Post on 08-Oct-2020
Final Report
January 2011
Women Adult Literacy: Where are we!
Rapid Assessment in Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh, Odisha and Rajastahan
Study Commissioned by: Indo-Global Social Service Society & Welthungerhilfe
New Delhi
Study conducted by
www.fourx4india.com
Where Are We! A Rapid Assessment in Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh, Odhisa and Rajasthan
for Indo-Global Social Service Society & Welthungerhilfe, New Delhi
(i) | Pa g e
Table of Content
Page
Contents (i)
List of Tables (iii)
List of Figures (iii)
Abbreviations used (iv)
Acknowledgements (v)
Executive Summary (vi)
1. Introduction 1
1.1 Adult Literacy in India - an Overview 1
1.1.a The Policy Perspectives at the National Level 1
1.1.b Adult Literacy Programmes and National Literacy Mission (NLM) 2
1.1.c Different Approaches Adopted by NLM for Accelerating Adult
Literacy Goals
4
1.1.c.i Total Literacy Campaigns (TLC), Post Literacy Programme (PLP)
& Continuing Education Programme (CEP)
4
1.1.c.ii Decentralization and Diversity of Focus in National Literacy
Programmes
9
1.1.c.iii Recent Approaches to Literacy in Five Year Plans 12
1.1.d Literacy Campaigns and Female Literacy 13
1.1.e Achievements in Adult Literacy 16
1.1.f Launch of Saakshar Bharat: The New Variant of NLM 17
1.1.g Objectives and Targets of Saakshar Bharat 18
1.2 Looking Afresh at the Agenda for the Study on Literacy
Programmes for Women
21
2. Review of Literature 22
2.1 Study of Relevant Literature 22
2.2 Major Highlights of the Literature Reviewed 25
3. Methodology of the Study 27
4. Profile of Study Population 31
5. Key Study Findings from Preliminary Field Based Enquiry 34
5.1 Learners/Community 36
5.1.1 Learning Status of Learners vis-à-vis TLC Participation 36
5.1.2 Target number of learners-estimate and reach 36
5.1.3 Impact on the Community 37
5.2 Trainers/Volunteers 38
5.2.1 Types 38
5.2.2 Selection 39
5.2.3 Training- duration, focus 39
5.3 TLM 40
5.3.1 Design and Content 40
5.3.2 Language 42
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5.4 Types of Adult Literacy Programmes 42
Page
5.5 Women‟s expectation from participation in literacy initiatives 45
6. Status of Saakshar Bharat 48
6.1 Status of SB Implementation 48
6.2 SB in Jhabua 49
6.3 SB in East Singhbhum 49
6.4 SB in Koraput 49
6.5 SB in Churu 49
6.6 Saakshar Bharat in the Study Districts 49
7. Relating Study Findings to Impact Assessment of Total Literacy
Campaigns in India
51
8. Recommendations 69
9. References 75
10. Annexures 77
Annexure-1: Brief Profile of the Core Group Members 77
Annexure-2: Detailed Methodological Framework 78
11. Appendices 90
Appendix-1: PRA Summary Sheet – East Singhbhum 90
Appendix-2: PRA Data – Jhabua 95
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List of Tables
Page
Table 1: Literacy Rate in Four Focus States-2001 31
Table 2: Literacy Rates in Study Districts-2001 31
Table 3: Poverty Rate-2004-05 32
Table 4: IMR and MMR in States 33
Table 5: Tribe/Caste of Female Study Population 34
Table 6: Education Level of Women Participants in Study Districts 35
Table 7: Learning Status of Learners vis-à-vis TLC Participation 36
Table 8: Success Rate of TLC 36
Table 9: Timeline of TLC Implementation 38
Table 10: Name and Type of Adult Literacy Programme 43
Table 11: Analysis of data collected through PRA techniques on
Literacy Status 43
Table 12: Status of literacy amongst adults in East Sighbhum 44
Table 13: Status of female literacy in East Sighbhum District 45
Table 14: Category Wise Targets 48
Table 15: SB in the Study Districts 49
List of Figures
Page
Fig.1: Structure of National Literacy Mission 8
Fig.2: Organisation-Structure of Saakshar Bharat 20
Fig.3: Status of male literacy in East Sighbhum 44
Fig.4: Status of female literacy in Select Villages (East Sighbhum district) 45
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Abbreviations used
AECs Adult Education Centres
BGVS Bharat Gyan Vigyan Samiti
BRCs Block resource Centres
CBOs Community Based Organisations
CECs CECs or Continuing Education Centres
CEP Continuing Education Programme
EFA Education for All
FGDs Focus Group Discussions
IMR Infant Mortality Rate
IPCL Improved Pace and Content of Learning
IPCL Improved Pace and Contents of Learning
KSSP Kerala Shastra Sahitya Parishad
MHRD Ministry of Human Resource Development
MMR Maternal Mortality Ratio
MNREGS Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment
Guarantee Scheme
MTs Master Trainers
NAEP National Adult Education Programme
NGOs Non-Governmental Organisations
