth century thinkers, such as Saint Simon, who attempted to anticipate and interpret the nascent structural and ideological transformations wrought by industrial capitalism (Reed, 1996). Organisation studies today generally refers to many and varied approaches to the study of organisations. There are a number of subjects of study that fall under this broad umbrella (e.g. leadership theories, strategic management, etc.).
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typically set up its authorial subjects as the implicit reference and yardstick by which to
encode and represent cultural ‘Others’ (Mohanty, 1984).
In an extensive review of extant leadership theory, House & Aditya (1997) reported
98 percent of leadership theory emanates from the United States and has been developed
primarily by studying American leaders. Yet, leadership theory is largely represented as
universal. Minnick (1990) points to faulty generalisation or nonexclusive universalisation as a
significant error in the production of knowledge. The error occurs when one group (American
leaders) is studied but the knowledge generated then represents the whole concept—
leadership. This point can be further illustrated by the use and non-use of prefixes. The prefix
‘American’ is suppressed when we speak of leadership theory, yet we find ourselves having
to attach the prefix ‘African’ to any discussions of leadership in Africa.
This paper focuses on two questions: (1) How is ‘African leadership and
management’ portrayed in organisation studies literature? (2) What are the possibilities for re-
writing ‘African leadership and management’ in organisation studies? The latter question is
explored within a broader discussion of current trends in leadership theory. The paper is
ultimately concerned with problems of representation and identity: of how difference is
represented both in the sense of representation as depiction and representation as speaking
for (Gunew, 1998). Altogether, this paper surfaces some key tensions and contradictions if
‘African leadership and management’ is to be re-written into organisation studies.
Methodology
In my search for African leadership and management, I reviewed the organisation
studies literature. Articles and texts to address my questions were found through
computerized library searches using the following electronic databases: Academic Search
Elite, ABI/Inform Global, and Emerald. Additionally, reference sections of major organisation
studies texts, literature review papers and edited volumes were searched for any reference to
African leadership and management. Books focusing on ‘African leadership and
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management3 were also reviewed. Five of the most well-known management and leadership
textbooks were also scrutinized. 4
An analysis of the literature reviewed reveals tensions between stereotypical colonial
images of ‘African leadership and management’ and proposed counter-images that often
reflect the excesses of cultural relativism. One of the challenges of posing alternative views is
the danger of romanticing the “Other’ and the uncritical acceptance of these new perspectives
(Ghandi, 1998). Finding alternatives between colonised images and counter-images is not an
easy one. This paper problematizes the dilemma recognising that the question of cultural
identity is continuously being formulated and reformulated within an increasingly global
context within Africa. This suggests more than one narrative is needed to avoid essentialising
'African leadership and management.’
'African Leadership and Management’ in Organisation Studies Literature
All of the texts uncovered were reviewed to identify images and representations of
African leadership and management. An overall impression is the general scarcity of texts,
materials and reference to Africa in organisation studies. In terms of reference to specific
African leaders, Nelson Mandela is frequently cited as an example of extraordinary
transformational leadership or portrayed as the epitome of servant leadership. President
Mbeki is given as an example of rigid leadership in Barbara Kellerman’s book Bad
Leadership. She defines a rigid leader as: “Although they may be competent, they are unable
or unwilling to adapt to new ideas, new information, or changing times” (Kellerman, 2004: 41).
Shaka Zulu is used by well-known leadership scholar Manfred Kets de Vries to demonstrate
the nature of despotic leadership in his book Lessons on Leadership by Terror: Finding
Shaka Zulu in the Attic.
In addition to these few references to African leaders, other representations fall into
four broad categories. First, there is work that appears under the general rubric of what I refer
to as the African management development. This body of literature focuses on the need for
capable leadership and management in Africa. The second stream of work falls within the
3 These books include works by Christie, Lessem, & Mbigi, 1993; Edho (2001); and Mbigi (1997; 2005).
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body of literature on national culture that has become quite prominent in organisation studies
in recent years. These texts examine ‘African leadership and management’ in the context of
describing Africa’s national culture primarily within Geert Hofstede's (1980) seminal typology.
The third category consists of representations of ‘African leadership and management’ that
appear in discussions of precursors to management theory in popular management textbooks
(e.g. Griffin 2005). Finally, there is a small but growing body of literature on African
management philosophy. Each of these streams is discussed more fully.
African Management Development. In this body of literature, the portrayal of
African leadership and management is one of deficiency and incapacity (e.g. Kiggundu, 1991;
Safavi, 1981; Waiguchu, Tiagha, & Mwaura, 1999). One of the earliest published articles on
this theme was published in the Academy of Management Review (one of the top journals in
the field of organisation studies) in 1981. Safavi (1981: 319) argues that "the inability of
African nations to train capable managers for major institutions has been the main inhibitive
factor to real economic and social development." Unequivocal statements like, "Unfortunately,
the African civil service has lost the capacity to manage" appear in the text.
