Post on 04-Jun-2022
Maria Grahn, Maritime Environmental Sciences
Hydrogen: An overview of production pathways and
possible usage in the transport sector
Maria GrahnMaritime Environmental Sciences, Chalmers University of Technology
2020-03-31
Maria Grahn
Why hydrogen?Pros and cons
Hydrogen and Fuel cells
in the transport sector
Maria Grahn
Advantages hydrogen• There are many different options for how to produce
hydrogen with low CO2-emissions, in future.
• No direct competition with land use issues (food production)
• Hydrogen used in fuel cells has – better energy conversion efficiency factors compared to
conventional ICEVs.
– no or low local emissions.
– lower noise.
• Hydrogen can be synthesized to liquids or other gases
Maria Grahn
Challenges connected to large scale use of hydrogen and fuel cells
• Investments needed in large scale CO2-neutral H2
production.
• Costly H2-distribution and storage.
• Fuel cells are still rather expensive– Although radical improvements made recent years, there are still
potential to improve life time aspects and dependency on scarce metals, and reduction in production costs.
Flytande H2 -253 OC
Risk för läckage i pipelines
Komprimerad H2 300-700 bar
Maria Grahn, Maritime Environmental Sciences
STCH
Some hydrogen production pathways• Fossil sources
– Natural gas reforming.
– Coal gasification (with or without CCS).
• Biomass (resource is globally limited)– Biomass gasification and pyrolysis.
– Biomass-derived liquid reforming.
– Microbial biomass conversion (dark fermentation, MEC).
• Solar (resource is abundant, but intermittent)– Solar thermochemical hydrogen (STCH).
– Photoelectrochemical (PEC).
– Photobiological.
– Electrolysis (AEC, PEM, SOEC).
http://energy.gov/eere/fuelcells/hydrogen-resources#biomass
PEC
Electrolysers Microbial electrolysis cells (MECs)
Microorganisms break down organic matter without light (MEC: combined with small electric current).
STCH: Water splitting in high temperatures, e.g. concentrated solar power.
Microorganisms (green microalgae or cyanobacteria) use sunlight to split water.
PEC: Semiconductor materials uses sunlight to split water.
Steam reforming of liquid biofuels+water gas shift into H2.
Maria Grahn, Maritime Environmental Sciences
Timescale for hydrogen production pathwaysAccording to DOE technologies that can produce hydrogen at a target of less than $4/kg
http://energy.gov/eere/fuelcells/hydrogen-production-pathways
$4/kg = 120 USD/MWh (LHV) and 100 USD/MWh (HHV) [120 MJ/kg (LHV) and 142 MJ/kg (HHV) http://www.h2data.de/]
Maria Grahn, Maritime Environmental Sciences
Alkaline PEM SOEC (steam)Today 2030 Today 2030 2030
Electricity-to-hydrogenLHV
efficiency (%)
65
(43-69)
66
(50-74)
62
(40-69)
69
(62-79)
~77
System size (MW) 1.1-5.3 4.9-8.6 0.10-1.2 2.1-90 0.5-50Stack life span (1000 h) 75 (60-90 95 (90-100) 62 (20-90 78 (60-90) <90System life span [years] 25 (20-30) 30 20 (10-30) 30 10-20Investment cost (€2015/kWelec) 1100
(600-2600)
700
(400-900)
2400
(1900-3700)
800
(300-1300)
700
(400-1000)O&M cost 2-5% 2-5% 2-5% 2-5% 2-3%Stack replacement cost (share
of investment cost)
50% - 60% - Included in
O&M cost
• All types are expected to improve until 2030.• Large orders can already now lead to an investment cost below the cost stated for 2030.• SOEC has the potential to combine low cost with high efficiency (not yet on market).
Literature review (analysing peer-reviewed publications 2011-2016):
Comparison of cost and performance for different electrolyser technologies including median of the data found and range in parenthesis
Brynolf S, Taljegård M, Grahn M, Hansson J. (2018). Electrofuels for the transport sector: a review of production costs. Renewable & Sustainable Energy Reviews 81 (2) 1887-1905.
Maria Grahn, Maritime Environmental Sciences
Hydrogen production costdepends on electricity price, investment cost for the electrolyser and
hours operation per year (note that scale on y-axis differ)
From presentation by Annabelle Brisse, brisse@eifer.org
Conference, Iceland, June 2013
Likely that hydrogen can be produced less than $4/kg = 120 USD/MWh (LHV) and 100 USD/MWh (HHV) [120 MJ/kg (LHV) and 142 MJ/kg (HHV) http://www.h2data.de/]
Maria Grahn, Maritime Environmental Sciences
Density comparison, i.e., hydrogen storage demand space
https://energy.gov/eere/fuelcells/hydrogen-storage
Low kWh/liter means needfor large space when stored(also as liquid).Howeverrather similarto pressurizedmethane.
Maria Grahn, Maritime Environmental Sciences
Hydrogen utilization
Maria Grahn, Maritime Environmental Sciences
Maria Grahn, Maritime Environmental Sciences
Example H2-production and back-up electricity
http://newenergyandfuel.com/http:/newenergyandfuel/com/2010/06/15/wind-to-fertilizer-construction-begins/
Wind Driven Hydrogen Production Plant in Norway
Utsira, Norway
Maria Grahn, Maritime Environmental Sciences
Production of Ammonia (NH3) from H2
http://newenergyandfuel.com/http:/newenergyandfuel/com/2010/06/15/wind-to-fertilizer-construction-begins/
NH3
H2
Fertilizer
Renewableelectricity
Maria Grahn, Maritime Environmental Sciences
Hydrogen can substitute coal in steel production
https://www.ssab.se/ssab/hallbarhet/hallbar-verksamhet/hybrit
Maria Grahn, Maritime Environmental Sciences
Hydrogen as base for the production of electrofuels, e.g.,Vulcanol from Iceland and Audi e-gas plant in Werlte, Germany
Vulcanol usage: 3% blend in all icelandic gasoline + export to e.g, the Netherlands and Sweden
Maria Grahn, Maritime Environmental Sciences
https://nikolamotor.com/
Hydrogen vehicles
http://www.hydrogenlondon.org/projects/london-hydrogen-bus-project/
http://www.treehugger.com/cars/are-hydrogen-fuel-cell-cars-realistic-option-compared-battery-electric-vehicles.html
https://fuelcellsworks.com/archives/2013/05/30/air-liquide-to-provide-first-hydrogen-filling-station-for-forklift-trucks-in-france-for-ikea/
http://planetforlife.com/h2/h2vehicle.html
Maria Grahn, Maritime Environmental Sciences
Hydrogen as electricity storage option
www.chalmers.se/en/areas-of-advance/energy/cei/Pages/Systems-Perspectives-on-Renewable-Power.aspx (Chapter 5)
Not many options for seasonalstorage. Hydrogen is oneoption (althoughchallenging to store).Pumped hydro and compressedair may be geographicallylimited.
Electrofuels similar to hydrogen regardingpotential for seasonal storage, but easier and less costly to store.
Maria Grahn, Maritime Environmental Sciences
Results and insights from my research
Maria Grahn
Methane(biogas, SNG, natural gas)
Hydrogen
Rail(train, tram)
Aviation
Shipping
Road (short) (cars, busses,
distribution trucks)
Road (long) (long distance
trucks and busses)
FCV (fuel cell vehicles)
Liquid fuels(petro, methanol, ethanol, biodiesel)
ICEV, HEV (internal combus-
tion engine vehiclesand hybrids)
Fossil(oil, natural
gas, coal)
Biomass
Solar, wind etc
Electrolysis
Productionof electro
fuels
CO2Water
ENERGY SOURCES ENERGY CARRIERS VEHICLE TECHNOLOGIES TRANSPORT MODES
Different fuels and vehicle technology options are differently well suited for different transport modes
Hydrogen a useful fuel or intermediate for further refining
BEV, PHEV (battery electric
vehicles)
Inductive and conductive
electricElectricity
Maria Grahn
Results on fuel mix for global car fleet using a global cost minimisation energysystems model aiming for CO2-stabilisation at 450 ppm.
Source: Grahn M, Azar C, Williander MI, Anderson JE, Mueller SA and Wallington TJ (2009). Fuel and vehicle technology choices for passenger vehicles in achieving stringent CO2 targets: connections between transportation and other energy sectors. Environmental Science and Technology 43(9): 3365–3371.
Passenger vehicle fleet
Battery cost: $300/kWh
0
1000
2000
3000
4000
5000
6000
2010 2020 2030 2040 2050 2060 2070 2080 2090 2100
Millio
n c
ars
C)
H2.ICEVNG.ICEV
PETRO.ICEV
PETRO.HEV
H2.FCV
PETRO.PHEV
GTL/CTL.PHEV
CO2-target: 450 ppm
ICEV = Internal Combustion engineFCV = Fuel cell vehicleHEV = Hybrid electric vehiclesPHEV = Plug-in electric vehicles
(Electrofuels are not included)
PETRO = Gasoline/DieselBTL= BiofuelsCTL= Fuels based on coalGTL= Fuels based on natural gasNG = Natural gasH2 = Hydrogen
General results:- It is not likely that one single solution will dominate the fuel scenario. - Hybrids and plug-in-hybrids are solutions that have the potential to play a large role in the near future.- Hydrogen is the most expensive solution but still a fuel that may dominate in a long term when oil,
natural gas and bioenergy are scarce sources. - Scenarios are most often either dominated by electricity or hydrogen solutions depending on battery prices, fuel
cell prices and hydrogen storage cost. - The globally limited amount of biomass can reduce CO2 emissions at a lower cost if it replaces fossil fuels in the
stationary energy sector compared to replacing oil in the transportation sector.
Productionof electro-fuels
Electro-lysis
Water (H2O)
Hydrogen (H2)El
Biomass(C6H10O5)
Biofuels
Methane (CH4)
Methanol (CH3OH)
DME (CH3OCH3)
Higher alcohols, e.g., Ethanol (C2H5OH)
Higher hydrocarbons, e.g., Gasoline (C8H18)
Biofuelproduction
How to utilize or
store possible
future excess
electricity
How to substitute fossil
based fuels in the
transportation sector,
especially aviation and
shipping face
challenges utlilzing
batteries and fuel cells.
400-3700 €2015/kWelec
CO2 from air and seawater
CO2 from combustion
Carbon dioxide
CO2
CO2
5-10 €/tCO2
H2
Electrofuels
Synthesis reactor (e.g. Sabatier, Fischer-Tropsch)
Heat
30-2100 €2015/kWfuel
How to utilize
the maximum of
carbon in the
globally limited
amount of
biomass
Other hydrogen options (H2)
Maria Grahn
10 insights from our research on electrofuels including electro-hydrogen
Maria Grahn
Insight 1a. Many different approaches among authors.Insight 1b. When data is ”harmonized” between the fueloptions (low compared to lowetc) the differences between the fuel options are minor.
Literature review, data differs. Production cost 2030 (mature costs) different electrofuel options
assuming most optimistic (low/best), least optimistic (high/worst) and median values (base)
Source: Brynolf S, Taljegård M, Grahn M, Hansson J. (2018). Electrofuels for the transport sector: a review of production costs. Renewable & Sustainable Energy Reviews 81 (2) 1887-
1905.
Insight 2: Costs for electrolyser and electricitydominatesNote. Currently wesee a trend towards lowerinvestment cost of electrolyzers(comes with an increased market). Some scenarios also point out a trend towardslower electricityprices in future (ifincreased variableelectricityproduction).
Electrolyser
uncertainties installation & indirect costs
Fuel synthesis and CO2 capture
Electricity
Example: Electro-diesel: base case=180 €/MWh (approx. 18 SEK/liter), best case=112 €/MWh (approx. 11 SEK/liter),
Maria Grahn
Production cost depend on capacity factor
Production costs found in literature
Fossil fuels 40-140
Methane from anaerobic digestion 40-180
Methanol from gasification of lignocellulose 80-120
Ethanol from maize, sugarcane, wheat and
waste
70-345
FAME from rapeseed, palm, waste oil 50-210
HVO from palm oil 134-185
Insight 5. Future production of electrofuels have the potential to be cost-competitive to advanced biofuels.
Ref: Brynolf S, Taljegård M, Grahn M, Hansson J. (2018). Electrofuels for the transport sector: a review of production costs. Renewable & Sustainable Energy Reviews 81 (2) 1887-1905.
Insight 4. Production costs may lie in the order of 100-150 EUR/MWh in future.
Insight 3. Production cost depends on capacity factor. Below 40% result in much higher costs per produced MWh of fuel.
Maria Grahn
Are there enough renewable CO2?
Maria Grahn
Results on available CO2 sources in Sweden
Tot 45 Mt CO2 of which 30 Mt is biogenic=renewable
Sweden
Assuming replacing all bunker fuel (TWh) 22
Electricity demand (TWh) 42
Carbon dioxide (Mton) 6
Current electricity use in Sweden (TWh) 140
RE generation goal 2020 (TWh) 30
How much fuel can be produced?
- 45 MtCO2/yr (fossil+renewable)
- 30 MtCO2/yr is recoverable from
biogenic sources =>110 TWh/yr
electro-methanol
Ref: Hansson J, Hackl R, Taljegård M, Brynolf S and Grahn M (2017). The potential for electrofuels production in Sweden utilizing fossil and biogenic CO2
point sources. Frontiers in Energy Research 5:4. doi: 10.3389/fenrg.2017.00004 http://journal.frontiersin.org/article/10.3389/fenrg.2017.00004/full
Insight 6. The amount of recoverable non-fossil CO2 is not a limiting factor for a large scale production of electrofuels, in Sweden.Note. The revised EU-directive on renewable fuels states that electrofuels is a “renewable liquid and gaseous transport fuels of non-biological origin” ifthe energy content is renewable (article 2.36). Electrofuels from fossil industrial CO2 is defined as ”recycled carbon fuels” (article 2.35) and not defined as renewable.
Maria Grahn
Cost-comparison of alternatives based on renewable electricity
depending on distance driven per year.
Compare electrofuels in ICEV to other electricity based powertrain options including electric road system
Ref: Grahn M, Taljegard M, Brynolf S (2018). Electricity as an Energy Carrier in Transport: Cost and Efficiency Comparison of Different Pathways. EVS31, Kobe, Japan. 1-3 Oct.
Maria Grahn
Electric road systems (ERS)Electric vehicles (EV) Hydrogen Electro-diesel (E-diesel)
Different ways of using electricity for transport
Water (H2O) + electricity
H2
H2 + CO2
e.g. diesel
efficiency = 73% Efficiency = 77% Efficency = 24% Efficiency = 17%
Ref: Grahn M, Taljegard M, Brynolf S (2018). Electricity as an Energy Carrier in Transport: Cost and Efficiency Comparison of Different Pathways. EVS31, Kobe, Japan. 1-3 Oct.
Maria Grahn
Results Passenger cars
Small battery + fast charging attractive option all distances (compared to other “electricity options”)(no cost penalty for waiting while charging)
ERS also a cost-attractive option(large ERS network to be built before reducing battery size, business models key for introduction)
Electro-diesel cost-competitive with BEV-50 kWh up to 16 000 km/yr.
EV-battery = 150 €/kWhFC = 25 €/kW, 65%Electrolysers=400 €/kWel, 75%
Insight 7. Small BEVs generally the least costly alternative to utilize electricity in transport. Electro-diesel in ICEVs the least cost solution if the vehicle is run short distances per year.Note. Production costs (no taxes or subsidies).
Ref: Grahn M, Taljegard M, Brynolf S (2018). Electricity as an Energy Carrier in Transport: Cost and Efficiency Comparison of Different Pathways. EVS31, Kobe, Japan. 1-3 Oct.
Abbrevations used: BEV=battery electric vehicle; FCEV=hydrogen fuel cell
vehicle; PHEV=plug-in hydrid vehicle using electricity and e-diesel; E-
diesel=synthetic diesel (electro-diesel); ERS=electric road system
0 5000 10 000 35 00030 00025 00015 000 20 000
Maria Grahn
CCS or CCU from a climate perspective?
Global long-term energy systems perspective
CCS = Carbon Capture and StorageCCU = Carbon Capture and Utilization
Maria Grahn
Energy-economy model Global Energy Transition (GET)
Linearly programmed energy systems cost-minimizing model. Generates the fuel and technology mix that meets the demand (subject to
the constraints) at lowest global energy system cost
Source: Lehtveer, M., Brynolf, S., Grahn, M. (2019). What future for electrofuels in transport? – analysis of cost-competitiveness in global climate mitigation. Environmental Science and
Technology 53 (3) 1690–1697..
Maria Grahn
Results, two scenarios showing different amount of electrofuels
Source: Lehtveer, M., Brynolf, S., Grahn, M. (2019). What future for electrofuels in transport? – analysis of cost-competitiveness in global climate mitigation. Environmental Science and
Technology 53 (3) 1690–1697..
Petro
NG
Elec
Synfuels
Petro NGElec
Synfuels incl
electrofuels
Base Case, 450 ppm
No CCS, 450 ppm
Results for year 2070. Monte Carlo analysis 500 runs, 450 ppm
Insight 8: The cost-effectiveness of electrofuels in global climate mitigation will depend strongly on the amount of CO2 that can be stored away from the atmosphere.If large carbon storage is an accepted and availabletechnology, the captured CO2 can contribute to climatemitigation to a lower cost if stored underground, instead of recycled into electrofuels.
Electrofuels: H2 from electrolysis of water + CO2Synfuels: H2 from thermal split of water + CO2
Maria Grahn
Chemical industrial perspective
Maria Grahn
Substitute fossil fuels in industrial processesAssess if there are conditions under which production cost of electro-hydrogen and electro-methanol are competitive to market price of fossil hydrogen and fossil methanol.
Fossil
hydrogen
Other inputs
Biofuels
(HVO)
Electro-hydrogen
Fossil
methanol
Other inputs
Biofuels
(FAME)
Electro-
methanol
The Preem case The Perstorp case
50 €/MWh 63 €/MWh
Grahn M, A-K Jannasch (2018). What electricity price would make electrofuels cost-competitive?, 6th TMFB, Tailor-Made Fuels from
Production to Propulsion Aachen, Germany. 19-21 June.
Maria Grahn
Electrolysis is a
large post
Electricity is the
dominating post
Synthesis reactor
and water
CO2 capture
Experience factor
for installation and
unexpected costs
is a large post
Results production cost electrofuels compared to market price for fossil options
Base case
86
50
158
63
23 50
40
Future optimistic case
63
Revenue sold
heat
Revenue sold
oxygen
In a future
optimistic
case the
production
cost could be
competitive to
fossil option
Grahn M, A-K Jannasch (2018). What electricity price would make electrofuels cost-competitive?, 6th TMFB, Tailor-Made Fuels from
Production to Propulsion Aachen, Germany. 19-21 June.
Maria Grahn
Production cost of electro-hydrogen, for different electricity prices and different electrolyser investment cost, in the (a) base case and in a (b) future optimistic
scenario
Green-marked results indicate a production cost that is equal or below what the industries’ pay for fossil hydrogen (50 €/MWh).
Yellow-marked results indicate a production cost that is equal or below double the market price of fossil hydrogen (100 €/MWh).
Red-marked results indicate a production cost that is higher than double the market price of fossil hydrogen i.e. difficult to see business opportunities (>100 €/MWh).
Grahn M, A-K Jannasch (2018). What electricity price would make electrofuels cost-competitive?, 6th TMFB, Tailor-Made Fuels from
Production to Propulsion Aachen, Germany. 19-21 June.
Maria Grahn
Production cost of electro-methanol, for different electricity prices and different electrolyser investment cost, in (a) base
case and (b) future optimistic scenario
Green-marked results indicate a production cost that is equal or below what the industries’ pay for fossil methanol (63 €/MWh).
Yellow-marked results indicate a production cost that is equal or below double the market price of fossil methanol (126 €/MWh).
Red-marked results indicate a production cost that is higher than double the market price of fossil methanol, i.e. difficult to see business opportunities (>126 €/MWh).
Insight 9. There are circumstances when electrofuels can be produced at lower cost compared to the market price of fossil options (however, not assuming current costs).
Insight 10. Lower costs for electrolyzers, lower average annual cost for electricity as well as a market for oxygen and heat would benefit the cost-competitiveness of electrofuels.
Grahn M, A-K Jannasch (2018). What electricity price would make electrofuels cost-competitive?, 6th TMFB, Tailor-Made Fuels from
Production to Propulsion Aachen, Germany. 19-21 June.
Maria Grahn
Summary insights so far from our research on electrofuels1. In the literature it appears many different approaches among authors when presenting
production costs. Experience factor for indirect costs the main difference, as well as different assumptions on technology maturity level. When input data is ”harmonized” between the fuel options the differences between the fuel options are minor.
2. Costs for electrolyser and electricity are dominating posts of the total electrofuels production cost.
3. Production cost depends on capacity factor. Below 40% result in much higher costs per produced MWh of fuel.
4. Production costs may lie in the order of 100-150 EUR/MWh in future. 5. Future production of electrofuels have the potential to be cost-competitive to advanced
biofuels.6. The amount of recoverable non-fossil CO2 is not a limiting factor for large scale production of
electrofuels, in Sweden.7. Small BEVs generally the least costly alternative to utilize electricity in transport. Electro-
diesel in ICEVs the least cost solution if the vehicle is run short distances per year.8. The cost-effectiveness of electrofuels, in a global climate mitigation context, will depend
strongly on the amount of CO2 that can be stored away from the atmosphere. 9. There are circumstances when electrofuels can be produced at lower cost compared to the
market price of fossil options (however, not assuming current costs). 10. Lower costs for electrolyzers, lower average annual cost for electricity as well as a market for
oxygen and heat would benefit the cost-competitiveness of electrofuels.
Maria Grahn, Maritime Environmental Sciences
Summary hydrogen
• Very flexible base for production of hydrogen.
• Likely both cheaper and more efficient H2 production in future.
• Many end-use sectors for hydrogen, either as H2 or further synthesized to e.g. ammonia or carbon basedfuels (methane, methanol, gasoline etc).
• Can be used to store electricity.
• H2 in fuel cells may be a cost-effective solution in the transport sector in future.
• H2 reacted with CO2 (electrofuels) may under somecircumstances be a cost-effective solution in the transport sector in future.
Maria Grahn
Long-term perspectives on almost CO2 free fuels: General insights from my research
• Three types of energy carriers have the potential to substantially reduce the fossil CO2 emissions from the transportation sector: carbon based fuels (biofuels/electrofuels), electricity and hydrogen.
• Fuels that have an advantage are those that – can be blended in conventional fuels (drop-in, alcohols, biodiesel, efuels).– already have a wide-spread fuel infrastructure (ethanol, methane, EV charging
poles).– EU have decided to focus on (electricity, methane, hydrogen).
• It is most likely that parallel solutions will be developed, e.g.– There are many advantages for electric solutions in cities. Aspects like a reduction of
NOx, soot, and noise. Most likely different electric solutions in cities (electric buses, cars, delivery trucks, trams, metro etc).
– There are several challenges for electrifying long-distance transport (especially ships and aircrafts). Electrofuels may complement biofuels for these transport modes.
• Irrespective of fuel type, CO2 emissions can be reduced by more energy efficient vehicles and measurements towards reduced transport demand.
Maria Grahn
Our research group, future fuels incl electrofuels
All studies trying to shed some light to the larger research question ”Under what circumstances could electrofuels including hydrogen become an interesting option in the fuel mix of the transportation sector?”
Selma Brynolf
Karin Andersson Maria Grahn Elin Malmgren
Julia Hansson Karna Dahal