NLM National Literacy Mission
NLMA National Literacy Mission Authority
NPE National Policy on Education
NT Not Traceable
NYKS Nehru Yuva Kendra Sangathan
PLCs Post Literacy Campaigns
PLM Primary Level Motivator
PLP Post Literacy Programme
PLP Post Literacy Programme
PRA Participatory Rural Appraisal
PRI Panchayati Raj Institutions
RPs Resource Persons
SB Saakshar Bharat
SCs Scheduled Castes
SHGs Self Help Groups
SLM Secondary Level Motivator
SLMA State Literacy Mission Authority
SRCs State Resource Centres
STs Scheduled Tribes
TLC Total Literacy Campaigns
TLM Teaching Learning Materials
UTs Union Territories
VLC Village Literacy Committee
ZSS Zilla Sakshrata Samiti
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Foreword
Indo-Global Social Service Society (IGSSS)’s vision states “A humane social order based on truth, justice, freedom, equity and integrity of the whole of creation in which basic human rights of every individual are upheld, in which the integrity of the family as a basic unit of the community is strengthened, where power, resources and the fruits of development are shared by all.” However, while women and girls make up around half of humankind, they do not enjoy the same status, power or access to and control over resources as men and boys. While the Indian constitution guarantees that there shall be no discrimination on the basis of sex, in reality the situation is far from so. There is discrimination in all fields, whether social, political, economic, educational, and cultural. Historically, there have been various factors that have determined that the female literacy rate remains low - the percentage of female literacy remaining around 54.16%. While the figures vary depending on the urban-rural context, the reasons remain cross-cutting – pronounced patriarchal society that restricts mobility and access, the social stereotyping of women/girls into domestic roles of mothers and wives, the low premium on education accorded to girls and the subsequent low retention and high dropout rate in school, economic exploitation due to an unfair wage rate and minimal decision making power. It has also been seen that the discourse on female adult literacy has been largely pedantic, limited to academic theorizing. In practice, the implementation of government literacy schemes has been haphazard. The involvement of civil sector and nongovernmental organisations, in this regard, has been restricted to a few pioneering agencies and individuals – adult womens’ literacy does not seem to be a priority issue on most organisational agenda. Field experiences suggest that this is true of women themselves – subsumed as they are by survival issues of water, food security, shelter and an assured means of livelihood. Therein, it becomes all the more significant to look at programming around the issue of literacy through different lenses. An assessment of the government schemes related to womens’ literacy, thus, seemed to be a necessary exercise for an exploration of strategies that have worked, the approaches that have evolved and recommendations for the future. We, at IGSSS, take the opportunity to appreciate the support provided by Welthungerhilfe as well as all our consortium partners (SCRIA in Rajasthan, Swadhina in Jharkhand and Agragamee in Orissa) in making this study a reality. The consultancy team at FourX4 also needs to be thanked for their efforts at putting together a document that will hopefully serve as a policy research document for all those advocating the cause of adult womens’ literacy in the country. Lastly, our heartfelt gratitude to the people and communities we work with and who have been a source of inspiration as well as a larger frame of reference during the study process.
Dr. Joseph Sebastian
Executive Director, IGSSS
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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
With the re-launch of the National Literacy Mission to promote adult literacy with
a new name “Saakshar Bharat”, it was felt opportune to reflect on the
experiences of adult literacy promotion efforts in India till 2009. It was observed
that various approaches have been attempted since the launch of National
Literacy Mission in 1987. However, the various efforts made so far did not result in
significantly reduce the total number of illiterates in this country. While the
literacy rates have improved from less than 20 per cent in 1951, to 52 per cent in
1991, to 65 per cent in 2001, in absolute terms more than 30 million Indians
continue to be illiterate.
