Post on 12-Aug-2015
I Love Studying Anatomy & Physiolgy
The image above is depicting a moment expressing how I feel about anatomy & physiology. It’s very difficult to describe in wo rds but I deem the feeling as a love & Hate relationship with this intense subject that has a lot to offer in knowledge. Frustration is equivalent to an athlete with sore muscles… Learning is pushing the limits and frustration is the essential key ingredient to accumulating Knowledge. Anatomy was not easy for me however questions was vital to aide in the growth of understanding the functions of th e Human body. Our bodies our fascinating & complex but it’s important to have a foundation of understanding the Body to help with future cures for when the body isn’t completely working properly. I went through many stages of frustration, anxiety, and in the end felt incredibly satisfying. Future anatomy students science is continuously growing in physiology comprehension and Anatomy at Col lin college gave me the proper in depth education to allow me to proceed to the Next level. Remember Study it’s not a deathly word to avoid. Studying can be in many forms simply asking questions allowing y our mind to expand which allows you to actively think or making friends to discuss topics over a cup of coffee, writing notes, Drawing. I used all these methods in the end of this class I made a PowerPoint for the last practical. I hope this review can not only help myself but many other students. Studying is a term that should be something to look forward to doing. Studying does NOT mean staring at a book for hours reading; some may prefer this method but it isn’t the only way! Actively thinking, speaking, drawing helped me immensely. The key word is doing is what helped me retain what I learned. Studying shouldn't equal isolation but activate discussions amo ng students. Another thought to keep in mind is quality versus quantity there is no competition to who studies more and the sayi ng “why did I fail “I studied for hours?” I strongly advise students to instead train your thoughts to say “look at how much I learned!”. The Goal is learning the truth is not all the information will appear on the Exam so in reality the main goal is continuously learning more exponentially. Having a negative attitude toward studying is a dangerous quality to have in thus it prevents a person to want to learn, we become memorization machines instead of curious human beings which is the driving force to take the course. Being curious is a from of studying so in other words you can technically study 24 h ours a day just for being curious and simply wondering to the point not knowing bothered a student that they actually remembered to ask their question.
Endocrine System Long term Regulation of Homesostaticmechanisms
1. Regulate Fluid & Electrolyte Balance2. Cell & Tissue Metabolism 3. Reproductive Functions 4. Nervous system in responding to
stressful stimuli General Adaptation Syndrome
Endocrine Histology
Adenopophoysis
Neuropophoysis
Thymus Neuropophoysis
Hassall’s Corpuscle
Thyroid Gland
Parathyroid
Adrenal Glands
Zona Fasisculata“Lollipop”
Zona Reticularis
Medulla
Zona Glomerulosa
Homeostasis & Intracellular CommunicationTarget Cells Are specific cells that possess receptors needed to bind and “read” hormonal messages
HormonesStimulate synthesis of enzymes or structural proteinsIncrease or decrease rate of synthesisTurn existing enzyme or membrane channel “on” or “off”
PlasmaReceptors1st Messenger (Peptide, Hormone, Catecholamine)
2nd Messenger (cAMP & Calcium Ions)
*G proteins (Enzyme link 1st & 2nd Messengers)
Amplification Up Regulation (Absence of a hormone) More sensitive
Down Regulation (presence of hormone) less sensitive
Intracellular ReceptorsLipid SolubleAlter DNA transcription!!! (Directly effects metabolic activity)
Examples: Steroid & Thyroid Hormones
Triggered By…1. Humoral Stimuli2. Hormonal Stimuli 3. Neural Stimuli
Control of Endocrine ActivityTypes of Responses:Endocrine ReflexComplex Endocrine ReflexNeuroEndocrine ReflexHypothalamus “master Gland” Secretes Regulatory Hormones Amount of Hormone Secreted Pattern of Hormonal Release “sudden Burst” Frequency Changes Response of Target Cell
Thyroid Gland Parathyroid Gland
Pitutiary Gland Adrenal Gland
Pancrease Gland
AndenohypophysisFSH, LH, TSH, ACTHProlactin, GH
NeuropophysisADH & Oxytocin
T3 more Active than T4T3= 3 Iodides T4 = 4 iodidesProduce Calcitonin (Lower Ca+)Increased excretion of the Kidneys Inhibiting osteoclast (Break
down)
“Equilibrium Exist between Bound & Unbound”
Determine Functions of the thyroids basic metabolic rate for all cells
Bind to receptors in: Cytoplasm,
surface of Mitochondria, & Nucleus
Effects of thyroid on Peripheral Tissue1. Elevates O2 consumption & Energy
Consumption “Children may cause a rise in Body Temp.”