Safavi (1981) offers a model of management education in Africa based on an
extensive review and analysis of management development in 57 countries and territories of
Africa. The author admits painting a rather gloomy picture of management education in
Africa. His model underscores the conflict between African reality (i.e. culture, limited
resources, poverty and under education) and the use of Western knowledge in management
development (i.e. Western concepts and assumptions in the design of management
education). In a similar fashion, Kiggundu (1991) also points to the lack of high-level
managerial skills as one of the main reasons for Africa's underdevelopment and lack of
economic, social, and political progress. In his article, he also offers proposals for
management development content and processes in Africa. Ironically, although the authors
tend to point to the legacy of colonialism in the underdevelopment of managerial talent and
the inappropriate fit between African contexts and Western ideas of management and
administration, their prescriptions call for more Western ideas and approaches to
management. For example, Kiggundu (1991) calls for the development of skills in strategic
4 These texts are: Griffin, R. W., 2005; Robbins, S. 2004; Hellriegel, D. & Slocum, J. 2004; Lewis, P
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management, negotiation, resource development and utilisation, operations management,
production and administration, and cross-cultural interactions and communications. They also
use Western benchmarks for their evaluation of ‘African leadership and management’. As
Jackson (2004) notes, these scholars often end up perpetuating the binary categories of
developed vs. developing and reinforce Western management and leadership as the solution
to complex social, economic and political problems.
Leadership and Management Literature on National Culture. Representations of
‘African leadership and management’ can also be found in the expanding body of research on
national culture in the organisation studies literature. The underlying argument of this work is
the observation that U S theories of leadership and management may not apply outside the
borders of the United States because of differences in national culture. One of the most
pervasive models of this research has been the work of Geert Hofstede. Hofstede (1993:89)
defines national culture as, “The collective programming of the mind which distinguishes one
group or category of people in a nation from another.”
In a 1993 article, Hofstede makes reference to Africa in a section labelled
"management transfer to poor countries." Specifically, he writes:
There is a broad regional pecking order with East Asia leading. The little dragons have passed into the camp of the wealthy; then follow Southeast Asia (with its overseas Chinese minorities), Latin America (in spite of the debt crisis), South Asia, and Africa always trails behind (emphasis mine). (Hofstede, 1993: 87).
A table in the text of the article is quite telling (see Table 1). In the table, he lists the
national culture dimensions scores of ten countries. ‘West Africa’ is listed as one of the ten
countries (the other countries listed are USA, Germany, Japan, France, Netherlands, Hong
Kong, Indonesia, Russia and China). There is no footnote indicating ‘West Africa’ is a region
of a continent and not a country, leaving one sceptical of Hofstede’s awareness of the error.
This error reflects a general tendency in the literature on national culture. While authors
argue for particularism and uniqueness of national cultures, often-broad generalizations
prevail. This is particularly evident in reference to Africa. The cultural identity of a single
country or a few countries is taken to represent the whole. The recent seminal Globe Study
of 62 nations conducted by Robert House and a group of international scholars also reflects
Goodman, S. & Fandt, P. 2003; and Yukl, G. 2002.
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this tendency, not only in regard to Africa but generally. There is reference to the culture of
‘sub-Saharan Africa’ when only five African countries are included in the study (House,
Hanges, Javidan, Dorfman, & Gupta, 2004; Javidan, Stahl, Brodbeck & Wilderom, 2005).
According to this body of knowledge, African culture has high power distance (the degree of
inequality among people which the population of a country considers as normal); values
collectivism, avoids uncertainty, and a strong humane orientation. A major problem here is
the homogenization of Africa overlooking the diversity of cultures within countries and across
the continent.
‘African leadership and management’ in Management Textbooks. The
management textbooks reviewed also make reference to management in Africa although not
explicitly (e.g. see Griffin, 2005).5 The representations most often appear in sections
discussing management history and its origins. Typically, the reference is to the building of
the great pyramids in Egypt as an example of the existence of management in antiquity. For
example, the text found in the 8th edition of Management authored by R W Griffin (2005:42)
reads: "The practice of management can be traced back thousands of years. The Egyptians
used the management functions of planning, organizing and controlling when they
constructed the pyramids."