More than two decades elapsed since the launch of the TLCs. Most of the target
districts have undergone TLCs, Post-Literacy Campaigns (PLC) and Continuing
Education (CE) phase. This attempt to understand the contribution, impact and
experiences of the literacy campaigns and what has followed thereafter by no
means an easy task. The assessment focused on how did people (in particular
women) participate in the literacy campaigns and continuing education? What
were their expectations and how far these were met? What were the key
processes adopted in imparting learning during the campaigns, and how were
these impacted in the empowerment processes?
The districts selected for the study have been through the total literacy and post-
literacy and CE phases, with the exception of East Singhum where the TLC itself
was a big failure. This preliminary assessment study of the adult literacy
campaigns have taken into consideration not only the ability to recognise
alphabets but the overall benefits the learners see as a benefit- bet it self
development, social and economic. These field studies have adopted a
combination of methodologies for understanding the processes of learning in the
adult literacy promotion efforts.
Our assessments have attempted to locate literacy within the larger social and
political contexts. The assessment study has focused on understanding and
documenting the overall change processes happened as a result of their
participation in the literacy classes. The communities selected include the dalits
and tribals of rural remote villages. We have tried to ascertain the different
perspectives, to different groups of people - women, the marginalised and the
indigenous groups.
In this backdrop, a preliminary study was conducted to quickly assess the status
of „adult women literacy‟ in four districts belonging to four States in India.
A. The Core Issues of Inquiry
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The study entitled “Adult Women Literacy – A Community Centered Assessment
of Government Adult Literacy Programmes: Previous and Current Status &
Probable Steps Forward” focused on the following three issues:
Response of the youths and adults (with special focus on women and
adolescent girls) to Total Literacy Campaigns (TLCs) and the newly launched
Saakshar Bharat (SB) after formal closure of National Literacy Mission (NLM)
towards the end of 2009.
Educational opportunities that were and are available and identify gaps as
per the actual requirement of adolescent girls and women.
Enabling and impeding factors as existing on ground for the implementation
of SB to build critical knowledge base for implementation of Saakshar Bharat
at the central, state, district and local levels.
B. Women’s Empowerment and Literacy
A very conscious effort was made in the study to have a look at the key issues
including what role the literacy programmes have played in bringing
women‟s empowerment and their inclusion issues to the forefront and how far
women have benefited on several fronts such as employment, facing lesser
discrimination, exercising one‟s own choices in reproductive matters,
participation in village level democratic and political processes, having
greater say in household decisions, etc. For the purpose of looking at these
very important and sensitive development issues the study focused on four of
the least literate districts of the country - Churu in Rajasthan, East Singhbhum
in Jharkhand, Jhabua in Madhya Pradesh, and Koraput in Odisha. Efforts
were made to look at gender across the various aspects of study which
encompassed the various literacy programmes as well as the newly
launched „Saakshar Bharat‟ programme. The findings of the study have been
recorded accordingly.
C. Main Findings of the Study
The study had brought out
a set of interesting findings
as against the reported
huge success of adult
literacy initiatives. Most
importantly, the impact of
literacy programmes on
women‟s learning abilities
and resultant social change
wasn‟t visible. On the other
hand, mostly the learners
had only learnt how to sign!
While there has been a
greater emphasis on the participation of women in the literacy classes,
gender sensitivity has not been found in the preparation of the community to
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for Indo-Global Social Service Society & Welthungerhilfe, New Delhi
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allow women to safely participate in the evening classes, during the time the
women attend classes, motivate the men to attend to household tasks, etc. It
was found that the literacy activities had not been a continuous process, and
NLM programmes in the field had witnessed serious gaps and discontinuity
between different phases of the programme and poor targeting of the neo-
literates from TLC to post-literacy and then to continuing education. It was
reported that classes were regularly run only for a period of one month to two
months. This means the beginning and end were abrupt. Other key findings
included:
The Volunteer Instructors who were selected to impart literacy classes
belonged to various age groups with poor literacy outcomes. It was found
that the selection and training of volunteers lacked screening of
necessary abilities, but were dominated by caste and economic groups.
The neo-literates were left without any support and motivation to practice
what had been learnt by them. The failure to retain literacy gains among
the neo-literates was observed to have been the resultant effect of this.
The goals as well as expectations of different age groups, of women and
of marginalised and indigenous groups from literacy programmes were
different which were totally overlooked by the much publicized
campaign approach.
