Transcript of Foundations and Early History of Clinical Psychology.
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- Foundations and Early History of Clinical Psychology
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- Lecture Preview Early Conceptions of Mental Illness: Mind and
Body Paradigms The Founding of Clinical Psychology The Influence of
Binets Intelligence Test The Influence of Sigmund Freud in America
The American Psychological Association and Early Clinical
Psychology The Influence of World War I Clinical Psychology between
World Wars I and II The Influence of World War II
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- Early Conceptions of Mental Illness: Mind and Body Paradigms
Clinical psychology has borrowed from philosophical, medical, and
scientific advances throughout the centuries. In this chapter, well
trace the history and development of clinical psychology, from
ancient times until World War I.
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- Mind and Body Paradigms Several Greek thinkers were essential
in the early development of integrative approaches to illness, and
were pioneer to a biopsychosocial perspective. According to them,
the gods controlled both health and illness. Greeks didnt believe
supernatural influences. The mind and body were closely
interrelated.
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- Hippocrates (460377 B.C.) Disease was primarily the result of
an imbalance in four bodily fluids including black bile, yellow
bile, phlegm, and blood. The relationship between them determined
personality.
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- too much yellow bile resulted in a choleric (angry, irritable)
temperament, too much black bile resulted in a melancholic
(sadness, hopelessness) personality.
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- Hippocrates (460377 B.C.) He was sensitive to interpersonal,
psychological, and stress factors that contribute to problem
behavior. He helped to move from a spiritualistic toward a more
naturalistic view or model of health and illness. Biological,
psychological, and social factors all contribute to both physical
and emotional illness early biopsychosocial perspective
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- Plato (427347 B.C.) saw the spirit or soul as being in charge
of the body and that problems in the soul could result in physical
illness.
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- Aristotle (384322 B.C.) maintained a scientific emphasis.
Treatment for mental problems should include talking and the use of
logic. The use of logic is one of the major principles of CBT.
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- Galen of Pergamum (A.D. 130200) Galen also used the balance
between the four bodily fluids. Brain was the center of sensation
and reason.
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- Vomiting to treat depression and bloodletting to treat diseases
were common treatments. Above photograph was taken in British
Museum by Bahar Batu.
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- The Middle Ages (5001450) temporarily derailed from this
scientific way, the focus on supernatural influences insanity were
caused by spiritual matters such as the influence of demons,
witches, and sin.
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- Healing and treatment in Middle Age Became a spiritual rather
than a medical way. People who were insane were treated by
exorcism. Some were chained to church walls; some were tortured and
killed. In 1484, Pope approved the persecution of witches. 150,000
people were executed in the name of religion.
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- The photograph was taken in Girne Museum by Bahar Batu.
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- Trepanation The photographs were taken in Samsun Archaeological
Museum by Bahar Batu.
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- Malleus maleficarum (1510) written by two Dominican priests was
witch-hunt manuals.
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- Saint Thomas Aquinas (12251274) there was both theological
truth and scientific truth. He claimed that mental illness must
have a physical cause.
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- Paracelsus (14901541) A Swiss physician suggested that various
movements of the stars, moon, and planets influenced mood and
behavior. Paracelsus focused on the biological foundations of
mental illness and developed humane treatments.
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- The Renaissance (14th17th centuries) New discoveries in
chemistry, physics, biology, and mathematics revealed. The emphasis
on scientific observation and experimentation rather than
mythology, religious beliefs, and dogma provided a model for future
research. New medical discoveries resulted in biomedical approach
that disease, including mental illness, could be understood by
scientific observation and experimentation rather than beliefs
about mind and soul.
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- Descartes (15961650) A French philosopher argued that the mind
and body were separate. >> dualism of mind and body Mental
illness was often considered a disease of the brain, and the insane
was treated using the medical orientation.
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- Bedlam Despite the medical developments, treatment was bad. St.
Mary of Bethlehem Hospital in London Bedlam (1547) was opened.
Cures included ice water (hydrotherapy) and bloodletting. Above
photograph was taken in British Museum by Bahar Batu.
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- The Nineteenth Century Many advances allowed for a more
sophisticated understanding of the relationship between body and
mind in both health and illness. Disease and illness could be
attributed to dysfunction at the cellular level.
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- The nineteenth-century discovery that germs or microorganisms
can cause disease have continued to support the Cartesian dualism
perspective of Descartes. Dualism was softened due to the influence
of a belief that the mind and body were connected, not
separate.