George's (1968:4-5) publication, The History of Management Thought, offers a more
telling in-depth discussion of Egyptian management:
The building of the pyramids with a technology that would be considered primitive by modern standards, affords us testimony of the managerial and organisational abilities of ancient Egypt. . . The managerial planning of where the stones were to be quarried, when, what size, and how they were to be transported required the practice of what today might well be called long-range planning. . . By using masses of labour the Egyptians were able to accomplish tasks that astonish us. While their system of organisation may appear unwieldy, cumbersome, and even wasteful, they actually had no reasons to economize on labour since more peasants, mercenaries, and slaves were always available simply for the asking . . . We find also that the Egyptians were aware of sound managerial practices and principles. They understood and appreciated, for example, managerial authority and responsibility, and they recognized the value of spelling out job descriptions in detail.
The text has an undertone of astonishment in the degree to which management
existed in Egypt. He continues, "If control via records and paper is the hallmark of an
5 Griffin notes in the preface to the 8th edition that more than a million students have used the textbook since 1984 in preparation for their careers in business.
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advanced civilization, the Egyptians of the New Empire would have to be considered civilized
indeed” (George, 1968:8). Other than the reference to Egypt, 'African' management is largely
invisible in management textbooks. What is problematic is the notion that management
practised in Egypt was "pre-scientific." Discussions of ‘precursors to management theory’ in
the texts are typically followed by a formal treatment of management theory as represented
by classical management theory and scientific management theory (e.g. Griffin, 2005:42). In
these texts, there is no reference to the other great ancient civilizations in Africa (e.g.
Timbuktu, Songhai, Empire of Mali, and Mapungubwe).6 Riad (2005) would suggest this is
consistent with the tendency to position ancient Egypt as the only country on the African
continent relevant to the recorded history of all knowledge.
African Management Philosophy. In the last few years a body of literature has
arisen in response to Africa's relegation to the margins of global considerations of leadership
and management as well as practice. This field of study has become known as African
management philosophy. Edoho (2001:74) defines African management philosophy as:
The practical way of thinking about how to effectively run organisations--be they in the public or private sectors--on the basis of African ideas and in terms of how social and economic life is actually experienced in the region. Such thinking must be necessarily interwoven with the daily existence and experience in Africa and its contextual reality.
Proponents of African management philosophy argue that Africa's effort to engineer
authentic development will continue to be unsuccessful until endogenous leadership and
management systems are established and institutionalised (Anyansi-Archibong, 2001; Blunt &
Jones, 1997; Edoho, 2001; Kamoche, 2000; Mangaliso, 2001; Mbigi, 1997, 2005; Ngambi,
2004). The call for indigenous approaches to management and leadership falls within the
broader cry for an African Renaissance that seeks to reclaim the aesthetics and identity of
Africans (Makgoba, 1999; Mbeki, 1998; Mudimbe, 1988; Nzelibe, 1986). It is also consistent
with postcolonial theory that calls for the colonized to re-claim a culture of their own, a history
of their own, aesthetics of their own, all based on an essence of their own, free from and
independent of the images of the 'Other' (Said, 2002; Prasad, 1997; Mohanty, 1984; Ghandi,
1998; Spivak, 1990).
6 Diop, C. A. 1987. Pre-colonial black Africa. .Westport, CT: Lawrence Hill & Company.
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A major question driving the field is: If Africa was better managed in the past, what
went wrong and how can it be reclaimed? Colonialism is identified as the culprit for the often
corrupt and ineffective management of organisations in many African countries. The
underlying belief is that if indigenous African management and leadership can be reclaimed
and reinstutionalised in Africa, there would be a positive effect on resolving significant
problems of poverty, economic stagnation and development.
The emergent voices of African management philosophy are responding to the
historical domination of Eurocentric leadership and management practices in Africa (Horwitz,
2002; Jackson, 2004; Thomas & Schonken, 1998). Scholars argue that these practices are
inadequate because leadership and management challenges in Africa are embedded in a
very different cultural, political, economic and social context ( Blunt & Jones, 1997; Jaeger,
1990; Jackson, 2004). They also critique the stereotypical portrayal of Africa as primitive and
the assumption that there is little to be learned about leadership and management from Africa
(Mangaliso, 2001).
Beginning with the work of Nzelibe (1986), a number of articles and books have been
written arguing for a rejection and/or limitation of Western management thought and practice
in Africa and the adoption and incorporation of African philosophy into management (Anyansi-
Archibong, 2001; Edoho, 2001; Khoza, 2001; Mbigi, 1997, 2005; Ngambi, 2004). Blunt &
Jones (1997) assert it is unrealistic to suppose the Western functional paradigm of human
resource management--transformational leadership applies in Africa, which has a totally
different cultural and economic context. The belief that colonialism brought management to
Africa is rejected by these scholars. In fact, these scholars argue the importation of scientific
management (Taylorism) and European notions of administration and bureaucracy disrupted
and essentially clashed with African management thought and practice. Nzelibe (1986: 9)
states:
Development of the principles of management was marred, however, by contact with the Western world, contact marked by decades of economic exploitation, social oppression and the importation of scientific management, all of which have left acute problems for management today.