Adult literacy to be meaningful and effective should be able to build a
strong link to the social and economic life of the people for whom such
campaigns and other initiatives are made. Elements of such an effort
were not visible in all the four study districts and hamlets visited by the
team of researchers.
While it is well documented that the volunteers played a critical role in this
process, the dialogues and interviews with the Voluntary Instructors
revealed that their interest to continue the adult literacy classes died
down within a very short period as little support and encouragement was
forthcoming from the government machinery.
The adult literacy programme delivery design looked straight-jacketed
with very little scope for innovation and experimenting different models.
The whole responsibility of delivering adult literacy was shouldered by the
district government who had very little people contact (ability to reach
out to the vulnerable sections) as well as experiential knowledge to deal
with various adversities faced by rural mothers and women.
The other significant element of the programme implementation relates to
the language and content of the primers and other literacy materials. The
field studies have found that despite flexibility provided to the district, lack
of time and capacities at the district level have often led to the use of
primers developed at the state level, which were not fully sensitive to the
local language and culture.
The status of Saakshar Bharat Mission even after one year of its official
launch, the study found that it was yet to be formally initiated in Jhabua
district. As the female literacy rate of East Singhbhum was more than 50%
it was debarred from being a target district of SB. Thus SB was not to be
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implemented in East Singhbhum. In Odisha 3 out of 19 districts were
selected for Phase-I implementation of SB till March 2010. The districts were
Kalahandi, Balangir and Sundargarh. Koraput was identified for the
implementation of SB, howsoever no work was in progress as it would not
be done in the first phase of SB implementation. In Churu, survey was on
for the implementation of SB.
D. Recommendations
The government may think of the role of a facilitator of adult literacy
rather than the doer. The local CSOs may also be brought in along with
PRI institutions as the main driver of the adult literacy classes rather than
the district administration directly delivering literacy through PRIs!
Experience and lessons of one of the most successful programme like
Mahila Samakhya may be taken into account while finalizing the
implementation models of Saakshar Bharat
The literacy initiatives need to be linked to innovative and effective
approaches that enable women to shed their traditional boundaries, gain
confidence to deal with local government machineries particularly in the
context of participating and securing wages under the MNREGS, securing
pensions and other schemes that are aimed at improving their economic
conditions and social status.
The Volunteers and learners need to be appreciative of each other. This
means the Volunteer Instructors need to be capable of arousing adults‟
interest to learn, deal with their questions relating to day to day life,
governmental schemes, etc.
Literacy needs to be placed within a larger social, economic and political
framework. The political will to make India literate should translate in
enabling villages to adopt local strategies to get literate and sustain. The
local government at least should come-up with broad guidelines &
expected results.
Creation of robust database of the adult literacy programme is extremely
crucial. The external evaluations should be based on the base-line data
and progress achieved within each timeline.
There seems to be lack of interest and initiative from the CSO community
in undertaking and assimilating the need for promoting adult literacy.
Both the government and donor organizations may identify promotion of
adult literacy as a cross-cutting and important intervention in making
women empowered.
E. Future Action Points in the context of Saakshar Bharat
The current structure of the literacy programmes needs a change in
favour of collaboration with local CSOs in the implementation of adult
literacy classes along with their regular projects. This would ensure
interweaving of adult literacy within the larger social and economic
contexts.
PRI institutions may be sensitized on the need to support local adult
literacy promotion classes and facilitate appropriate logistical support.
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The SRCs may have the mandate of supporting the development of
locally relevant teaching materials rather than bulk producing teaching
and learning manuals. SRCs to ensure that the curriculum designs are fully
met as per needs.
Department of Adult Education may be engaged in research in
appropriate curriculum that may assist SRCs in framing appropriate TLM,
engage a number of third party researchers or research organisations for
monitoring and evaluation, conduct user/beneficiary satisfaction surveys
during the programme implementation stage and make suitable policy
changes based on findings from studies and monitoring & evaluation
exercises.
Objectives should be more tilted towards ensuring that learners are able
to relate the TLM and instructional methods with their livelihood needs
(agriculture, plumbing, electrical and electronic works, etc.) participating
in decision making at home as well as the community levels, having a say
on their own family size and take care of their own health needs, etc.