2. Increases Heart Rate & Force of Contraction ; Generally results in a rise of BP
3. Increases sensitivity to sympathetic stimulation
4. Maintains normal sensitivity of respiratory centers to changes in o2 & Co2 concentrations
5. Stimulates activity in other endocrine tissue
6. Accelerates turnover of minerals in bone.
Parathyroid Chief Cells Produce
PTH antagonist of
Calcitonin
response to LOW Ca+ levels in Increased Reabsorption by the kidneys Inhibiting Osteoblast (Make bone)
Adrenal CortexZona Glmoerulosa (mineralcorticoids)Aldosterone Goes to kidney’s & retains Na+
Zona Fasiculata (Glucocorticoids) Sugar/Glucose“Lollipop” Cortisol
Zona Reticularis(Gonatocorticoids) Ovaries & Testes
Adrenal Medulla Inside HIGHLY VASCULAR(E/NE) Moblize glycogen reserveseAccelerates break down of ATP
AlphabetPancreatic Islets 1. Alpha cells Produce
GLUCAGON
1. Beta cells Produce INSULIN
Blood Glucose LevelsRise: beta cells secrete insulinDecline: Alpha cells secrete Glucagon
9 Peptide Hormones
Hypophyseal Portal System Fenestrated Capillaries Ensures Regulatory Factors reach the intended target cells in the pituitary before entering circulation
Renin-Angiotensin Aldosterone System
Kidney’s: Calcitrol & Erythropoietin Calcitrol Calcium & phosphate ion absorption at the digestive tract
Erythropoietin stimulates RBC production in Bone marrow
Natriuretic PeptidesSpecialized muscle cells when blood pressure becomes to high (oppose angiotensin II)
ANP/BNP Thymosins Testosterone & Estrogen/Progesterone
1. Capillaries in Lungs convert BY Enzyme (ACE) Angiotensin I Angiotensin II
2. Angiotensin II stimulates adrenal production of Aldosterone
3. Stimulates the Pituitary Release of ADH
4.Promotes Thirst
5. Elevates Blood Pressure
Thymosins Developing & maintaining & developing normal immune defense
T lymphocytes!!
Continuously decreases In size after puberty
Androgens (Male) interstitial Cells
Estrogen assist in follicle developing & Progesterone (Corpus Leuteum)
Hormones InteractAnatagoinsistic Effect opposing effect “PTH & calcitonin” or “Insulin & Glucagon”
Synergistic Effect Additive effect
Permissive Effect 1st one needed for 2nd one to produce effect
Integrative Effect complementary
General Adaptation SyndromeAlarm Phase Directed by the sympathetic Fight or Flight response of the ANS
Resistance Phase Dominated by glucocorticoids
Exhaustion Phase eventual breakdown of homeostatic regulation & failure of one or more organ
Diabetes MellitusHyperglycemia: Abnormally High Blood Glucose Levels Glucose appears in the urine & Urine Volume becomes Excessive Polyuria
1. Types 1 (Insulin Dependent) 2. Type 2 (non insulin Dependent) Manageable with diet3. Type 3 (Gestational) diabetes The placenta deactivated insulin BIG OBESE BABIES
Complication of poorly managed DiabetesKidney degeneration (Dialysis)Retinal Damage (Diabetic Retinopathy) Early Heart AttacksPeripheral Nerve Problems (Neuropathy)Peripheral Nerve Damage (Infection/Amputation)
Male System Female System Spermatogensis
& SpermiognesisSeminiferous Tubules
OogensisMitosis of
Spermatogonium
Primary Spermatogonium
Meiosis I
Secondary Spermatocyte
Meiosis II
Spermatids
Spermiogeneis (Physical Maturation)
Mitosis of Oogonia
Divisions completed before Birth
Meiosis I
Primary Oogonium
Meiosis II
Suspended state of metaphase
Proceed to complete meiosis if
Fertilization Occurs
Equal
Division of
Cytoplasm
EQUAL division of DNA but NOT EQUAL division of cytoplasm, for nutrient purposesPolar body will be discarded Secondary oocyte, more cytoplasm, becomes a mature ovum, is ovulated
MEIOSIS II WILL ONLY BE COMPLETED IF FERTILIZATION TAKES PLACE, IF not stops at metaphase of meiosis II
Female Histology
Primordial Follicles Primary Follicle Secondary Follicle Tertiary Follicle Corpus Luteum
Ovarian Cycle1. Follicular Phase: Granulosa Cells increase as FSH levels
increase2. Luteal Phase: Corpus Leuteum Preparing for BABY after ovulation Produces Progesterone
Superior & InferiorVena Cava
Right Atrium
Tricuspid Valve