Kiggundu (1991) suggests that during colonisation the various colonial powers first
destroyed or denigrated local institutions and management practices, and then replaced them
with their own colonial administrative systems out of the belief in Western cultural, biological
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and technological superiority over Africans. Indigenous perspectives were ignored or
devalued (Afro-Centric Alliance, 2001). Africans were developed only to the extent of carrying
out lower level administrative tasks as civil servants in colonial governments. Higher-level
management skills of Africans were not developed because they were not expected to
assume managerial responsibilities. As a result, at the independence of many African states,
few Africans were trained to assume high-level management positions in modern post-
colonial states (Kiggundu, 1991; Rodney, 1974). Dia (1996) argues that many of Africa’s
problems today are due to a structural and functional disconnect between informal,
indigenous institutions rooted in Africa’s history and culture and formal institutions mostly
transplanted from outside.
Proponents of African management philosophy look to the history of Africa and the
presence of indigenous knowledge systems that resulted in effective management during the
pre-colonial era (Edho, 2001; Kiggundu, 1991; Ngambi, 2004; Nzelibe, 1986). Describing
management systems during the pre-colonial period remains problematic because of the
scarcity of written documentation of such systems. However, this has not prevented scholars
from offering descriptions of ‘African leadership and management’ systems. In offering such
descriptions, scholars draw heavily from the literature in African studies and writings of
African historians (e.g. Davidson, 1991; Mazrui, 1986).
How are the basic dimensions of ‘African’ management and leadership described in
these writings? While writers often point to the vast diversity of Africa, the focus is on offering
generalised descriptions of ‘African’ management. Whereas Western management thought is
said to advocate Eurocentricism, individualism and modernity, ‘African’ management thought
is said to emphasize traditionalism, communalism, co-operative teamwork, and mythology.
Traditionalism has to do with the adherence to accepted customs, beliefs and practices that
determine accepted behaviour, morality and characteristics of individuals in African society.
In African societies, the family is positioned as the basic unit of socialisation. African families
are portrayed as close knit and extending far beyond the nuclear family unit concept dominant
in the West. The family system is viewed as the basic building block of any organisation in
African societies. The communalism of African management emanates from the belief that the
individual is not alone, but belongs to the community. As a result emphasis is placed on
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teamwork and the group. According to African management thought, leaders and managers
should focus on promoting the welfare of the entire group and not the individual. Edoho
(2001) also argues that communalistic life is the centerpiece of African personality and is
distinctively African. Accordingly, traditional African societies had the capacity to share and
care not just for their immediate families but also for their extended families (Edoho 2001:81).
Some scholars go so far as to suggest this sense of community consciousness and
group belongingness explain the widespread practice of nepotism in modern business
organisations in Africa (e.g. Nyambegera, 2002). Kinship also helped to cement relationships
across different administrative hierarchies (Kiggundu, 1991).
Nzelibe (1986) argues that certain basic, traditional values, assumptions and
principles guide African management thought. He points to the elaborate administrative and
managerial procedures dating back to antiquity that enabled many kingdoms in Africa to
complete significant large-scale projects. Africa's ancient empires in Ghana, Mali and
Songhai, and Oyo are given as historical evidence of the existence of effective management
systems and leadership. The principles of authority and delegation of power of the Obas, the
powerful ruling class from the empires of Benion and Ife, are held up as examples of ancient
management concepts. Nzelibe (1986) also points to the building of the great pyramids and
palaces of Egypt as evidence of the existence of the effective ‘African leadership and
management’. Kiggundu (1991) reports that typical administrative systems were relatively
small in size, homogenous in terms of membership, used local technology and indigenous
knowledge systems, and co-existed in relative harmony with the environment. He also
portrays African management as highly personalised and authoritarian derived from conquest
and special relationships with the supernatural. Routine decisions were delegated, but the
person at the top controlled key decision making and implementation processes. However, it
is said that most states had "constitutional" procedures for removing unsuitable rulers.
In contrast, Blunt & Jones (1997) offer a comparison between Western leadership
ideal and leadership in Africa. African leadership is described as authoritarian, paternalistic,
conservative, and change resistant.
Scholars typically point out that before colonialisation most African countries were
made up of small clans and kingdoms. Power was centralized around one or more kings and
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regional clan chiefs (Mutabazi, 2002). The success of a leader (whether head of a family, clan
or kingdom) lay in his capacity to listen well and to put the community's interest first (Ngambi,
2004). Future heads/chiefs were taught to examine social issues and their effects on the
community (Mutabazi, 2002). Each clan leader enjoyed a certain amount of autonomy. They
learned from experience how to represent and defend community interests without provoking
the anger of the high king of other clans.