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- Franz Mesmer (1734 1815) An Austrian physician, noticed that
many people experiencing paralysis, deafness, and blindness had no
biomedical pathology, leaving psychological causes suspect.
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- Claude Bernard (18131878) argued for the role of psychological
factors in physical illness.
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- Jean Martin Charcot (1825-1893) a French physician, used
hypnosis to treat a wide variety of conversion disorders such as
paralysis, blindness, deafness without apparent physical
cause.
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- Philippe Pinel (1745 - 1826) Pinel found moral therapy to treat
patients as humanely as possible and encouraged the nurturance of
interpersonal relationships. He improved the living conditions and
treatment approaches used by mental hospitals.
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- Dorothea Dix (18021887) a Massachusetts school teacher, During
the Civil War, she acted as the head nurse for the Union Military.
worked to improve treatment conditions for the mentally ill in the
USA.
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- Emil Kraepelin (18561926) German physician, defined the term
dementia praecox to describe SCH. claimed that mental disorders
were brain disorders. assisted in developing a classification
system for understanding and categorizing many mental
disorders.
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- Franz Alexander (18911964) Studied the association between
psychological factors and both physical and mental illnesses. As a
specific stressor occurred, a genetically predetermined organ
system responds. By repressing conflict, psychic energy could be
channeled into the sympathetic nervous system, thus producing
disease. While one person might repress conflict and develop an
ulcer, another person might develop colitis, headache, or
asthma.
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- Eugen Bleuler (18571930) named firstly SCH.
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- The Birth of Psychology Wilhelm Wundt (1832- 1920) developed
the first lab of psychology at the University of Leipzig, Germany
in 1879, psychology was born. He was interested in individual and
group differences in sensation and perception in various lab
experiments.
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- William James (1842 - 1910) established a psychology lab at
Harvard University at about the same time with Wundt. published
Principles of Psychology, the first classic psychology text.
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- Stanley Hall established the second American psychology lab at
John Hopkins University in 1883, while James McKeen Cattell
established the third American lab in 1888. Hall established the
first independent psychology department at Clark University in
1887. In 1892, the American Psychological Association (APA) was
founded. Stanley Hall was elected its first president.
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- Sir Francis Galton (1822-1911) Although not a psychologist, a
relative of Charles Darwin, Galton was interested in statistical
analysis of differences among people in reaction time, sensory
experiences, and motor behavior. First testing attempts
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- In the USA, James McKeen Cattell (18601944) also studied
reaction time and other differences in human behavior. Pychology
was founded, but psychologists were interested in empirically
measuring various aspects of human behavior to better understand
the mind. They had very little interest in applying their findings
to help people with problems or disorders. The desire to apply
these methods and principles to people was soon to result in the
birth of clinical psychology.
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- The Founding of Clinical Psychology The clinical psychology as
a speciality area was born in 1896 with the opening of the first
psychological clinic at the University of Pennsylvania by Lightner
Witmer.
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- Lightner Witmer (18671956) completed undergraduate studies at
the Univ. of Pennsylvania in 1888. earned his PhD at the Univ. of
Leipzig under Wundt in 1892. returned to the Univ. of Pennsylvania
as the director of psychology lab.
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- He was asked by a teacher to help her student who was not
performing well in school. After assessing the childs problem,
Witmer developed a specific treatment program. He proposed that a
psychological clinic could be assigned to diagnosis and evaluation,
individual treatment, research, and the training of students. His
colleagues disliked his idea, because, during this time, psychology
was considered a science, it shouldnt be applied to actual clinical
problems.
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- His contributions to the present day Many of his principles are
still used today. a multidisciplinary team approach. He was
interested in preventing problems before they emerged.
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- The Influence of Binets Intelligence Test Alfred Binet (1857
-1911), a French scientist, founded the first psychology laboratory
in France, in 1885. Binet was interested in developing tests to
investigate mental abilities in children. In 1904, a French
commission invited Binet and Theodore Simon, to develop a method to
assist in providing mentally disabled children with appropriate
educational services. Binet and Simon developed an intelligence
test.
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- The Influence of Binets Intelligence Test Henry Goddard learned
the Binet-Simon scale while in Europe during 1908. He brought it
back to the USA for translation and use. In 1916, Stanford
University psychologist Lewis Terman revised the scale and renamed
it the Stanford-Binet. Measuring the intellectual abilities of
children became a major activity.
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- The Influence of Freud in America Freud (1856-1939 ) proposed
that unconscious conflicts and emotional influences could cause
mental and physical illness. Freuds 1900 publication of The
Interpretation of Dreams resulted in acceptance of the
psychoanalytic perspective.
