Fluency

FLUENCY

Presentation for the Iowa Department of Education

Des Moines, Iowa - December 10 & 12, 2002

Salli Forbes

The University of Iowa

Two main resources that this talk is based upon:

Armbruster, B.B., Leahr, F., & Osborn,J.M. (2001). Put Reading First. Jessup,MD: National Institute for Literacy at EDPubs.(Developed by the Center for the Improvement ofEarly Reading Achievement - CIERA)

National Reading Panel (2000). Teaching Children toRead: An Evidence-Based Assessment of theScientific Research Literature on Reading and ItsImplications for Reading Instruction: Reports ofthe Subgroups. Jessup, MD: National Institute forLiteracy at EDPubs.

Why is fluency important?

Fluency is important becauseit provides a bridge betweenword recognition andcomprehension.

Development of efficientword recognition skills isassociated with improvedcomprehension.

Calfee & Piontkowski (1981)Herman (1985)Stanovich (1985)

Fluent readers…focus their attention on makingconnections among the ideas ina text and between these ideasand their backgroundknowledge.

Fluent readers…are able to focus oncomprehension.

Less fluent readers…must focus their attentionprimarily on decodingindividual words.

Less fluent readers…have little attention left forcomprehending the text.

What is fluency in reading?

Accurate and quick reading

Expressive reading

Fluency is the freedom fromword identification problemsthat might hindercomprehension.

Harris & Hodges (1995)The Literacy Dictionary

Fluent readers have developedautomaticity in: word recognition grouping words into

meaningful phrases noting punctuation.

Automaticity. When a taskthat formerly requiredattention for its performancecan be performed without [orwith little] attention, the taskis being done automatically.

Samuels (1994) p.823

Automaticity and fluency arenot synonymous.

Readers must haveautomaticity in wordrecognition to be fluent.

Fluent readers recognizewords, letter clusters and lettersquickly and easily(automatically).

Fast (or automatic) wordrecognition is necessary, butnot sufficient to be a fluentreader.

Fluent reading is more than justspeed and word recognition.

Even when students recognizemany words automatically,their oral reading still may beexpressionless, not fluent.

A fluent reader also readswith appropriate expression,phrasing and intonation.

Appropriate expression in oralreading can provide the readerwith access to the meaning ofthe text.

Stress conveys meaning...

She wore the red dress to school.

Pausing conveys meaning...

Woman, without her, man is nothing. Woman, without her man, is nothing.

Becoming a fluent reader hasas much to do withconstructing meaning as it hasto do with attending to wordson a page.

Briggs & Forbes (2003) p. 3

QUESTIONS?

Instruction inFluency

Instruction in fluency...

Readers can be taught to readwith expression and to increasetheir reading rate.

Teaching students wordrecognition skills will helpthem read faster.

This is best done by having thestudents read connected text.

Instruction in Fluency...

If fluency were just a wordrecognition phenomenon, thenhaving students reviewing andrehearsing word lists mightmake sense.

NRP Report of the Subgroups (2000)

The evidence is that suchtraining is insufficient as it mayfail to transfer when thepracticed words are presentedin meaningful context.

Competent reading requiresskills that extend beyond thesingle-word level to contextualreading, and this skill can bestbe acquired by practicingreading in which words are in ameaningful context.

Students also need instructionin expression.

Begin fluency instruction earlyand continue through grades3-4 for most children.

Some children will needfluency instruction beyond 4thgrade.

The fluency work should berelatively brief --15 to 30 minutes per lesson.

Students who receiveinstruction in fluency shouldstill be engaged in otherreading activities during thelesson, includingcomprehension instruction.

Recommendations of theNational Reading Panel:

Repeated Reading

Guided Oral Reading

The purpose of repeated readingand guided oral reading is to helpstudents develop fluent readinghabits that would allow them toread text more quickly, accurately,and with appropriate expressionand understanding.

Repeated Reading and Guided Oral Reading Procedures...

Teacher modeling fluentReading

Students reading passagesaloud with guidance

IMPORTANT - Provide text atthe appropriate level!

Students need to be readingtexts at their independent level- 95% to 100% accuracy.

IMPORTANT!

Students should practice orallyrereading text that isreasonably easy for them.

KEY CONCEPTS ARE: Reading, not memorizing Independent level text(95% to 100% accuracy)

Rereading text

IMPORTANT!

Teaching on the child's instructional leveltext (90% to 94% accuracy) can focus onword recognition or comprehension.

When the child rereads the text it may beat the child's independent level andteaching can focus on fluency.

Independent level textNo more than 1 in 20 words aredifficult for the reader(95%-100% accuracy)

Instructional level textNo more than 1 in 10 words aredifficult for the reader(90%-94% accuracy)

Frustration level textVery difficult text for thereader with more than 1in 10 difficult words(less than 90% accuracy)

IMPORTANT CAUTION!

Round-robin reading is not arecommended method forinstruction in fluency.

Round-robin reading has beenfound to have little or norelationship to gains in readingachievement.

NRP Report of the Subgroups (2000)Stallings (1980)

It is evident that with round-robin procedures studentsreceive little actual practice inreading because no child isallowed to read for very long.

For fluency to develop eachchild must be allowed to readlong stretches of text,preferably an entire passage orbook.

Instruction in Fluency... Repeated Reading and Guided OralReading Procedures: Student-adult reading Choral reading Tape-assisted reading Partner reading Readers' theatre Direct instruction about punctuation and

masking phrases

Student-adult Reading:

The adult reads an entirestory or passage to the student.

The student rereads the storyor passage with the adultproviding encouragement andassistance if needed.

Choral reading:

The entire group of studentsreads a text together. They eachmust be able to see the text.The text must be at everyone'sindependent level (95%-100%accuracy).

Tape-assisted reading:

This is much like Student-adultreading. The student listens tothe fluent reading of a textwhile reading along silently.Then the student echoes thetaped fluent reading.

Partner reading:

A more skilled readermodels fluent reading for aless skilled reader as inStudent-adult reading.

Partner reading:

Two readers of equalability can practice rereading

a story after hearing the teacher read the passage.

Readers' theatre:

Students rehearse and performa play, reading from scripts thathave been derived from booksthat are rich in dialogue.

Direct instruction about punctuationand masking phrases:

A teacher should discuss whatappropriate phrases are, looking atthe purpose of different punctuationmarks…[and] use a card to isolatecertain phrases…

Important consideration!

Fluency varies with different typesand difficulty levels of text. A signof a [proficient] reader is when bothspeed and support are adjusted tosuit the demands of the text.

It is also important to readaloud to all of the students.This demonstrates fluentreading and extends thestudents' knowledge of ideas,genres, and vocabulary.

Sustained Silent Reading

The National Reading Paneldid not find sufficient evidencethat SSR alone contributed toimproved reading, but

SSR…

There were too few studieswhich would isolate a causalrelationship.

Many correlational studieslink better readers to moretime spent reading.

SSR…

When SSR is coupled withteacher conferences or peerdiscussion, then slightimprovement in reading wasevident for the SSR group.

Manning & Manning (1984)

It is logical to assume thatpractice in any activity willimprove fluency inperformance. Therefore, SSRshould still be practiced alongwith direct and guidedinstruction in fluency.

QUESTIONS?

Fluency DevelopsOver Time

Fluency develops over time...

In the early stage of readinginstruction, the beginningreader may be accurate inword recognition but theprocess is likely to be slowand effortful.

Once the reader can make aone-to-one match (recognizingword units and spaces betweenwords) the teacher can begin toteach the reader to read inphrases.

Rate will increase withprogress in rapid word andletter recognition and practicein reading in a phrased manner.

Rubric for Evaluating FluencyDevelopment(Reutzel & Cooter, 2000)

1 Nonfluent reading Word-by-word reading Frequent pauses between words (poor

phrasing) Little recognition of syntax Little response to punctuation Some awkward word groupings

Rubric for Evaluating Fluency Development(Reutzel & Cooter, 2000)

2 Beginning fluency Frequent word-by-word reading Some two and three-word phrasing May reread for problem solving or to

clarify (strategic reading) Shows some awareness of syntax and

punctuation

3 Transitional Fluency Combination of word-by-word

reading and fluent phrase reading Some expressive phrasing Shows attention to punctuation and

syntax

4 Fluent Reading Fluent reading with very few word-by-

word interruptions Reads mostly in larger meaningful

phrases Reads with expression Attends consistently to punctuation Rereads as necessary to clarify or

problem-solve

Listen to DifferentReaders

Questions?

Assessing Fluency

Assessing Fluency...

Informal procedures should beused regularly to assessfluency.

Assessing Fluency...Recommendations of assessments from theNational Reading Panel:

Informal reading inventories (Johnson, Kress &Pikulski, 1987)

Miscue analysis (Goodman & Burke, 1972) Pausing indices (Pinnell et al., 1995) Running records (Clay, 2002) Reading speed calculations (Hasboruck &Tindal, 1992)

Gray Oral Reading Test-3 (GORT-3)(Wiederholt & Bryant, 1992)

Final Questions onFluency?

INTERVENTIONS

Presentation for the Iowa Department of EducationDecember 10 & 12, 2002

Linda Fielding

The University of Iowa

Main Resources This Talk is Based Upon:

• Hiebert, E., & Taylor, B. (2000). Beginning reading instruction: Research on early interventions. In M. Kamil, P. Mosenthal, P. D. Pearson, & R. Barr (Eds.), Handbook of Reading Research: Vol. III (pp. 455-482). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.

• National Research Council (1998). Preventing reading difficulties in young children. Washington, DC: National Academy Press

• Pressley, M. (2002). Effective beginning reading instruction. Journal of Literacy Research, 34, pp. 165-188. (Similar version on nrconline.org as a white paper)

• Taylor, B., Pearson, P. D., Clark, K., & Walpole, S.(2000). Effective schools and accomplished teachers:Lessons about primary-grade reading instruction in low-income schools. Elementary School Journal, 10.

What is an Intervention?

• “additional, targeted and intensive instruction provided to students who are struggling with learning to read and write.” (The Secretary’s Reading Leadership Academy, based on National Research Council, 1998).

What is an intervention?

• A supplementary program to address an identified or anticipated reading problem. Includes remedial interventions for children already identified, and preventive interventions for those considered “at risk.”(Burns, Griffin & Snow, Eds., 1999).

• “Since these programs take a preventive rather than a remedial perspective, they have been called interventions.” (Hiebert & Taylor, 2000)

• “The major prevention strategy…is excellent instruction…The intervention considered…is therefore schooling itself.” (National Research Council, 1998).

• “Intervention studies have as their express purpose the evaluation of a program for improving instruction.” (Piggott & Barr, 2000, p. 101).

The Overriding Point Of This Presentation: Quality &

Quantity, NOT Difference!• Struggling readers need more, and

are more dependent on the best possible forms of, instruction that: – aligns with core reading instruction

– is intended to bring them up to average levels

Overview of Presentation

• Historical perspective

• Effective schoolwide organizational strategies for all

• Effective classroom-based instructional strategies for all

Overview

• Characteristics of effective classroom literacy instruction for ALL, by grade

• Characteristics of effective special interventions by grade

• Persistent concerns/questions

HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE

Historical Perspective

• Late 1800s: Something other than not learning to read is wrong with the child (Klenk & Kiby, 2000)

• 1920s+: Search for cause--medical model (Klenk & Kibby, 2000)