Mutabazi (2002) identifies what he calls ‘common social principles in African
leadership’. These principles were generated from a detailed study of fifty interviews with
experts of local traditions--ex-village chiefs, religious chiefs, company executives, and
professors of history and human sciences from several countries7. According to Mutabazi
(2002:207-209), these principles are: concept of life as a universal current which suggests
leaders recognize their position in the never ending cycle while helping others to identify
theirs--life is greater than individuals and groups; human connection to nature--one of the
primary tasks of leaders is to establish harmony with their community and environment;
vertically organized moral order and human relations is generally not characterised by the
development of technical skills but the gradual adoption of a philosophy of universal
fellowship.
Ezzamel (2004) offers an extensive discussion on work organisation in ancient Egypt.
Unlike the cursory treatments described in many management textbooks, Ezzamel (2004)
produces an authoritative account of work organisation that pushes back concepts of division
of labour, administration, and accounting to Ancient Egypt and not classical management
theory.
African management thought is also said to be characterised by a strong belief in the
individual's relation to nature and supernatural beings and connections between the individual
and ancestors (Mbigi, 1997; 2005). Nzelibe (1986:12) argues that the continuity from the
material to the spiritual is the universal basis of African management thought.
One specific doctrine of African culture has been particularly valorized in the South
Africa. Scholars point to the philosophical thought system known as Ubuntu, which embodies
the beliefs, values, and behaviors of a large majority of the South African population.
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Mangaliso (2001:24) defined Ubuntu as " humaneness--a pervasive spirit of caring and
community, harmony and hospitality, respect and responsiveness--that individuals and groups
display for one another. Ubuntu is the foundation for the basic values that manifest
themselves in the ways African people think and behave towards each other and everyone
else they encounter." Ubuntu is seen as an important value of African culture that can form
the basis of a management truly congruent with the peoples of Africa. Furthermore,
proponents argue Ubuntu can be parlayed into the practice of management for competitive
advantage not just but for Africa but universally (Mbigi, 2005; Mangaliso, 2001). Mangalilso
(2001:32) asserts:
Incorporating Ubuntu principles in management hold the promise of superior approaches to managing organisations. Organisations infused with humaneness, a pervasive spirit of caring and community, harmony and hospitality, respect and responsiveness will enjoy more sustainable competitive advantage.
Accordingly, Ubuntu implies a management approach emphasizing teamwork,
attention to relationships, mutual respect and empathy between leader and followers, and
participative decision-making. However, and importantly, Mangaliso (2001) cautions against
wholesale acceptance of all African customs and practices. Much of the writing on Ubuntu is
prescriptive and largely lacks research depth. African management philosophy relies heavily
on the past which points to the difficulty of articulating a distinctive conceptualization of
contemporary indigenous African culture (Jackson, 2004).
Tensions and Contradictions
Although the literature review demonstrates the scant attention given to Africa in
organisation studies, it reveals representations of 'African leadership and management’ as
well as the tensions and contradictions associated with writing Africa into the study of
leadership and management. In the end, the review raises more questions than answers,
problematizing the search for an 'African' approach to leadership and management. It is
necessary to raise Spivak's (1988) famous question, ‘Can the subaltern speak?’ Postcolonial
theory underscores the larger problem that in the context of hegemonic Western leadership
7 The author refers to the following countries: Nigeria, Ivory Coast, Congo, Senegal, Rwanda,
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and management knowledge production, the 'African' cannot speak unproblematically. In
their efforts to cancel the negative images and/or invisibility of Africa, African management
proponents often end up repeating the very errors they hope to erase.
Ironically, the representations of 'African' leadership and management’ in Western
texts as well as its alternative, African management philosophy, show a tendency to
essentialize 'African' culture. African culture is largely portrayed as static and
undifferentiated. Whether it is descriptions of Africa's national culture in the management
literature or the alternative conceptions of African culture by mostly African scholars, 'African
culture' is portrayed as a homogeneous concept. They offer certain beliefs and values that all
African people share. Paradoxically, most often they analyze their own country's culture but
then go on to use it as an exemplar of ‘African beliefs and values’ (Hallen, 2002). Similar to
proponents of national culture theory, African management scholars also suggest every
culture must have some sort of philosophy of life or worldview that can be objectively
described (Hallen, 2002). For example, Nnadozie (2001:56) in offering advice on
‘managing African business culture’ systematically compares African and American cultural
dimensions using Hofstede's theoretical framework. Nnadozie (2001) offers what he calls,
'Africa's most common cultural characteristics’ (See Table 2). Critical scholars of African
philosophy contest the portrayal of African culture as fundamentally symbolic and ritualized.