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- The Influence of Freud in America In 1909, Clark University was
celebrating its 20th anniversary and Stanley Hall invited a large
number of psychologists, psychiatrists, and academics for a series
of lectures. In addition to Freud, Carl Jung, Otto Rank, Sandor
Ferenczi, James McKeen Cattell, E. B. Titchener, and William James
were invited.This conference increased the acceptance of Freuds
psychoanalytic theories in the USA.
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- The American Psychological Association and Early Clinical
Psychology During 1910s and 1920s, the APA was interested in
scientific research in academic settings and was disinterested in
clinical applications in the field. Clinicians felt the lack of
interest and support by the APA and they decided to leave the
organization. American Association of Clinical Psychologists (AACP)
was founded in 1917. The AACP rejoined the APA as a clinical
section in 1919.
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- This difference of opinion between clinicians and academicians
in psychology and between the applied clinical professionals and
academic and scientific members of APA continues.
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- The Influence of World War I When the USA entered the war in
1917, a large number of recruits needed to be classified based on
their intellectual and psychological functioning. The U.S. Army
asked from the APA an appropriate test for the military
recruits.
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- Army Alpha and Army Beta intelligence tests were developed by
Henry Goddard, Lewis Terman, and Guy Whipple. The Army Alpha was a
verbal test; Army Beta was a nonverbal test. The Army Alpha and
Army Beta tests could be administered to very large groups of
people and both literate and nonliterate adults.
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- Clinical Psychology between World Wars I and II A testing
development explosion occurred, over 500 psychological tests had
been produced. These tests included both verbal and nonverbal
intelligence tests, personality and psychological functioning
tests, and career interest and vocational skill tests.
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- Rorschach Inkblot Test (1921), the Goodenough Draw- A-Man Test
(1926), the Thematic Apperception Test (1935), and the
Wechsler-Bellevue Intelligence Scale (1939) James McKeen Cattell
founded the Psychological Corporation to sell psychological tests
to various organizations and professionals.
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- Hermann Rorschach (1884-1922) In 1921, Hermann Rorschach
published Psychodiagnostik, the famous inkblot test. Rorschach was
a Swiss psychiatrist who died shortly after the publication of his
famous test.
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- In 1937, S. J. Beck and Klopfer published scoring procedures
for the Rorschach that facilitated much more research to be
conducted using the instrument.
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- David Wechsler (1896-1981) In 1939, he developed the first
comprehensive and individually administered intelligence test for
adults. The Wechsler-Bellevue WAIS
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- Psychotherapy The early work of clinical psychologists involved
psychological and intellectual testing. Psychotherapy and other
treatment services were conducted by psychiatrists. Psychiatrists
in the USA believed that only physicians could provide
psychotherapy. In the late 1980s, psychologists won the right to be
admitted as full members of American psychoanalytic institutes,
resulting in their current ability to conduct psychoanalysis with
patients.
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- Unlike the psychoanalytic treatment provided by psychiatrists
at the time, psychological treatment was more behavioral,
reflecting the research developments in academic laboratories.
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- John Watson (1878 1958) In 1920, he detailed the well-known
case of little Albert who was conditioned to be fearful of white
furry objects. Mary Cover Jones demonstrated how these types of
fears could be removed using conditioning techniques, in 1924.
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- Training By the early 1940s, there were no official training
programs or policies regulating the field of clinical psychology.
The majority of the APA membership consisted of academics primarily
interested in research rather than practice applications.
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- In 1935, the APA Committee on Standards of Training in Clinical
Psychology recommended that a PhD and one year of supervised
clinical experience be required to become a clinical psychologist.
But the recommendation was ignored because the APA did nothing to
enforce their recommendation at that time.
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- A large group of clinicians again left the APA in 1937 to form
a new organization, the American Association of Applied Psychology
(AAAP). This new organization rejoined the APA in 1945.
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- The Influence of World War II With the United States
involvement in World War II, the need to assess military recruits
again became serious. A committee developed a group administered
intelligence test called the Army General Classification Test. The
committee recommended several other tests, such as the Personal
Inventory, and brief versions of the Rorschach Inkblot Test and the
TAT.
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- The Influence of World War II New tests were developed such as
the MMPI as an objective personality inventory by Hathaway in 1943.
In 1949, David Wechsler published the Wechsler Intelligence Scale
for Children (WISC). The American Board of Examiners in
Professional Psychology (ABEPP) was created to certify
psychologists. This examination is now used in every state.
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