Completion of the programme with emphasis on skill formation,
enhancement or upgradation should be rewarded with special incentives
like ready availability of bank credit, offer of higher subsidy, etc.
Trainers should be a mix of men and women. They should be locally
selected adults without compromising the minimum standards of
selection. Training them minimum thrice during the programme
implementation cycle to make them more relevant contributors to the
programme.
Continuity should be strictly based on programme evaluation findings.
Beneficiary satisfaction survey results should guide the structure and
design of continuity programmes. Continuity must ensure higher level of
targets – from quantity or quality or both the angles.
Mahila Samakhya provides a variety of successful approaches to
empower women. If the larger goal is to empower women enabling them
to participate in governance, improve their social and economic status,
partnership with Mahila Samakhya could be looked at in improvising
approaches in the changing environment
The placing of implementation responsibilities in the hands of PRI may be
reviewed in the current context. The PRI institutions are already struggling
with a heavy overload of implementation schemes and programmes with
little demonstrated evidence of good governance and efficiency. In
many States with poor women literacy status, the representation of
women in PRI institutions is symbolic with majority of them being illiterate.
Therefore, the suitable conditions that are required to place Saakshar
Bharat in the hands of PRI may be reviewed and done on a case to case
basis.
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Final Draft Report
1. Introduction
The study entitled “Adult Women Literacy – A Community Centered
Assessment of Government Adult Literacy Programmes: Previous and
Current Status & Probable Steps Forward” was undertaken by FourX4 on
behalf of Indo Global Social Service Society (IGSSS) and with the
technical support of Welthungerhilfe to have a critical look at the
following:
i) Response of the youths and adults (with special focus on women and
adolescent girls) to Total Literacy Campaigns (TLCs) and the newly
launched Saakshar Bharat (SB) after formal closure of National Literacy
Mission (NLM).
ii) Educational opportunities that were and are available and identify
gaps as per the actual requirement of adolescent girls and women.
iii) Enabling and impeding factors as existing on ground for the
implementation of SB to build critical knowledge base for
implementation of Saakshar Bharat at the central, state, district and
local levels.
1.1 Adult Literacy in India - an Overview
In the context of the current study with special emphasis on
empowerment perspectives of women and adolescent girls contributed
by literacy programmes or campaigns in India, it would be very useful to
have a closer look at various policies and programmes that were
adopted or implemented by the Government of India for realizing its
dream of being a fully literate country and also meet other development
goals such as empowering people especially women and other excluded
populations, expediting the economic growth rate of the country,
decreasing population growth, improving performance of key health
indicators through improved access and understanding of relevant
information, improved demand for education from literate families, etc.
1.1.a The Policy Perspectives at the National Level
Despite massive illiteracy and low level of education among adult
population, adult education remained a marginal sub-sector of the
general educational policy until the late 1970s. The government‟s policy
towards adult education was characterized by the sporadic
programmatic efforts with limited coverage. The first nation-wide
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programme for adult education, known as National Adult Education
Programme (NAEP) was introduced in 1978. Though this was intended to
be a mass programme of adult education, it never assumed the mass
character as envisaged in the policy statement. In practice, the NAEP
remained a traditional centre-based, honorarium-based and hierarchical
programme of adult education, funded and controlled by the
government, and did not make a dent in promoting adult literacy. It was
the National Policy on Education (NPE)-1986 and its revised version in 1992
that created a favourable policy environment for elementary and adult
education, and also realized the need to bring women to the forefront of
development planning. It articulated for the first time, the national
commitment to addressing the problem of eradicating adult illiteracy in a
time-bound manner with planned, concerted and coordinated efforts.
The policy also expanded the scope of adult education to provide flexible
learning opportunities to out-of-school youth, neo-literate adults and
workers of the unorganized sector through the existing institutions and
agencies. However, the policy did not pay adequate attention to
operationalize continuing and lifelong learning. Although it brought adult
literacy and continuing education as an important strategy for basic
education, there is apparent neglect of building the sustainable and
expanded system of adult education and training with adequate
institutional structures, staff and resources. Hence, the government‟s
commitments to adult education and continuing education continued to
be programmatic.
In the 1990s India endorsed the World Declaration for All (EFA) adopted by
the World Conference on Education at Jomtien (1990) and accepted the
declarations of the Fifth International Conference on Adult Education with
regard to adult literacy and adult learning. India initiated significant steps
to impart elementary education and adult literacy education in the 1990s.