Hallen (2002), for instance, argues that these two overworked characterizations convey the
impression Africa's indigenous peoples express beliefs and values through symbols and
ritualized behaviour rather than discursive verbal statements. Hallen (2002) offers the
example of how misconceptions of time in African culture linger in spite of detailed critiques
of the works in which the idea first appeared. Unfortunately, it is proponents of an alternative
nonperjorative portrayal of African culture who often repeat these misconceptions. For
instance, Nnadozie (2000: 56) states, "Africans have a more relaxed attitude toward time than
Americans do. They consider time as flexible not always firm, hence the so-called ‘African
time’.”
Should it be taken for granted that all of Africa's cultures share certain core concepts,
values and beliefs? Wright (2002) points out that culture is not an object--it is not purifiable.
Democratic Republic of the Congo, Burundi, Uganda, Tanzania, Kenya, Mali, Ghana, Benin, etc.
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Thus, it cannot be understood to be pure. In a discussion of the difficulty of defining the
'African', Wright (2002:2) argues, "Identity (especially group identity) does not have a single
point or moment of origin but is always being constructed and identity is not given and fixed
but rather is constantly re-produced in and as performance.” The idea of identity as always in
motion contradicts some of the discursive practices of African management scholars and the
essentialist ways in which 'African' is invoked in their writings.
Proponents of African management philosophy often end up using the binary systems
dominant in Western, positivist management approaches. There is a tendency to present
African culture as largely inherited from the past, preserved relatively unchanged in the
present (Hallen, 2002). This suggests culture is seen as static and unchanging and ignores
the influence of context and time. The general approach of re-claiming the past creates a past
greatness/present backwardness binary that reinforces lingering images of Africa as the
hopeless continent (Fanon, 1968).
Hallen (2002:5) offers the following thought:
If Africa's cultural heritage is to come to terms with the latter-day problems of modern nation-states in a globally international community, then African social, political and economic demands upon and priorities within that community also must have to be enunciated and addressed.
In sum, there is a danger in romanticising Africa and 'African leadership and
management’—essentializing African culture, denying evidence of the influence of
globalisation and the multiculturalism of the continent.
Possibilities for Re-visioning and Re-writing ‘African Leadership and
Management’
Spivak’s (1990) crucial caveat that it is naïve and overly simplistic to believe that the
margins have simply asserted themselves in relation to the centre and come to voice. She
reminds us that, in fact, the margins are being heard at the centre primarily because the
margins have been called up to speak by the centre. A quote by Ian Parker (1992:5) also
points to the difficulty and challenge of re-writing ‘African leadership and management’:
“Language is so structured to mirror power relations that often we can see no other ways of
being, and it structures ideology so that it is difficult to speak both in it and against it.” How
then are we to articulate and explore 'African leadership and management? The re-writing
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project is even more daunting because of the instability of leadership theory itself. Leadership
is a discipline that is plagued by competing theories and empirical inconsistencies. This is so
much the case that I tell my students, “If you are not confused, then it means you do not
understand the literature.” Since the 1940s, there has been an enormous body of writing on
leadership within organisation studies. Yet, there is little agreement on what counts as
leadership, whether it can be taught, or even if it really makes a difference to how well
organisations perform. Despite these hurdles, the next section of this paper suggests
possibilities for re-writing African leadership and management.
First, there is a need to challenge not only Western notions of Africa in the literature
but also simple constructions of African leadership and management, always questioning
essentialising tendencies in favour of multiple formulations of ‘African’ culture, leadership and
management. Referring to ‘African leadership and management’ as singular may conceal
considerable variation and complexity. The notion of a homogenous African leadership or
management may be just as dangerous as the idea of a universal theory of leadership.
Spivak (1988) questions whether the possibility exists for any recovery of a subaltern voice
that is not a kind of essentialist fiction. Scholars must continually recognise the difficulty of
constructing ‘African leadership and management’ unproblematically given the persistence of
its inevitable heterogeneity. In other words, it is important to avoid reconstructing the
subaltern as merely another unproblematic field of knowing (Odora-Hoppers, 2002).
Africa is a large continent with vast cultural diversity, which makes it difficult to
propose a totalising conception of leadership and management. Jackson (2004) in stark
contrast to the call for a universal African leadership and management approach argues for a
cross-cultural approach given the intercontinental diversity of Africa. Furthermore, the few
empirical studies of leadership and management in various African countries suggest diversity
not uniformity. For example, Jackson (2004; Jackson, 2005) reports significant differences
among managers' values and beliefs in several countries. Within South Africa, studies of
leadership and managerial behaviour have reported inconsistent results with some studies
finding significant similarities in perceptions of national culture among South Africa's various
race and ethnic groups (Thomas & Bendixen, 2000) while others report differences (e.g.
17
Booysen, 2001; Littrell & Nkomo, 2005). The point is we don’t have enough empirical
evidence to reach a conclusion.
Second, in the search for African leadership and management one must appreciate
the extent to which globalisation has and continues to affect 'African' identity. Research by
the Afro-Centric Alliance (2001) concluded that ambivalence about self-promotion and social
motivation may be a reflection of globalisation pressures. While traditional values of social
motivation and salience of the group still existed in the Malawian and Tanzanian work groups
studied, there was also the pull of individual achievement. The authors call for a contingency
approach to organisation change and management in these two countries. Contingency
approach here does not refer to the contingency approach as defined in the management and
leadership literature but instead for recognising the huge diversity of the continent as well as
considering specific cultural contingencies for Africa. They call for more research and
evidence that articulates Malawians’ and Tanzanians' own perceptions about what kind of
organisational development and management they would like to see. This observation
resonates with a major current in leadership theory: the need to expand the unit of analysis in
leadership research. Overwhelmingly, leadership theory has focused on the leader—his/her
characteristics and motivations (Howell & Shamir, 2005). Followers have been mostly treated
as passive objects. More research is needed to understand followers—what are the values,
beliefs and identities of workers and employees? What are their conceptions of good
leadership?
Yet, at the same time, it is important to grapple with the difficult question of leader
identity.8 Ultimately, the question of African leadership is inevitably about identity. Can one
lead apart from one’s values, beliefs, and understanding of the world and others? One
method of probing the difficult issue of leader identity and its influence on leadership style is a
life story and narrative approaches. Scholars argue we know or discover ourselves, and
reveal ourselves to others by the stories we tell about ourselves (Lieblich, Tuval-Mashiach &
Zilber 1998). Shamir, Dayan-Horesh & Adler (2005) argue a leader’s life story can be an
important source of information about the leader’s self-concept and its influence on how/she
8 There is a growing body of work demonstrating the complexity of identity in South Africa. For example, see Booysen, A. E. 23 June 2005. Social identity changes in South Africa: Challenges
18
leads others. The stories leaders tell about themselves may convey important insights into
not only their identities but their leadership practices and justification thereof. One of the
most recent currents in leadership theory is authentic leadership. Although there is no
consensus on the definition of authentic leadership, authentic leaders are viewed as those
who are deeply aware of how they think and behave and are perceived by others as being
aware of their own and others’ values/ moral perspectives, knowledge, and strengths; aware
of the context in which they lead and manage (Avolio, Gardner, Walumbwa, Luthans & May
(2004:4).
Third, we need to diversify the very ways we approach the study of leadership and
management in Africa. There is a need for greater emphasis on emic approaches and
qualitative methodologies that do not begin with comparative questions like: Do ‘African’
leaders have similar leadership behaviours to Western leaders? An example of an emic
approach is found in a study of kinship, culture and organisation among the Maasai people in
Northern Kenya. Nicholson (2005) used an ethnographic field study to explore the relationship
between social structure and leadership. He conducted in-depth interviews with a range of
elders, warriors, women and children, asking questions relating to the intersection of kinship,
culture and organisation. Nicholson found clarity and uniformity define a strong culture,
minimalism yields harmony, collectivism has to be culturally reinforced, a service ideal can be
cultivated at all levels of a social system, and alternative models of leadership, power and
authority can operate simultaneously.
However, there is currently a predilection for etic and quantitative studies in our major
research journals. Together with two colleagues, I recently reviewed research published in
South African management journals from 1994-2004. The following journals were included in
our study: South African Journal of Business Management, South African Journal of Labour
Relations, South African Journal of Industrial Psychology, South African Journal of
Management Sciences, Management Dynamics and the Southern African Business Review.
All of these journals appear on the Department of Education list of accredited journals. We
found the majority of management research published in South African journals over the past
decade used quantitative methods. Only 5.9 percent of the studies utilised qualitative
Facing Leaders. (Inaugural Lecture, UNISA). Distiller, N. & Steyn, M. 2004. Under construction:
19
methodologies. Perhaps more instructive than the results of the investigation were the
comments made by one of the reviewer. He/she indicated uncertainty about whether theory
building only comes through qualitative research and wondered why we want to build theory
from South Africa when it would only be inferior at best.