Right Ventricle Pulmonary Trunk Arteries
Pulmonary Veins
Left Atrium
Left Ventricle Aortic Semilunar Valve
Oxygenated Blood
Distributed
LungsExternal Respiration
Deoxygenated
Blood collected
Respiratory System Physiology
Bronchiole sounds
Vesicular breathing
Spirometer
Tidal volume
Inspiratory reserve volume
Expiration reserve volume
Vital capacity
Residual volume
Respiration
Pulmonary ventilation
External ventilation
Transport of respiratory gases
Internal respiration
Entrance
of Air External nares
Nasal cavity
Nasal septum
Nasal Concha's
Sinuses
Hard plate
Soft plate
Cleft plate
Lungs Trachea
Primary bronchi
Hilum
Secondary bronchi
Tertiary bronchi
Bronchioles
Terminal bronchiole
Respiratory bronchiole
Alveolar ducts
Alveoli
Respiratory membrane
Respiratory zone
Conducting zone
Pleura
Parietal pleura
Visceral pleura
Diaphragm
Larynx Thyroid cartilage
Cricoid cartilage
C shaped tracheal
cartilage
Epiglottis
Hyoid bone
Vestibular fold
Vocal folds
Arytenoid cartilage
Pharynx
Nasopharynx
Oropharynx
Laryngopharynx
Otitis media's
Respiratory System
Upper Respiratory
System
Nose
Nasal Cavity
Sinuses
Pharynx
Lower Respiratory
System
Larynx
Trachea
Bronchus
Bronchioles
Aveoli
Entrance of Air
External
nares
Hard Palate
Nasal
cavity
Laryngophargynx
Pharyngeal
Tonsil Nasal Septum
Perpendicular plate of the EthmoidVomer
8Uvula
10
9
Frontal
Sinus
19
7
6
5
16
1
2
13
14
3
4
15
12
17
18
Larynx
C- Shaped Tracheal CartilageHyaline Cartilage
Elastic Cartilage
Hyoid Bone
Cricoid Cartilage
Hyoid Bone Elastic Cartilage
Cricoid Cartilage
ArytenoidCartilage
ArytenoidCartilage
C- Shaped Tracheal CartilageHyaline Cartilage
6
1
21
3
4 4
5
7
2
3
5
7
Physiology of speaking… or my
favorite singing
Vocal
fold“Inferior”
Vestibular
fold“Top”
Cricoid CartilageCricoid
Cartilage
Thyroid Cartilage
Epilottis
Vocal
Fold Open
& Close During Speaking,
Singing
1 3
2
5
7
4
6
LungsRight Lung Left Lung
BronchiPulmonary
Arteries
Pulmonary
Veins
Pulmonary
Veins
Pulmonary
Arteries
Bronchi
Cardiac
Notch “Because the
heart is tilted
to the left”
1
6
2
3
23
1
Pulmonary VeinPulmonary Artery
Esophagus
Cricoid Cartilage
Thyroid Cartilage
Inferior Vena Cava
Abdominal Aorta
Diagram
1
2
4
5
67
8
10
3
9
11
12
Respiratory zone Conducting zoneNasal Cavity Pharynx Larynx Trachea Bronchi Larger Bronchioles Smallest Thinnest Bronchioles Associated Alveoli “Air filled pockets”
Trachea
Brochi Right Primary
Bronchi Shorter
& More linear!“Children who swallow toys most likely make their
destination in Right primary Bronchi”
1
2
4
3
5
Bronchioles & Alveoli
Aveoli Duct
Term
ina
l Bro
nc
hio
les Pulmonary
ArteriesPulmonary
Veins
Smooth Muscle On respiratory bronchiole
7
3
1
2
4
5
Respiratory membrane
at the AlveoliAlveolar
Macrophage
Type I
pneumocyte
Elastic Fibers
Type II
pneumocyte
“Surfactant”
Capillary
Fuse Basement Membrane
Alveolar
Epithelium
Surfactant
Capillary
Epithelium
Capillary Lumen
12
3
5 4
67
8
9
10
11
PhysiologyLung Volume & CapacitiesTidal volume The amount of air inhaled and exhaled during normal breathing. Average 500ml
Inspiratory reserve volume (IRV)The amount of air that can be forcibly inhaled above a normal tidal inspiration. Average 3300ml
Expiration reserve volume (ERV)The amount of air that can be forcibly exhaled above a normal tidal Exhalation. Average 100ml
Residual volume (RV)The amount of air that cannot be forcibly exhaled from the lungs, meaning that the lungs are never
completely empty of air. This is due to surfactant being produced by septal cell in the aveoli to completely
collapse. Average 1200ml
IRV+ERV+TVThe maximum amount of air that can be exhaled from the lungs after a maximum inhalation. Averages:
Males: 4800ml, Females: 3100ml
Total lung Capacity (TLC)= +RVThe maximum amount of air the lungs are capable of holding. Average 6000ml
Minimal Volume RR*TVThe amount of air that will remain in the lungs even if they were to collapse. Average 30-120ml
Minute Volume (MV) = RR* TV
The amount of air exchanged between the lungs and the environment in ONE minute.