However, the major thrust of the basic education reform in India remained
on elementary education and not on adult education and lifelong
learning. As such the vast majority of youths and adults has either
remained illiterate or with very low level of formal education. Following the
World Education Forum in Dakar (2000) India endorsed the Dakar
Framework of Action and accepted two Dakar goals related to adult
literacy. The National Policy on Education was revised in 1992 for greater
emphasis on adult literacy in order to realize the country‟s commitments
towards achieving these objectives which are as given under.
“Ensuring that learning needs of all young people and adults are met
through equitable access to appropriate learning and life-skills
programmes, and achieving a 50% improvement in levels of adult literacy
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by 2015, especially for women and equitable access to basic and
continuing education for adults”.
1.1.b Adult Literacy Programmes and National Literacy Mission (NLM)
The mandate of the NPE was operationalized through the NLM which was
launched by the Government of India in 1988. It was a culmination of the
national efforts to urgently address the problem of widespread illiteracy in
the adult population through a massive intervention even before
articulation of EFA goals in 1990. The NLM was launched to address the
cause of literacy of non-literates in the age-group of 15-35. Its main
objectives were to impart functional literacy1 to 100 million non-literates in
the said age-group by 1999 and achieve full literacy by 2005 (Literacy
Facts At A Glance. New Delhi: NLM, MHRD, Govt. of India). As this age
group belongs to the productive and reproductive period of life, the NLM
focused on it to give young adults a second chance for learning in case
they had missed the opportunity or were denied access to formal
education system. Specifically, the NLM assigned priority to eradicating
illiteracy among women, scheduled castes and scheduled tribes, and
other disadvantaged groups through mass mobilization and support of
the wider sections of people. The instrumentalist approach of NLM was
based on the premise that provision of basic literacy education would
tackle the problem of „eradication of illiteracy‟ without bringing necessary
socio-economic reforms.
1 Functional Literacy has been defined as
Self Reliance in 3 Rs (Reading, writing and arithmetic)
Awareness of the causes of deprivation
Amelioration through organization and participation in development process
Skill improvement
Imbibing values such as- national integration; conservation of environment; women’s equality and small family norm.
Total Literacy Campaign (TLC)
Objective:
To impart basic literacy skills
To achieve pre-determined levels of literacy
Target Groups/Beneficiaries:
Non-literates (15-35 years)
Duration
08-12 months (200 hours of literacy instructions
Implementation Strategy
Area specific, time-bound, total coverage for given age group
Volunteer based
Environment building and mass mobilization
Improved pedagogy with emphasis on learning outcomes
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In order to achieve the stated goals, the National Literacy Mission (NLM)
introduced Total Literacy Campaigns (TLCs) in the 1990s on a large scale.
The NLM was envisaged as an integral part of the overall development
efforts of the country and identified as one of the five national
technological missions to apply technology and scientific research to
promote literacy. It was also conceived as a societal mission to mobilize
support of the wider sections of society for the achievement of NLM goals.
The idea of a „societal and technological mission‟ for eradication of
illiteracy added a new sense of urgency and seriousness for improving the
literacy situation, and positioned the mission as a responsibility of the
whole nation, involving all sections of society in implementation of the
large-scale adult literacy programme.
1.1.c Different Approaches Adopted by NLM for Accelerating Adult Literacy
Goals
NLM from its very inception emphasized the active participation of NGOs
in its mission. However, until 1989 it continued with centre-based
approach of the earlier adult education programmes and did not have a
clear vision about how to operationalize the mandate. The major
breakthrough came in 1990 with the success of the mass literacy
campaigns in Kerala, first in Kottayam city and then in Ernakulam district.
These campaigns were spearheaded by Kerala Shastra Sahitya Parishad
(KSSP), a voluntary organisation on the people‟s science movement in
Kerala with the active cooperation of the local administration and large
scale mobilization of all sections of society. KSSP and Bharat Gyan Vigyan
Samiti (BGVS), a voluntary organisation at the national level supported by
the All India People‟s Science Networks, were the key architects of the
NLM‟s campaign approach to literacy. BGVS played an important role in
fostering active partnership between the district administration,
volunteers, social activists, NGOs, community based organisations (CBOs)
in TLC and shaping the TLC‟s approach and strategy in the areas of
environment building, organizational and management structure, and
monitoring and evaluation at the district, block and village levels.