Theory building research within the local context is critical to the development of
leadership and management knowledge. Qualitative methodologies assume a value-laden
approach because data are collected and interpreted within the context in which it is
generated. Such methodologies explicitly recognize the embeddedness of leadership practice
in the culture, economic, technological, and social relations of a society. This is not to suggest
we abandon quantitative studies. To accelerate the development of African leadership theory,
it may well be worthwhile to dissolve the boundaries between qualitative and quantitative
methods and turn our efforts to their intellectual integration rather than separation. This
strategy is consistent with Carlie & Christensen's (2005) recent work on cycles of theory
building in management research. They posit a model of theory building in which researchers
build theory cumulatively as they work through descriptive and normative stages. The
inductive portion of the theory building process is best facilitated by qualitative methods while
quantitative methods are required in the deductive portion of the cycle to test the hypotheses
that have been inductively formulated (Beaty, Nkomo & Kriek, 2005).
Finally, we live in a world of quantum physics which allows us to move away from
binary constructions, and accept yes/no and either/or can exist simultaneously (Ntuli, 2002).
The search for ‘African leadership and management’ should draw upon the past but must also
inevitably be rooted in the present. The answers to finding leadership and management
approaches for helping Africa to solve its problems may be lying right under our nose. We
need to accelerate the production of descriptive studies of leadership on the continent. For
example, South African organisations have undergone unprecedented change over the last
ten years. In the process, we have living examples of how to lead and not lead second order
or transformational change. Preliminary results of my research on change leadership in
South Africa suggests many leaders firmly recognise Dia’s (1996) observation that to perform
effectively, organisations have to be both rooted in the local context and culture and open to
‘Race’ and identity in South Africa today. Johannesburg: Heinemann.
20
outside challenges and influences. We have examples of leaders who are tackling and
succeeding in the difficult task of addressing local issues while managing the pressures of
global competition. We have examples of leadership that embraces a humanist approach to
leading and managing others. Most of these experiences may be lost if we do not begin this
type of writing project today. If not, we risk allowing Rudi Giuliani, Jack Welch and Lew
Gestner to be the authoritative voices on change leadership not just in the United States but
also in South Africa (witness their dominant presence on the shelves of our major
bookstores). This does not mean we should hasten to adopt the heroic leadership model of
the West. In the end, I believe the results of studies of change leadership in South African
organisations will not only assist other leaders but will inform theoretical knowledge about
leading change in organisation studies, opening up new spaces for understanding its
complexity.
My journey to understand how ‘African leadership and management’ has been
studied and portrayed in organisation studies has surfaced tensions and contradictions. I
have come to realise that articulating and writing about ‘African leadership and management’
is ultimately about wrestling with questions of identity. Identity cannot be understood as static
or fixed. The truth is it will not be easy to offer a simple alternative to counter the domination
of Western notions of leadership in Africa. As Stuart Hall (1996:4) eloquently states identities
are:
About questions of using resources of history, language and culture in the process of becoming rather than being, not "who we are" or "where we come from" so much as what we might become, how we have been represented and how that bears on how we might represent ourselves.
The re-writing project and search for ‘African leadership and management’ is then not
for a return to some golden age, but also for the transformation to a new future of a very
different kind, a self-reflexive praxis, a way forward that is achievable through an involved,
humane, and responsible leadership that fosters human development, the collective good,
and societal possibilities (Odora-Hoppers, 2002: ix).
21
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Table 1
Culture Dimensions Scores for Ten Countries PD = Power distance; ID= Individualism; MA= Masculinity; UA = Uncertainty
Avoidance; LT =Long Term Orientation H = Top Third, M = Medium third; L = Bottom Third
Country PD ID MA UA LT
USA 40L 91H 62H 46L 29L Germany 35L 67H 66H 65M 31M
Japan 54M 46M 95H 92H 80H France 68H 71H 43H 86H 30*L
Netherlands 38L 80H 14L 53M 44M Hong Kong 68H 25L 57H 29L 96L Indonesia 78H 14L 46M 48L 25*L
West Africa 77H 20L 46M 54M 16L Russia 95*H 50*M 40*L 90H 10*L China 80*H 20*L 50*M 60*M 118H
*estimated
Source: Hofstede, G. 1993. Cultural Constraints in Management Theories. Academy of Management Executive 7 (1): 91.
28
Table 2
Africa's Most Common Cultural Characteristics
High Social Inequality
Respect for Hierarchies, Title and Age
Importance of Personal Connections and Relationships
The Collectivist Nature of African Socieities
Male Domination
The Preference for Harmony to Conflict in Dealing with Uncertainty
Time Flexibility (African Time)
Emphasis on Tradition and Honor
Increasing Corruption in Some African Countries
Disregard for the Law in Some Societies Due to Lack of Enforcement
The Positive Work Ethic That Goes Along with Low Productivity
Source: Emmanuel Nnadozie (2001, p. 55-56). Managing African Business Culture. In F. M. Edoho (Ed), Management Challenges for Africa in the Twenty-First Century: Theoretical and Applied Approaches. Westport, CT: Praeger.