SpirometerDevice used to measure respiratory Volumes
Minimal Volume RR*TV
Tidal volume
Inspiratory reserve volume (IRV)
Expiration reserve volume (ERV)
IRV+ERV+TV
Total lung
Capacity
(TLC)
+RV
Residual volume (RV)
Inhalation
Exhalation
ExpirationExhalation. Diaphragm
relaxes, rib cage returns to
resting positions decreasing
size of thoracic cavity.
Thoracic pressure decreases,
air exits lungs. This is a passive
process.
.
Pulmonary ventilationMovement of air in and out of the lungs
*At Rest the pressure inside & Outside of the
thoracic cavity is equal, so no air is moving.
Respiratory Rate (RR)- Number of breath per
minute, average is 12bpm
Respiratory Physiology
InspirationInhalation. Diaphragm
contracts, rib cage
elevates to increase size
of thoracic cavity,
thoracic pressure
decreases, air flows
into lungs. This is an
active process
External Respiration
Gas exchange between
the alveoli and the
capillaries
Co2 Exits
O2 Enters
Aveolus & Pulmonary Capillaries
Exhange
Blood & Body Tissue
Exhange
Internalrespiration
Gas exchange
between the blood
and the body’s
tissues
Respiratory
Histology
Trachea:
Pseudostratified Ciliated Columnar
Hyaline Cartilage
Healthy Lungs vs. Emphysma
Aveoli
Bronchi Bronchioles
2
1
3
7
68
5
4
Kidneys Fibrous capsule
Cortex
Medulla
Medullary pyramid
Papilla
Renal column
Pelvis
Major calyx
Minor calyx
Glomerulus
Blood Flow Renal artery
Segmental artery
Interlobar artery
Arcuate artery
Afferent arterioles
Glomerulus
Cortical Radiate vein
Arcuate vein
Interlobar vein
Renal vein
Microscopic Anatomy Glomerulus
Renal tubule
Bowman's capsule
Renal Corpuscle
Proximal convulated tube
Loop of Henley
Distal convulated tube
Cortical nephron
Juxtamedullary nephron
Collecting duct
Afferent arterioles
Efferent arterioles
Peritubular capillary bed
Vasa recta
Filtration
Tubular reabsorption
Tubular secretion
Micturition
Incontinence
Posts
Entrance
& Exit Renal arteries
Renal veins
Hilum
Ureter
Urinary Bladder
Trigonone
Urethra (Male/Female)
Urinary System
Kidney Ureter
Urinary Bladder
Trigonone
(Transitional Epithelium)
Urethra
Male or Female?
(Micturition)
Right
Kidney
Left
Kidney
Urinary
Bladder
Male or Female?
3
5
4
3
21
RenalFascia
Perinephric Fat
Fibrous capsule
Hilum Renal sinus
Cortex Medulla Medullary Pyramid
Renal Column
Renal Lobe
Renal Papilla
Minor
Calyx
Major Calyx
Renal Pelvis
Gross Anatomy of the Kidney
Medullary
pyramid
Ren
al
colu
mn
Cortex
Medulla
Fibrous capsule
Renal Lobe “Piece of Pizza” Cortex & Medulla
Renal Column & Medullary Pyramid
2
4
6
11
5
9
8
7
3
1
10
Renal
Pelvis
Renal Artery
Segmental Artery
Interlobar Artery
Arcuate Arteries
Cortical Radiate Arteries
Afferent Arterioles
Glomerulus
Efferent Arterioles
Peritubular Capillaries
(Vasa Recta)
Venules
Cortical Radiate veins
Arcuate VeinsInterlobar
Veins
Renal Vein
Blood Supply to Kidney
Segmental
Arteries
Interlobar
Arteries
& Veins
Cortical Radiate
Arteries & Veins
Arcuate
Veins
Renal Vein
HilumArteries, Veins &
Nerves Innervate
the Kidney
Afferent
Arterioles Entrance to
Glomerulus
Afferent
Arterioles Entrance to
Glomerulus
9 32
4
2
5
6
71
8
10
Juxtamedullary & Cortical Nephrons
Renal Corpuscle
FILTRATION
Bowman's Capsule
Capsular Epithelium
Capsular Space
GlomerulusGlomerulus Epithelium
Podocytes
Filtration Slits
Renal Tubule
ABSORPTION &
SECRETION
PCT
Loop of Henle
Descending Limb
Ascending LimbDCT
Juxtaglomerular Apparatus
Macula Densa
Juxtaglomerular Cells
Collecting Sysem
Collecting Duct
PapillaryDuct
Nephron Organization
GlomerulusBowman’s
Capsule
Descending
Thi (N)(N)egative
Ascending
Thic (k)Lets go fly a (k)ite
PCTMicrovilli
PCTMicrovilli
DCTMaculae Densa
2
3
59
1
10
4 4
4
6
8711
PCTDCT
Juxtamedullary
NephronMore concentrated Urine“Countercurrent multiplication”
Cortical
Nephron
11
3
2
1
56
7
8
6
9
5
10
4
12
13
15
13
16
Renal Tubule
PCT DCT
Thick Descending
Thick Ascending
Thin Ascending
Thin Descending
Juxtamedullary
NephronMore concentrated Urine“Countercurrent multiplication”
Cortical
Nephron
Renal Lobule
1 2
5
3 4
6
7
8
10
9
11
12
6 7
71
4
3
2
5
8
910
11
1
5
13
12
14
15
8
10
2 3
64
9
Analysis of Urine
pH
Average 6
Normal : 4.5 -8
High Protein Acidic
High Vegetable Diet Akaline
Specific Gravity
Water 1.000
Normal Urine 1.003-1.030
Normal Constiutients
Water
Urea
Creatinine
Electrolyte
Physical
Color
Uchrome
Dark Red or Brown (Blood)
TurbidityBacteria Mucus Cells castCrystals
Smell
Starvation Breakdown Fats (KETONES)
Diabetes = Sweet urine
Chemical
Ketones (Ketosis)
Glucosuria
Albumin (Albuminuria )
(Hematuria)
(Pyuria)
(Hemoglobinuria)
Bilirubin ( Bilirubinuria)
Urolininogen(Urobilogenuria)
urea (deamination, Creatinine)
Nitries
Sodium Choloride(Table Salt))
Ammonia
Healthy
Urine?We can test if you micturition in a cup!
Urinary
Histology
Urinary Bladder:
Transitional Epithelium
Kidney: Cortex & Medulla
Renal Corpuscle:
Glomerulus
Bowman capsule
DCT & PCT
Bowman’s
Capsule
Cortex
Medulla
Cortex
Renal Corpuscle
1
2
3
4 4
510
76
8
9
7
Entrance of
FoodMechanical
Digestion
Chemical Digestion
Absorption
Alimentary Canal
Oral Cavity
Uvula
Labia
Cheeks
Hard palate
Soft Palate
Tongue
Oral Cavity Proper
Pharynx
Esophagus
Stomach Cardia
Body
Fundus
Pylorus
Pyloric sphincter
Rugae
Small Intestine Duodenum
Sphyncter of Odi
Jejunum
Ileum
Peyers Patches
Ileocecal valve
Modifications
Villi
Microvilli
Plicae Circularis
Large Intestine Cecum
Appendix
Ascending Colon
Hepatic Flexure
Transverse Colon
Splenic Flexure
Descending Colon
Sigmoid Colon
Rectum
Haustra
Tania coli
Anus Anal Sphyncter
Deciduous teeth &
Permanent Teeth Incisor
Canin
Premolar
Molar
Dentin
Cemetin
Enamel
Root
Crown
Periodontal ligament
Apical formaent
Salivary
Glands Parotid
Submandibular
Sublingual
Gallbladder Cystic duct
Left & Right Common Hepatic Duct
Bile Duct
Digestive System
Liver Right Lobe
Left Lobe
Caudate Lobe
Quadrate Lobe
Lobule
Central canal
Sinusoid
Hepatocytes
Kpuffer cells
Hepatic arteriole
Portal venule
Bile canaliculi
Portal triad
Layers of the Digestive Tract Mucosa
Submucosa
Muscularis Externa
Serosa
Adventitia
Pancreas Acinar cells
Functions of the Digestive System
Ingestiona. Material Enter digestive Tract Via Mouth
b. Conscious & Unconscious
Digestiona. Crushing & Shearing
b. Makes materials easier to propel through digestive Tract
Secretion a. Is the release of water, acids, enzymes, Buffers & Salts
b. By epithelium of the digestive Tract
c. By Glandular Organs
Absorptiona. Movement of Organic
substrates, Electrolytes, Vitamins, & Water
b. Across digestive epithelium
c. Into interstitial fluid of digestive tract
Excretiona. Removal of waste products from body fluids
b. Process called defecationremoves feces
Digestive System
Digestive
System
Major Organs
Oral Cavity, Teeth & Tongue
Pharynx
Esophagus
Stomach
Small Intestine
Large Intestine
Accessory
Organs
Tongue
Salivary Glands
Pancrease
Liver
Gallbladder
CatabolismDecomposes substances to provide Energy cells need the Function
Anabolism Uses Raw materials to synthesize essential compounds Required Two essential Ingrediencts 1. Oxgen 2. Organic molecules broken down by
intracellular Enzymes “Carbohydrates, Fats & Proteins”
The Foood We Eat
Peritoneum
Superficial Mesothelium
Covers a Layer of
Areolar Tissue
Serosa or Visceral Peritoneum
Covers Organs within
Peritoneal Cavity
Peritoneal FluidProduced by serous membrane lining
Provides Essential Lubrication
Separates parietal & visceral Surfaces
Allows sliding without friction or irritation
About 7 Liters produced & Absorbed Daily
But very little in peritoneal cavity at ONE time
Parietal Peritoneum
Lines Inner surface of
Body wall
Abdominopelvic Cavity contains the peritoneal cavity lined by serous membrane
Serous Membrane Contains:
Ascities: Fluid Buildup causes
abdominal swelling
Peritonitis- Inflammation of the
Peritoneum Membrane
Mesenteriesa. Are Double sheets of peritoneal membrane
b. Suspended portions of the Digestive Tract within peritoneal cavity by sheets of serous
membrane
Connect parietal peritoneum visceral peritoneum
Embryonic Development:Dorsal Mesenteries
Greater Omentum
Conforms to shapes of surrounding organs
Pads and protects surfaces of abdomen
Provides insulation to reduce heat loss
Stores lipid energy reserves
Adipose Tissue
Embryonic Development:
Ventral Mesenteries
Disappears Except for:
Falciform Ligament & Lesser Omentum
Beer Belly Mesentary Proper
FunctionsIs a thick mesenteries sheet
Provides stability
Permits some independent movement
ALL intestines Covered by mesenteries
Digestive Tract Movement of Materials
Muscular Layer of Digestive Tract: Visceral Smooth Muscles Tissue Rhythmic Cycles: Pacesetter cells Stimulate GI Tract (Located muscularis mucosae & muscularis Externa)
Spontaneous Depolarization: wave of contraction throughout entire muscular sheet
Initial State circular & Longitudinal
Muscle are Relaxed
1. Contraction of Circular Superficial
muscle Behind Bolus
2. Contraction
of Longitudinal Deep muscle Behind Bolus
3. Contraction
in Circular muscle layer Forces Bolus Forward
Peristalsis “Squeezing Toothpaste”
SegmentationMost areas of small Intestine & some portions of Large Intestine: Undergo cycles of contractions that churn & Fragment bolus mixing the content with intestinal secretions. No Set Pattern!!!Segmentations does not push materials along tract in ANY ONE direction
Control of Digestive Functions
Local Factors Neural Mechanisms Hormonal MechanismsChanges in pH
(Chemoceptors) Local Factors stimulated by the presence of Chemicals: Prostagladins, Histamine, & Other chemicals released into interstitial fluid may affect adjacent cells within a small segment of the tract
(Stretch Receptors) Stretching of the Intestinal Wall:Stimulate localized contractions of smooth muscles
CNS = “Long Reflexes” Large Scale Peristalsis & Local Reflexes ENS = “Short Reflexes”
Sensory Information from Receptors in the digestive tract is distributed to the CNS trigger long reflexes (Motor & Interneurons)
Sensory Receptors: in the walls of the Digestive Tract: Trigger Peristaltic Waves
Motor Neurons:Control Smooth muscle contraction & Glandular Secretion are located in the Myentric plexusUsually Considered parasympathetic
Enhance or Diminish sensitivity smooth muscle cells to Neural command
EnteroEndocrine Cells Travel by Bloodstream produce peptides (Endocrine Cells in the epithelium of the digestive tract)
Local Factors
Stretch chemoReceptors
Myentric Plexus
CNS
Secretory Cells
Enter endocrine Cells
Carried By the Blood stream
Peristalsis & Segment
Movements
Hormones Released
Buffer Acids & Enzymes Released
LongReflexes
Short Reflexes
OralCavity & Salivary Glands
Pharynx Esophagus
Stomach
(HCl, Pepsin)
DuodenumJejunum IleumCecum
Ascending Colon
Transverse Colon
DescendingColon
Sigmoid
Colon
Rectum Anus
Alimentary Canal “Journey of Food”
Esophagus
Oral
Cavity Pharynx
1
2
3
45
6
7
89
10
11 12
13
14
15
16
HistologyLayers
Mucosa
Mucosal Epithelium
Moistened by: Glandular Secretions
Stratified Squamous & Simple Columnar
Stratified Squamous
Mechanical Stresses:
Oral Cavity, Pharynx & Esophagus
Simple Columnar with mucous Glands
scattered EntoendocrineCells: secrete hormones
Absorption: Stomach, Small intestine & Large intestine
Permanent Transverse Folds:
Plicae Circularis
Purpose:
Increase Surface Areas
Longitudinal folds:
disappear tract fills up
Lamina Propria
Areolar Tissue
Contains:
Blood vessels
Sensory nerve endings
Lymphatic vessels
Smooth muscle cells
Scattered areas of
lymphatic tissue
Muscularis Mucosae
Narrow band of smooth muscle & elastic fibers in
lamina propria
Smooth muscle cells arranged in two
concentric layers:
Inner layer Circular
Outer layer Longitudinal
Purpose: to squeeze lymphatic, get fat out to have room & absorb more
Submucosa
Dense Irregular Connective Tissue
Contains:
Has large blood
vessels and lymphatic
vessels
May contain exocrine
glands
Secrete buffers and
enzymes into digestive
tract
Submucosal Plexus
Muscularis Externa
Peristalsis
Peristalsis:Involved in:
Mechanical processing
Movement of materials
along digestive tract
Movements coordinated by enteric nervous system (ENS); 3rd set of ANS
a. Sensory neurons
b. Interneurons
c. Motor neurons
ENS
Innervated primarily by parasympathetic division of ANS
Sympathetic postganglionic fibers
The mucosa
The myenteric plexus Turn on … movement of divgestive materials
Serosa
Mouth, Pharynx, Esophagus & inferior part of large intestine:
Adventita "network of collagen fiber"
Rest of digestive tract:
Serosa or visceral Peritoneum "loose Connective Tissue"
Epithelial Renewal& RepairThese cells keep pace with the rate of cell destruction
Esophagus (2-3 days) & Large intestine (6 days) The High rate of cell division explains why radiation & anticancer
drugs that inhibit mitosis have drastic effects on the digestive tract
Digestive
Tract Layers
Esophagus
Stomach
Small
Intestine
Large
Intestine
Esophagus
Mu
co
sa
Se
ro
sa
Cir
cu
lar
Su
bm
uco
sa
Se
ro
sa
2
1
3
4
56
78
9
Submucosa
Mucosa
Muscularis
Externa
Serosa
Lacteal
Peyer’s
Patch
Brunner's
Gland
Villi
Circular
Longitudinal
Lamina propria
Muscularis Mucosae
Plicae
Circularis
Esophagus &
Pharynx
Large
Intestines
Small
IntestinesStomach
Esophagus &
Pharynx
Stomach Small
IntestineLarge
Intestine
43
4
2
3
1
1 2
2
1
6
11
3
4
5
7
8
9
10
12
13
14
Histology
Esophagus: Stratified Squamous
Stomach: Simple Columnar Mucosa “Gastric Pits”
Submucosa Muscularis
Externa
All 3 layers
Mucosa
1
2 3
4
65
7 8
1.Oral CavityFunctions of The Oral Cavity
1. sensory analysisOf material before swallowing
2. Mechanical processingThrough actions of teeth, tongue, and palatal surfaces
3. LubricationMixing with mucus and salivary gland secretions
4. Limited digestion
Of carbohydrates and lipids
Oral Mucosa
Tongue
• Lining of oral cavity stratified squamous
• cheeks, lips, and inferior surface of tongueIs relatively thin, nonkeratinized, and delicate
• Inferior to tongue is thin and vascular enough to rapidly absorb lipid-soluble drugs
• Cheeks are supported by pads of fat and the buccinators muscles
Manipulates materials inside mouth
Functions of the tongue
1. Mechanical processing by compression,
abrasion, and distortion
2. Manipulation to assist in chewing and to
prepare material for swallowing
3. Sensory analysis by touch, temperature,
and taste receptors
4. Secretion of mucins and the enzyme
lingual lipase
Decidious & Permanent
Teeth
Teeth Crown
Neck
Root
Peridontal
Ligament
1
2
3
45
6
7
MolarIncisor
Premolar Canines
1110
12 13
8
9
Salivary Glands
Parotid Gland
Submandibular Gland
“Produce Amaylase = breakdown
carbs”
Salivary Glands
IgA
Sublingual Gland
Parotid
Gland
Subligual
Gland
Submandibular
Gland
Submandibular
Gland
Subligual
Gland
1
2
3
5
4
3.Esophagusus
Resting Muscle Tone In the circular muscle layer in the superior 3 cm (1.2 in.) of esophagus
prevents air from entering
Swallowing
Also called deglutition
Can be initiated voluntarily
Proceeds automatically
three phases1.Buccal phase2.Pharyngeal phase3.Esophageal phase
Collapsed When Not Eating
Regulation of Gastric
ActivityProduction of acid and enzymes by the
gastric mucosa can be: Controlled by the CNSRegulated by short reflexes of ENSRegulated by hormones of digestive tract
Three phases of gastric control 1. Cephalic phase 2. Gastric phase3. Intestinal phase
Major Regions
Cardia
Fondus
Pylorus
"Pyloric Sphincter"
Body
Curvuture &
Momentum
Lesser Curvuture & Lesser Momentum
Greater Curvuture & Greater Momentum
Smooth Muscle Layers
(Liquefy chyme)
Oblique Layer
Circular Layer
Longitudinal Layer
Stomach“Rugae Inside! Helps Expand”
Pyloric
Sphincter
Cardiac
Sphincter
2
1
5
6
4
3
8
7
Stomach contentsBecome more fluid
pH approaches 2.0
Pepsin activity increases
Protein disassembly begins Although digestion occurs in the stomach, nutrients are not absorbed there
Major Regions
Duodenum
Jejunum
Ileum
Segment Properties
Submucosal: Brunner Gland
secrete Alkaline Mucin
Sphincter of Odi
Many intestinal Crypts “Glands”
manufacture enzymes for chemical digestion
Many Villi
increase surface area
for nutrient absorption
Peyer’s Patch
Ileocecal Valve
Small Intestines
Special Properties
Plicae Circularis
Villi
Base: Intestinal
gland/ crypts of Lieberkuhn
secrete enzymes & pH buffers
Microvilli
Lacteal Lymphatic vessel absorb
Fatty Acids
Small Intestine
Duodenum
Jejunum
Ileum
Ileocecal Valve
Sphincter of Odi
1
5
2
4 3
Histology Deuodenum “Shorter Villi & more glands” Jejunum “Longer Villi” Ileum “ look for Peyers patch”
1 1 1
4 Peyer’s Patch
Passageway
1. Cecum
"Appendix "
2. Ascending Colon
3. Transverse Colon
4. Descending Colon
5. Sigmoid Colon
6. Rectum
7. Anus
Flexures
Right Colic (Hepatic Flexure)
Ascending Transverse
Left (Colic) splenic Flexure
Transverse Descending
Muscles Of
Large Intestine
Tenia Coli
"Longitudinal layer of muscular Externa; 3 bands"
Hausta
Large Intestine
Haustra
4
3
2
1
5
67
8
9
10
11
12
Exocrine & Endocrine
Acini CellsSecrete Enzymes
Pancreatic Islets
Glucagon & Insulin
Pancreas
Plicae Circularis
1
2
HistologyPancrease
Islet of
Langerhans
Acinar Cells Excreting Enzymes to
aid in chemical Digestion
12
3
Gallbladder"muscular sac; stores & concentrates bile salts used in the digestion of lipids”
Common Hepatic
Duct
(Liver)
Cystic Duct
(Gallbladder)
Common Bile Duct
Gall
Bladder
Liver
Common
Bile Duct
Sphincter of Oddi
7
2
3
4
56
1
Lobes
Right Lobe
Left Lobe
Quadrate Lobe
Caudate Lobe
Liver
Quadrate Lobe
CaudateLobe
“Cloud”
LeftLobe
Right Lobe Common
Hepatic Ducts
Cystic Duct
1
2
3
4
67
8
5
Hepatocytes
Secrete Bile
“Dish Soap”
Bile Canaliculi
Bile Ductules
“Surrounds each Lobule”
Right & Left Hepatic Ducts
Common Hepatic Duct
Sinusoids (Central Canal)
“Receives Blood from Hepatic artery or Hepatic
Portal Vein”
Central Vein
Histology
Lobules Hepatic Triad Sinusoids & Hepatocytes
Lobule
Lobule
Lobule
Lobule
Lobule
Lobule
3
4
2
1
1
1
1
1
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Professor Melody Holmes PowerPoints on blackboard Histology slide of ileum of Peyers patch, Mucosal layers of Ileum and Alveoli Model.