Subsequently, NLM adopted area specific, time-bound and volunteers-
based TLC with total coverage for the given age group, as a principal
strategy for promoting literacy on a mass scale. Consequently, the
direction of adult education programme shifted from the centre-based
approach to the campaign approach.
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1.1.c.i Total Literacy Campaigns (TLC), Post Literacy Programme (PLP) &
Continuing Education Programme (CEP)
The key to the unique features of TLC strategy were: (1) environment
building and mass mobilization through jathas (cultural caravans), folk
media, radio and television, personal contacts, conventions, rallies, etc. to
generate social demand for literacy and involve wider sections of society
in promoting literacy; (2) large-scale involvement of volunteers for literacy
work; and (3) planning and implementation of TLCs at the district level
through decentralized administrative and organizational structure of Zilla
Sakshrata Samiti (ZSS) or District Education Society. The underlying
assumption of the TLC approach was that intensive literacy campaigns
would eradicate illiteracy across the country, irrespective of the structural
context of underdevelopment, deprivation and the history of social
movements.
The Total Literacy Campaigns were “area-specific, time-bound, volunteer-
based, cost-effective and outcome-oriented”
(http://www.nlm.nic.in/tlc_nlm.htm).
Several steps were involved in the implementation of TLCs:
1. Preparing the ground through consultation with stakeholders like
teachers, political parties etc;
2. Creation of the Organisational Structure – “The campaigns are
implemented through district-level literacy committees which are
registered under the Societies Registration Act as independent and
autonomous bodies to provide a unified umbrella under which a
number of individuals and organisations work together. Leadership is
provided by the district collector/chief secretary and the zila parishad
(district council). All sections of society are given due representation in
planning and implementation of the programme. The structure rests on
three pillars - participatory people's committees, full-time functionaries
and area coordinators, and a support system provided by government
officials. It forms an interactive and a communicative process of
management and implementation. The campaign is delivered
through volunteers without any expectation of reward or incentive”
(http://www.nlm.nic.in/tlc_nlm.htm).
3. Survey and District Profile – enumerating the total number of non-
literates, identifying volunteer teachers and master trainers.
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4. Environment Building - through mass mobilization and sensitization
using folk art forms, jathas, street plays, nukkad nataks, bhajans and
kirtans as also padyatras, literacy walls, etc.
5. Development of Teaching-Learning Materials – developed on the basis
of Improved Pace and Content of Learning (IPCL). A 3-grade primer
was used with each grade corresponding to a different level of
literacy.
6. Training of the Task Force – “Training [was]… conducted through key
resource persons and master trainers - one master trainer for every 25
to 30 volunteer teachers, and one key resource person for every 25-30
master trainers. First the key resource persons are trained, who in turn
train the master trainers. Volunteer teachers are then trained by the
master trainers in batches” (http://www.nlm.nic.in/tlc_nlm.htm).
7. Actual Learning Process – The learners were to learn the three primers
which were self-evaluative. Although the learners were not bound to
learn all three primers in the stipulated time, it was however, desirable
that a learner should be able to complete all the three primers within
the overall duration of 200 hours spread over six to eight months.
8. Monitoring and Evaluation – done via reporting and visits of the
officials of the National Literacy Mission, State Directorates of
Adult/Mass Education and the State Resource Centres.
It is evident that the primary function of TLC was to impart functional
literacy. However, it also worked towards the dissemination of other
socially relevant messages, like “enrolment and retention of children in
schools; immunisation; propagation of small family norms; promotion of
maternity and childcare; women's equality; and empowerment, peace
and communal harmony” (http://www.nlm.nic.in/tlc_nlm.htm).
The NLM introduced two other follow-up programmes for deriving
optimum benefits from the TLCs which were named as Post Literacy
Programme (PLP) and Continuing Education Programme (CEP).
The prime focus of PLP was to ensure that the TLC beneficiaries did not
relapse to illiteracy or “to prevent regression to illiteracy”. It essentially
targeted neo-literates (9-14 and 15-35 years age-group); drop-outs of
primary school/Non-Formal Education programmes and drop-outs/left-
outs of literacy campaign (mopping operation).
It was scheduled to be held for a period of 24 months. To be started after
25% of learners completes Primer II.
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PLP also followed certain steps like Environment Building; Mopping up
Operation; Establishing New Organisational Process and Structure; Training
on Methods; Selecting Learning Methods and Materials, