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Greg Van BurenResearch Paper
Implications of Language Variation in Written Japanese
AbstractThis article describes results from a reaction test of Japanese speakers attitudestoward word choice, kango and wago . Trends were seen in the results, providing somesupport to the hypotheses that (1) respondents will judge the writer of the kango text tobe male more often than they do the author of the wago text; (2) Respondents will judgethe writer of the kango text to be older than the author of the wago text; (3)Respondents will judge the writer of the kango version to be more educated than theauthor of the wago text. However, due to a limited number of test subjects, signicantdifferences were not present, with the exception of the author s age.
Introduction
!! Language usage can be used to identify a speaker as belonging to a particular
group, or having a particular social identity (Guy 1988: 37). Guy initially looked at
differences in language usage regarding pitch difference; men speak at a different pitch
from women and children at a different pitch from adults (37). He goes on to talk about
differences in phonology, grammar and lexical choice (37). Differences in language are
known to be tied to social dimensions. And the primary dimensions which sociolinguists
have studied include: social class, age, sex, and style (Romaine 1994: 67- 69).
" Early studies on the topic concluded that variation in language occurs in a
random and unpredictable manner, termed 'free variation' (Romaine 1994: 68). Labov's
study (1966) in New York city, however, showed that free variation "was not free, but
rather conditioned by social factors such as social class, age, sex, and style in
predictable ways" (Romaine 1994: 68-69). The use and ultimate variation of language is
predictable due to certain "sociosymbolic aspects of language use [which] serves an
emblematic function: identifying the speaker as belonging to a particular group, or
having a particular social identity" (Guy 1988: 37). Le Page (1978, as cited in Walters
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1988: 131) states the individual creates for himself the patterns of his linguistic
behavior so as to resemble those of the group or groups with which from time to time he
wishes to be identied, or so as to be unlike those from whom he wishes to be
distinguished. "
" According to Hamilton et al. (1992: 102), language is a primary vehicle for
communication and while the aforementioned researchers spoke of differences in
spoken language, written language must also be included when looking at variation.
Japanese Lexicon
" The Japanese lexicon is made up of three major vocabulary strata, consisting of
native Japanese words ( wago ), Sino-Japanese words ( kango ), and foreign loanwords
(gairaigo ) (Yamaguchi 2007: 40). Maynard states that, yamatokotoba (wago) is more
appropriately used to express emotion and feelings (1998: 15). This is corroborated by
Yamaguchi (2007: 40) citing no (1974: 6) stating that, basic concepts in our everyday
life often fall under native Japanese words. These are contrasted with the larger
vocabulary of Sino-Japanese words whose precision and analytical quality tend to be
used to express abstract scientic concepts (Yamaguchi 2007:40). There is a more
specic meaning encoded in Sino-Japanese [promoting] the accuracy of the word
meaning (Yamaguchi 2007: 49). For these reasons casual speech...shows restricted
use of kango while an academic thesis uses kango more abundantly (Maynard 1998:
15). However, while there may be conventions for when a certain word choice is made,
different discourse genres use varying levels of mixture of these two types of
vocabulary (Maynard 1998: 15). None of the foregoing present any actual counts of
vocabulary, but conventional wisdom has it that kango is associated with impersonal
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(scientic, academic) language while wago is more prevalent in emotional (personal,
spoken) discourse.
Script Relationship! Smith & Schmidt (1996: PG) state that, Nomura (1988) and others have detailed
the trend for wago to be encoded in hiragana while kango... [are] to be written, to a
greater degree, [in] kanji. They go on to state that the texts used for their research
reected by this trend lexicon drives the script, since it is less likely for kango to be
encoded in kana script than in kanji (PG). While a word written in kanji does not
automatically indicate a kango word, a trend does exist.
" According to Satake (1989, as cited in Smith & Schmidt 1996: 60) there exist
certain stereotypes with each script. Table 1, below, shows these stereotypes. As seen
from the table the appearance of kanji stereotypically is associated with erudite, middle-
aged males. Hiragana on the other hand, is associated with softness, youth and
femininity. What does this mean sociolinguistically speaking?
" While kango does not have to been written in kanji the trends indicate that such
is the case. Inversely, wago tend to be written with a combination of hiragana and kanji.
From this one can extrapolate that if kanji use is associated men, then kango words are
also associated with men and knowledge.
TABLE 1. Script Stereotypes (Smith & Schmidt 1996: 60)Script Stereotypes Writer/Reader Features Stylistic Features
Kanji male, middle-aged and older erudition
Hiragana female, young softness or femininity
Katakana young, especially male modernity; pop culture
Romaji young, especially female commerciality
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"
" The purpose of the present study was to test Smith and Schmidt s
generalizations, and to examine how readers perceive texts with greater occurrence of
Sino-Japanese morphology as opposed to texts with greater occurrence of Japanese
morphology.
" This pilot study tested three hypotheses: (1) respondents will judge the writer of a
kango text to be male more often than they do the author of a wago text; (2)
respondents will judge the writer of a kango text to be older than the author of a wago text; (3) respondents will judge the writer of a kango version to be more educated than
the author of a wago text.
MethodParticipants
" The participants of this study were 30 native Japanese speakers, 18 male and 12
female, from a Japanese university studying abroad at an American university. Whenthe study was conducted participants time in the United States ranged from three to
nine months. The sample is therefore considered to be relatively homogenous.
Participation in the study was voluntary and no compensation was given. Subjects were
asked to read one of two versions of a modied text.
Materials
Text
" An article from The Nihongo Journal was modied and used for the study. The
changes to the original article were done in order to further accentuate the usage of the
kango and wago . Two versions of the text ( kango and wago ) resulted from the changes
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made to the original article. Wago words, in the original version, were changed into
kango words for the kango version and inversely, kango words were changed into wago
words in the wago version. The two versions of the text were checked by a native
Japanese speaker in order to minimize differences in meaning between the wago and
kango counterparts, however, slight differences may still exist. The three versions of the
article (original, modied toward kango, and modied toward wago) are contained in
Appendix 1. The modications can be seen in Table 2.
" After reading one of the two versions participants answered a questionnaire on
what they read. The questionnaire (Appendix 2) was used to determine native speakers
impressions of characteristics of the author. Questions were asked regarding the
author's age, gender, educational level and personality traits. For the age, gender, and
completed education section of the questionnaire, distinct choices were offered to the
participant. They were asked to circle the answer they agreed with most. However, for
the personality trait portion of the questionnaire participants rated the degree to which
they felt the author possessed certain qualities on a 5-point Likert scale (1 in strong
favor of the 'left' term and 5 in strong favor of the 'right' term).
Procedure
" The participants were given either a wago or kango version of the text and a
questionnaire. Subjects were asked to complete the questionnaire and return it to the
researcher during a group gathering. (All activities took place in Fall 2008.) Participants
were instructed that in the case they were unable to decide on an answer to skip the
question. (Few respondents took this option; almost all questions had responses.)
TABLE 2. Text Modications
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Original Version Wago Version Kango Version(kib) - 'wish' (nozomu) - 'to wish
for'(kib) - 'wish'
(ryok) - 'trip' (tabi) - 'trip' (ryok) - 'trip'
(irai) - 'request' (tanomu) - 'to request' (irai) - 'request'(ks) - 'daydream' (yumemiru) - 'todream of'
(ks) - 'daydream'
(otona) - 'adult' (k) - 'big' (otona) - 'adult'(shin) - 'new' (ataras) - 'new' (shin) - 'new'
(man'in) - 'crowded' (komu) - 'to becrowded'
(man'in) - 'crowded'
(shitagau) - 'to obey(the rules)'
(shitagau) - 'to obey(the rules)'
(jyunsyu) - 'adherence(to the rules)'
(hikiukeru) - 'totake up'
(hikiukeru) - 'totake up'
(jyucy) - 'acceptorder'
(arawareru) - 'toa ear'
(arawareru) - 'toa ear'
(syutsugen) -'a earance'
ResultsAnalysis " Results of the responses were statistically analyzed using chi square ( ) and
analysis of variation (ANOVA). Due to the low number of participants (n=30) the p value
calculated from the chi square test was an approximation, which when compared to the
p value calculated from ANOVA proved to be quite inaccurate. For all tests a value of
0.1 was used. To compensate for the small sample size 0.1 was used instead of the
typical 0.05. This study looked for tendencies, not exact percentages; for this a value
of 0.1 serves the purpose. In order to achieve a value of 0.05, a sample size of at
least 377 is recommended (Raosoft, Inc. 2004). The analysis assumed a null
hypothesis - that no differences between the groups existed and an alternate hypothesis
that differences between the groups existed.
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" The rst question of the questionnaire asked participants to judge the age of the
author. Results (Table 3) show a p < 0.1 and a F value greater than the F critical value.
This indicates that with 90% condence there are differences between the two groups
(wago and kango ). Based on the averages of the two groups it can be stated that
readers of the wago version chose the author to be in 21-30 year old age range and the
author of the kango version to be in the 31-40 year old age range. This result bears out
hypothesis (2), that readers will judge the author of the kango version to be older.
