How to Read and Understanda Research Study

As a student and later in your professional life, you are likely to read research studies conducted by other people.

INTRODUCTION

You may even conduct your own research study.

A good scientific study builds on and

furthers what is already known about

a particular topic.

In order to help you read and understand research studies, this presentation will:

Explore the components of a scientific paper.Explain what you need to know in order to evaluate the quality of a scientific study.

Abstract

INTRODUCTION

Literature cited

hypo

thes

is Observational

Study

Quasi-Experiment

VARIABLES

control group

RELIABLILITY

internal validity

experimental group

Methods

random sample

construct validity

procedure

Every research paper has seven sections:

AbstractIntroductionMethods

ResultsDiscussionAcknowledgementsLiterature Cited

Let’s explore each section and consider the information that can be found in each.

The abstract is the first section of a research paper.

Explain what is being studied and why.

Section 1: The Abstract

Sections of a Research Paper

Include a brief description of procedures used.Offer a brief explanation of the major results of the study.Describe the significance of the results in a larger context.

An abstract should:It contains

a short summary (about 250 words).

Our finding have implications _____ _________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Analysis of our data indicated that ______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

The methods we used __________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

This paper will study__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

ABSTRACT

The introduction provides background information explaining the basis of a research study.

For example, a research study can be based on other research studies.

Section 2: The Introduction

Sections of a Research Paper

INTRODUCTION

The introduction should:

State the problem being tested as a question.Contain a hypothesis.Cite other literature and studies on the topic.Explain why the research is important.

Section 2: The Introduction

Sections of a Research Paper

*A hypothesis is a prediction about the relationship between variables.It is usually written as an “If… then” statement.

*

This study adds to our knowledge____ _______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

We looked at studies done by______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

We believe that if we treat____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

What will be the effect of______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

INTRODUCTION

The methods section describes the exact procedures performed

in an experiment.It is important that this section provides a lot of detail so that another researcher can repeat the study.

Section 3: Methods

Sections of a Research Paper

METHODS

The methods section should include a discussion of:

Research participants.

Materials, or what was used in the study.

Procedure

Section 3: Methods

Sections of a Research Paper

Protocols for our methodology_____ _________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

The equipment and resources needed__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

The subjects who took part_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

METHODS

Let’s look more closely at

the participants component of the methods section.

Define the overall population.

Explain the type of sample that was selected for the research.Show how the sample was selected.

In discussing research participants, a researcher should:

Section 3: Methods

Sections of a Research Paper

*

**A population is the general type of person (or animal) that will participate in the study.

*A sample is a subset of that population.

A random sample allows every person (or animal) in the population an equal chance of being selected for the sample.Random assignment places each subject in the sample into either the control or experimental group based entirely on chance.

In a large potential population, you need to have a way to select a random sample.

Section 3: Methods

Sections of a Research Paper

Let’s look more closely at

the participants component of the methods section.

There are a few

different types of research studies.

Observational StudiesTrue ExperimentsQuasi-Experiments

Section 3: Methods

Sections of a Research Paper

These include:

Observational Study

Section 3: Methods

Sections of a Research Paper

Naturalistic, in which the researcher or observer is invisible to what is being studied.Participatory, in which the observer is a participant in the behavior being studied or sometimes the observer’s presence may affect the behavior being studied.

An observational study is a descriptive study.

There are two types of observational studies

Section 3: Methods

Sections of a Research Paper

Observational Study

True Experiments

Performed in a highly controlled environment.

Have a control group, which is NOT exposed to the independent variable and an experimental group, which IS exposed to the independent variable.

An experimental study allows the researcher to control the environment in order to examine the causal effects of one variable on another variable.

True experiments are:

Section 3: Methods

Sections of a Research Paper

*An independent variable is the component that is being manipulated in a study. A dependent variable is

the component that is affected by the independent variable.

It is what is being studied in an experiment.

*

Let’s consider an example:If you wish to study the effects of caffeine consumption on blood pressure, the independent variable would be the amount of caffeine consumed during the day.

Section 3: Methods

Sections of a Research Paper

True Experiments

The dependent variable would be the participant’s blood pressure reading.

In a true experiment, there may be more than one experimental group.

By creating more than one experimental group, you may increase the quality of your study and enhance the value of its findings.

Section 3: Methods

Sections of a Research Paper

In any experiment,

it is vital to ensure that the only different between the control and experimental

group is the independent variable.

NOTE!

True Experiments

CONTROL GROUP

EXPERIMENTAL GROUP 1

EXPERIMENTAL GROUP 2

Let’s revisit our example.

A control group, which receives no coffee.

Experimental Group A, which receives 1 cup of coffee per day.Experimental Group B, which receives 2 cups of coffee per day.

Perhaps when designing your study into the effects of caffeine consumption on blood pressure, you decide to create three groups:

The addition of the second experimental group may enhance your ability to assess the effects of caffeine on blood pressure.

Section 3: Methods

Sections of a Research Paper

True Experiments

CONTROL GROUP

EXPERIMENTAL GROUP 1

EXPERIMENTAL GROUP 2

A

B

Quasi-experiments differ from true experiments in that:

You cannot make true causal statements.

If you are studying school segregation, you cannot, for ethical reasons, assign students to be segregated.

Section 3: Methods

Sections of a Research Paper

Quasi-Experiments

Subjects may not be randomly assigned to a control or experimental group for either ethical or practical reasons. Additionally, if you are

studying a situation involving gender, your subjects are either male or female. Practically speaking, you cannot assign someone to be male for a study.

For example…

In quasi-experiments you CAN:

Establish consistent relational patterns.Manipulate dependent and independent variables.

Section 3: Methods

Sections of a Research Paper

Quasi-Experiments

In exploring the methods used in a research study, you can determine the quality of a study’s design.

How large was the sample size?

How were the subjects selected?What did the experiment control for?

Were the measurements reliable and valid?

When evaluating the quality of the design of a study, you should ask:

Section 3: Methods

Sections of a Research Paper

Let’s take a closer look at these considerations.

Sample size

The use of random selection and assignment makes it more likely that a sample represents its greater population.

A larger sample size decreases the likelihood that the conclusions or results are due to chance.

Section 3: Methods

Sections of a Research Paper

Let’s take a closer look at these considerations.

Subject selection

The quality of a research study is dependent on its results being reliable and dependable.

Reliability and validity .

* †

† Validity represents the confidence that the

findings of an experiment represent

the truth of the situation.

* Reliability refers to the stability of a measurement.

When reading a research study, you must be able to determine that the experiment is both reliable and valid.

An experiment is reliable when it will provide the same results if it is repeated.

Section 3: Methods

Sections of a Research Paper

A valid test measures what it set out to measure.

An experiment is valid if the results correlate to real-world behavior.

Section 3: Methods

Sections of a Research Paper

When reading a research study, you must be able to determine that the experiment is both reliable and valid.

Internal validity, or the degree to which the design of the experiment allows the questions to be tested by eliminating outside influences.Construct validity, or how well the test measures what it is believed to be measuring.

There are three types of validity:

External validity, or the degree to which the experiment actually generalizes to the world outside the study.

Section 3: Methods

Sections of a Research Paper

When reading a research study, you must be able to determine that the experiment is both reliable and valid.

The results section includes the data that

is analyzed in the study.

Be concise.

Section 4: ResultsSections of a Research Paper

Use graphs and charts to illustrate results.

Show quantitatively whether the hypothesis was correct or not.

This section should:Our statistical data showed_____ _________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

The findings of this____________________________________

●_______________ ●_______________ ●_______________ ●_______________

RESULTS

One common statistical test calculates the P-value.*

A result is significant when it is most likely not due to random chance.

Different statistical tests are used to determine whether results are significant.

Section 4: Results

For most research, a P-value of 0.05 or less is considered to be significant. This means that there is less than a 5% chance that what you see in the results happened by chance alone.

Sections of a Research Paper

* The P-value shows the probability

that the differences between control

and experimental groups are due

to chance.

Greater accuracy could be attained_ _______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

The discussion section summarizes, in a more global way, the meaning of the results.

Does NOT simply reiterate the results.

Section 5: Discussion

Sections of a Research Paper

Tries to connect the information presented to the theory and findings from previous research.

Notes consistencies and inconsistencies between what was found in the study and what has been found in other studies.

Discusses the weaknesses of the study.

The discussion:

Offers suggestions for further research based on the study.

The inconsistent results weakened our_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Comparing our results with previous_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Our results strengthen prior attempts______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

What we found to be interesting was______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

DISCUSSION

When evaluating the discussion, you should ask:

Does the discussion explain the results, or does it just restate them?Does the author spend adequate time discussing the implications of all of the results, or does she just focus on some of the results?Are the implications from the study appropriate?Is the author drawing conclusions from the study that are too general?

Section 5: Discussion

Sections of a Research Paper

The acknowledgements section thanks the people or institutions that helped with the research, or who provided financial or academic support throughout the course of the study.

Section 6: AcknowledgementsSections of a Research Paper

Funding was generously provided_________ ________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

We would like to thank the University of ____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

This study would not be possible but for_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The literature cited section should contain a comprehensive list of all the articles and studies referenced in the study.

Section 7: Literature Cited

Sections of a Research Paper

STUDIES CITED IN THIS STUDY ________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

________________JOURNALS

REFERENCED IN THIS STUDY __________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

______________

LITERATURE CITED

Throughout the body of the paper, a researcher should use in-text citations to acknowledge any outside article, paper, or study referenced.

Section 7: Literature Cited

Sections of a Research Paper

STUDIES CITED IN THIS STUDY ________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

________________JOURNALS

REFERENCED IN THIS STUDY __________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

______________

LITERATURE CITED

Throughout the body of the paper, a researcher should use in-text citations to acknowledge any outside article, paper, or study referenced.

An in-text citation should look like this.

Section 7: Literature Cited

Sections of a Research Paper

but we didn’t encounter any oin comparison to the variation ter. This difference can be attnly once. (Jones, 2002). Furthevery two days to see if the trspace. Twice during the first jects rejected the association

(Jones, 2002)

At the end of the paper, he or she should compile a list of all citations found throughout the text.

Section 7: Literature Cited

Sections of a Research Paper

Throughout the body of the paper, a researcher should use in-text citations to acknowledge any outside article, paper, or study referenced.

The author.

The title of the article.

The journal title.

The page number where the cited information can be found.The year the article was published.

Appropriate citations have a reference structure that includes:

Section 7: Literature Cited

Sections of a Research Paper

Jones, Sarah (2002). “The effects of exercise on academic performance.” Journal of Exercise Science. 81: 154-162.

Every research paper has seven sections:

AbstractIntroductionMethods

ResultsDiscussionAcknowledgementsLiterature Cited

Understanding each component, including the information it provides, will make you better able to read and evaluate any research study.

SUMMARY

This presentation is based on Insight Media’s DVD How to Read and Understand a Research Study.

The Research Process: Research Design

Experimentation: Types of Designs and Interpretation of Data

Quasi-Experiments and Small-N Designs

Measurement Methods: Reliability and Validity of Participants’ Responses

For further information on the topic, please order How to Read and Understand a Research Study on DVD.

Research Ethics

Or ask about other PowerPoint presentations in Insight Media’s Research series:

www. insight-media.comcs@insight-media.com

800-233-9910 212-721-63162162 Broadway ● New York ● NY 10024

Written and Edited by: Kristin Thieling-Di RicoPresentation by: Paul Aljian

www. insight-media.comcs@insight-media.com

800-233-9910 212-721-63162162 Broadway ● New York ● NY 10024