• 1960’s+: Distinction between special and compensatory education (McGill-Franzen, 1987)

• 1970s+: Focus on intensive intervention; tendency to “wait” (Klenk & Kibby, 2000)

• 1980s+: Critiques of differential treatment (Allington, 1981)

• 1990s+: Downplay of special/compensatory distinction (McGill-Franzen, 1987)

• 1990s+: Focus on early intervention, prevention, acceleration (Clay, 1993; Hiebert & Taylor, 2000)

Differential Treatment In Ability Groups

• Struggling readers:

–Read relatively harder text

–Did more round-robin oral reading

–Made more errors

Differential Ability Group Treatment

–Were interrupted more frequently

–Got less wait time

–Got more phonics-level than meaning-level cues from teachers

Differential Ability Group Treatment

• Got more word-level than meaning-level focus

• Formed different concepts about reading

• Developed less independence & confidence (Allington, 1981; Johnston & Allington, 1991)

QUESTIONS?

EFFECTIVE SCHOOLWIDEORGANIZATIONAL

STRATEGIES

Effective Schoolwide Organizational Strategies

• Strong home-school connections

• Systematic (3+ times/year) informal classroom assessment, sharing of results, use of results to inform instruction

Effective Schoolwide Strategies

• Building-level communication

• Early reading interventions

• Ongoing professional dev’t.

• Building collaboration--commitment of time, resources, personnel to reading instruction

Effective Schoolwide Strategies

• Initial instruction in first language where possible

• Sensitivity to language and dialect influences on pronunciation

• Cultural accommodations Taylor et al., National Research Council

QUESTIONS?

EFFECTIVE CLASSROOM-BASED

STRATEGIES

Effective Classroom-Based Strategies

• Time in small ability-grouped compared to large group instruction (60 min./day v. 25 min./day) when:

– groups are flexible

– group movement & instruction is based on regular assessment

– all groups work toward same goals

• Time spent in independent reading when it is a schoolwide commitment and is monitored for engagement and text level

• Scaffolding vs. telling or recitation

• Scaffolding word recognition strategies during reading vs. explicit phonics instruction only

• Reviewing sight words

• Asking higher-level comprehension questions

• Having students write in response to reading National Research Council; Taylor et al.

What is Scaffolding?• Giving the least support possible but

the most support necessary to enable accomplishment of task

• Gradual withdrawl of support as the child gains control of what you’ve taught National Research Council, 1998

What Is the Goal of Scaffolding?

• Independent control by the child

• Generalization of the knowledge beyond the setting in which it was learned

How Do I Know When and How To Withdraw Support?

• Daily formative assessment through observation, anecdotal records, running records

• Look for small increments daily and gradual change over time National Research Council, 1998; Taylor et al.

Gradual Release of Responsibility

• Direct explanation: What? When? Why?

• Teacher mental modeling (thinking aloud)

• Guided practice with feedback

Gradual Release of Responsibility

• Independent practice with feedback

• Transfer to new contexts and knowledge domains Duffy & Roehler, 1989

What is NOT Scaffolding?

• Moving directly from modeling to independent practice

• Doing the task for the child!

QUESTIONS?

CHARACTERISTICS

CHARACTERISTICSOF EFFECTIVE

CLASSROOM-BASEDLITERACY INSTRUCTION

FOR ALL, BY GRADENational Research Council, 1998; Taylor et al.

Classroom Goals in Kindergarten

• Positive perspectives and attitudes on which learning about and from print depend

• Familiarity with structural elements and organization of print

• Familiarity with forms & format of books & other print

• Alphabet recognition & writing

• Basic phonological awareness in first language

Kindergarten Print-Related Goals

Kindergarten Strategies To Accomplish These Purposes

• Oral language activities

• Reading aloud to children: varied genres & sources

• Children’s reading & book exploration

• Thematic,play-based instruction

Kindergarten Strategies

• Writing activities including invented spelling

• Environmental, wholistic approaches to development of letter knowledge

Kindergarten Strategies

• Age-appropriate, engaging phonological awareness instruction in first language

• Word-directed activities for acquisition of sight vocab. & alphabetic principle in first language

Classroom Goals in First Grade

• Continuation of kindergarten goals

• Independent reading of connected text

Effective First-Grade Strategies

• Explicit instruction & practice in phonological awareness in first language

• Familiarity with spelling/sound correspondences & common spelling conventions; use in word I.D. while reading

• Sight recognition--frequent words

• Independent reading & reading aloud (self, partners, teacher): varied genres & sources

• Daily reading of independent- & instructional-level texts with appropriate support

• Continual promotion of comprehension

• Explicit instruction in comprehension & monitoring strategies

• Acceptance of invented spelling along with focused instruction in conventional spelling & expectation of conventional spelling of taught words and patterns

Classroom Goals Grades 2-3

• Building capacity to critically comprehend more difficult & varied texts

• Automaticity of word-level skills

Effective Strategies Grades 2-3

• Early in Grade 2, identify children who have lost ground over the summer and who didn’t meet Grade 1 goals. Provide concentrated relearning activites & catch-up instruction. (Stahl, Heubach & Cramond, 1997)

• Reading varied connected text at independent and instructional levels

• Using teacher-guided repeated reading to help all children read at least Grade 2-level texts effectively

• Continued teacher reading aloud to build concepts, vocabulary & comprehension

• Direct teaching of vocabulary & strategies to determine word meaning in context

• Thematic instruction such as Concept-Oriented Reading Instruction (Guthrie & colleagues) to develop concepts & vocabulary, narrative & expository text comprehension

• Explicit instruction in repertoires of comprehension and metacomprehension strategies--e.g., reciprocal teaching; transactional strategies instruction (Pressley, 2002)

QUESTIONS?

CHARACTERISTICS OF EFFECTIVE

SPECIAL INTERVENTIONS

BY GRADEHiebert & Taylor, 2000

Characteristics of Special Kindergarten Interventions

• Intended to develop underlying concepts about literacy, not conventional literacy per se--through book handling, shared reading, writing, games (including phonemic awareness)

Special Kindergarten Interventions

• Both whole-class and small group interventions were effective--none were individual

Characteristics of Special First Grade Interventions

• Goal is reading words in text quickly and fluently

• Comprehension is emphasized only indirectly

• Reading and rereading a variety of texts to develop fluency

Special First Grade Interventions

• Use of several, not just one, text over a week’s lessons

• Children are guided to self monitor

• Children are taught to integrate semantic, syntactic, visual & phonic info. to pronounce words

• Teacher attention to choice of books--different book features across projects

• Integration of writing especially to develop phonemic awareness & phonics skill

• Daily routine includes text reading, writing & spelling words & texts, word recognition activities

• Regular assessment to plan instruction

• No definitive conclusions on size of instructional group, 1-7

• Focused professional development is important

Characteristics of Special Second Grade Interventions

• Focus on development of automaticity in word recognition through extensive reading and a model of expert reading

• Comprehension is a priority

Special Second Grade Interventions

• Group size varied--1-restructuring whole class

Observations About Special K-2 Interventions

• They work for a group who typically doesn’t do well in status-quo instruction

• They help, but don’t insure success at tasks in middle grades--effects wane over time

Observations About K-2 Interventions

• Starting early is important

• Effective classroom instruction is a must

• About 10% won’t read well enough to participate in classroom activities in grades 2+

Observations About K-2 Interventions

• Opportunities for professional development are critical; length & intensity not clear

Persistent Concerns & Questions

• What are the most appropriate interventions when first-language literacy instruction is not possible?

• How does culturally responsive teaching play out in the details of literacy instruction?

• Does the most effective intervention depend on school demographics?

• The small amount of comprehension instruction in primary classrooms

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