TABLE 3. Age (nenrei)
[1 = Under 20, 2 = 21 - 30, 3 = 31 - 40, 4 = Over 40]
TABLE 4. Gender (seibetsu)[1 = Female, 2 = Male]
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The results from question 2 (Table 4), regarding the gender of the author, show a p >
0.1 and a F value to be less than the F critical. From this result the null hypothesis was
rejected and we must therefore accept that there is no perceived gender difference
between the wago and kango authors. Therefore hypothesis (1), that readers would
judge the kango author to be male, was disproved. Neutral language usage could be a
possible explanation for results not supporting this hypothesis. Neutral language usage
refers to both a possible equality trend in language conventions: certain language is not
associated with a particular group, as well as other language used throughout the
article. The stereotypes mentioned in Smith & Schmidt s article, while only about 10
years old, may have changed slightly resulting in universal expectations. Also, due to a
limited number of modied words in the article, the unmodied words may have reduced
or completely cancelled out the effects of the attempted kango/wago emphasis.
" Contrary to the stereotypes in Smith & Schmidt's (1996: 50) and Iwahara et. al's
(2003: 381) studies which showed that kanji was associated with erudition, the question
regarding the author's education level (Table 5) showed no difference between the two
groups of readers. This conclusion is based on p = 1 and F = 0, meaning no differences
surfaced. Regarding hypothesis (3), that more readers would view the kango author as
more educated, the results did not bear out this hypothesis. The original article was
written by either a professional writer or by someone with writing experience. A skillful
writer would present the topic in a clear and concise fashion, making understanding of
the article easy as possible for the reader. Limited word changes in the article may not
change how the reader perceives the author because the established, easy to
understand structure of the article has not been modied.
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" Tables 6 through 21 (Appendix 3) show the results from the personality trait
section of the questionnaire. The responses show no signicant differences between the
wago and kango reader groups ( = 0.1). The closest question to reject the null
hypothesis was question 4p (Appendix 2) regarding the author's race. With a p value
slightly greater than 0.1 the differences could not be condently claimed. However, the
trend seems to show that kango is chosen to represent a Japanese author more than a
foreigner, although the results fail to support this with condence. Results for question
4p can be seen in Table 21 (Appendix 3).
Conclusion! In this study, three hypotheses were tested: (1) respondents will judge the writer
of the kango text to be male more often than they do the author of the wago text; (2)
Respondents will judge the writer of the kango text to be older than the author of the
wago text; (3) Respondents will judge the writer of the kango version to be more
educated than the author of the wago text. In response to the rst hypothesis, while one
'female' response was noted, the difference between the two groups was not signicant
(p > 0.1). An increase in the number of participants in the survey might have produced
more 'female' responses from the wago readers, however, in this study there existed no
differences. While the text was considered neutral in subject, it appears that the
language used was also neutral in terms of identifying the gender of the author.
" The second hypothesis dealing with the author's age was the only question to
show any differences between the wago and kango groups. The differences were
signicant (p < 0.1). The result indicates that with 90% condence reader's of the kango
text judged the author to be older.
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" The last hypothesis, focusing on the author's education level, also proved to have
no signicant difference (p > 0.1). Based on previous research (Smith & Schmidt 1996,
and Iwahara et al. 2003) the hypothesis seemed to be the most promising. However,
this study's results did not bear this out. Even with modications to the text the overall
quality of the writing was enough to negate any changes in the text. Also, the lack of
signicant evidence could be a result of the small number of participants.
" In order to achieve the best results an n of at least 377 is recommended
(Raosoft, Inc. 2004). Other possible reasons for a lack of differences between the two
groups could be the nature of the instrument. There were limited differences between
texts, ten modications; perhaps the threshold for triggering responses in readers
minds is higher than what this instrument provided. Also the topic of the text was
presumed to be neutral; however, maybe it wasn t neutral after all. The article was
presumed to be neither scientic nor expressive, in an emotional sense. The lack of
these features would indicate that neither kango nor wago should be expected by the
reader. Future research opportunities include a similar test with a larger number of
participants or a study on the number of kango words necessary to show signicant
differences between two groups.
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References:
Guy, G. R. (1988). Language and Social Class. In F. J. Newmeyer (Ed.), Linguistics: The Cambridge Survey; Volume IV Language: The Socio-cultural Context . (pp. 37-63).New York: Cambridge University Press.
Hamilton, D. L., Gibbons, P. A., Stroessner, S. J., & Sherman, J. W. (1992). Language,Intergroup Relations and Stereotypes. In G. R. Semin & K. Fiedler (Eds.), Language,Interaction and Social Cognition . (pp. 102-128). Newbury Park: Sage Publications.
Iwahara, A., Hatta, T., & Maehara, A. (2003). The Effects of a Sense of Compatibilitybetween Type of Script and Word in Written Japanese . Reading and Writing: An Interdisciplinary Journal , 16 , 377-397.
Labov, W. (1966). The Social Stratication of English in New York City. WashingtonD.C.: Center for Applied Linguistics.
Maynard, S. K. (1998). Principles of Japnese Discourse. Cambridge: CambridgeUniversity Press.
Mizutani, N. (1986). The "Proxy" Fad. In T. Hiramoto (Ed.), The Nihongo Journal (August) . (pp. 26-27). Tokyo: ALC Press.
no, S. (1974). Tracing the Japanese Language [Nihongo o Sakanoboru]. Tokyo:Iwanami Shoten.
Raosoft, Inc. (2004). Sample Size Calculator. Retrieved 12.13, 2008, from http:// www.raosoft.com/samplesize.html?margin=5&condence=90&population=20000&response=50&sample1=100&sample2=200&sample3=300&condence1=90&condence2=95&condence3=99
Romaine, S. (1994). Language in Society: An Introduction to Sociolinguistics. New York:Oxford University Press.
Satake, H. (1989). Statistical Method to Analyze the Writing Form Variation of JapaneseWords. S. Mizutani (Ed.), Japanese Quantitative Linguistics. Quantitative Linguistics 39,119-129. Bochum: Studienverlag Dr. N. Brockmeyer.
Smith, J. S. & Schmidt, D. L. (1996). Variability in Written Japanese: Towards aSociolinguistics of Script Choice . Visible Language , 30 (1), 46-71.
Walters, K. (1988). Dialectology. In F. J. Newmeyer (Ed.), Linguistics: The Cambridge Survey; Volume IV Language: The Socio-cultural Context . (pp. 119-63). New York:Cambridge University Press
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Wetzel, P. J. (1994). Contemporary Japanese attitudes toward honorics (keigo) .Language Variation and Change , 6 (1994), 113-147.
Yamaguchi, T. (2007). Japanese Linguistics: An Introduction. New York: Continuum.
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Appendix 1 - Texts
Original
Kango
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Appendix 1 (continued)
Wago
Translation
The "Proxy" Fad
" In major legal cases, or when famous people are involved in trials, those wishingto attend the hearings rush over and form a long line in front of the courthouse. Forpeople who are busy and don't have the time to wait in line themselves, there are part-time workers whose task is to stand in line and receive hearing admission tickets for
others. The type of "proxy" service is not limited to hearing slips: there are also "linewaiting" agencies that send "standers" (people to stand in line) to sign customers up forentrance examinations for famous schools, or to buy special express train tickets duringthe New Year holiday season.
" The amount of preparation that you have to do yourself when making travel plansor when moving has decreased. At weddings and funerals, professionals in chargehandle most of the arrangements. There is no need to think about the ceremony orlearn its ins and out yourself. Everything runs smoothly as long as the party concerned
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Appendix 1 (continued)
simlply pays and obeys the instructions given. Some agencies will also nd maritalpartners for its clients by computer. These days, it appears there are even people whorequest childbirth from others-and others, likewise, willing to undertake such tasks formoney.
" Hearing about "substitute" or "proxy" services makes me think back to cold,snowy days when I was a child, when I fantasized about having someone go to schoolin place of me. These days, as an adult, there are times when I dream of a "substituteworker" service in which some
one would go to the company and do my job for me. Even if they did make a "substituteworker service," I'd still have to have the money to pay for it... I guess I'll just resignmyself to riding the packed trains to work.
Appendix 2 - Questionnaire
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Appendix 2 (continued)
1" 2" 3" 4" 5"
'1'
'4'
a. " 1" 2" 3" 4" 5"
b. " 1" 2" 3" 4" 5"
c. " 1" 2" 3" 4" 5"
d. " 1" 2" 3" 4" 5"
e. " 1" 2" 3" 4" 5"
f. " 1" 2" 3" 4" 5"g. " 1" 2" 3" 4" 5"
h. " 1" 2" 3" 4" 5"
i. " 1" 2" 3" 4" 5"
j. " 1" 2" 3" 4" 5"
k. " 1" 2" 3" 4" 5"
l. " 1" 2" 3" 4" 5"m. " 1" 2" 3" 4" 5"
n. " 1" 2" 3" 4" 5"
o. " 1" 2" 3" 4" 5"
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Appendix 2 (continued)
p. " 1" 2" 3" 4" 5"
" a.
" b.
In this questionnaire, you will be asked to judge the author of a short passage solely onthe basis of the content. Don't think too long about your answers. Just respond off thetop of your head.
Read the text rst, then go on to the questions that follow
1. About how old do you think the author of this passage is?
" 1. Younger than 20" 2. 21-30" 3. 31-40" 4. Over 40
2. What do you think the gender of the author is?
" 1. Female" 2. Male
3. What level of schooling do you think the author has completed?
" 1. Less than high school" 2. High school
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Appendix 2 (continued)
" 3. College" 4. Graduate school
4. How would you describe the author in words? Consider the following terms and circlethe alternative that you think more accurately describes the writer. (If you cannot decide,skip to the next.)
a. " Educated " " 1" 2" 3" 4" 5" " Uneducatedb. " Polite " " " 1" 2" 3" 4" 5" " Impolitec. " Snobby " " 1" 2" 3" 4" 5" " Humble
d. " Condent " " 1" 2" 3" 4" 5" " Insecuree. " Sympathetic " " 1" 2" 3" 4" 5" " Unsympatheticf. " Friendly " " 1" 2" 3" 4" 5" " Unfriendlyg. " Unselsh " " 1" 2" 3" 4" 5" " Selshh. " Careful " " 1" 2" 3" 4" 5" " Carelessi. " Capable " " 1" 2" 3" 4" 5" " Incapable
j. " Flexible " " 1" 2" 3" 4" 5" " Inexiblek. " Warm "" " 1" 2" 3" 4" 5" " Coldl. " Intelligent " " 1" 2" 3" 4" 5" " Unintelligentm. " Optimistic " " 1" 2" 3" 4" 5" " Pessimisticn. " Conservative "" 1" 2" 3" 4" 5" " Liberalo. " Well-to-do " " 1" 2" 3" 4" 5" " Not well offp. " Japanese " " 1" 2" 3" 4" 5" " Foreigner
Please answer the following questions about yourself
1. Sex" a. M" b. F
2. From the age of 5 where did you live the longest?
" _______ (X Prefecture, X City)
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Appendix 3 - Data Tables
TABLE 3. Age (nenrei)[1 = Under 20, 2 = 21 - 30, 3 = 31 - 40, 4 = Over 40]
TABLE 4. Gender (seibetsu)[1 = Female, 2 = Male]
TABLE 5. Completed Education (saisy gakureki)[1 = Less than High School, 2 = High School, 3 = College, 4 = Graduate School]
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TABLE 6. Educated: Uneducated (gaku no aru: gaku no nai)[Educated = 1, Uneducated = 5]
TABLE 7. Polite: Impolite (teinei de aru: teinei de nai)[Polite = 1, Impolite = 5]
TABLE 8. Snobby: Humble (k man: kenkyo)[Snobby = 1, Humble = 5]
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TABLE 9. Condent: Insecure (jimange: jishin no nai)[Condent = 1, Insecure = 5]
TABLE 10. Sympathetic: Unsympathetic (jy no aru: jy no nai)[Sympathetic = 1, Unsympathetic = 5]
TABLE 11. Friendly: Unfriendly (y k teki: hiy k teki)[Friendly = 1, Unfriendly = 5]
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TABLE 12. Unselsh:Selsh (takoteki:rikoteki)[Unselsh = 1, Selsh = 5]
TABLE 13. Careful: Careless (cy i bukai: fucy i)[Careful = 1, Careless = 5]
TABLE 14. Capable: Incapable (shigoto ga dekis : shigoto ga dekinasas )[Capable = 1, Incapable = 5]
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TABLE 15. Flexible: Inexible (jy nan da: ganko da)[Flexible = 1, Inexible = 5]
TABLE 16. Warm: Cold (yasas : tsumetai)[Warm = 1, Cold = 5]
TABLE 17. Intelligent: Unintelligent (chin teki: hichin teki)[Intelligent = 1, Unintelligent = 5]
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TABLE 18. Optimistic: Pessimistic (rakutenteki: hikanteki)[Optimistic = 1, Pessimistic = 5]
TABLE 19. Conservative: Liberal (hosyuteki: kakushinteki)[Conservative = 1, Liberal = 5]
TABLE 20. Well-to-do: Not well-off (y fuku: y fuku dewa nai)[Well-to-do = 1, Not well-off = 5]
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TABLE 21. Japanese: Foreigner (nihonjin: gaikokujin)[Japanese = 1, Foreigner = 5]
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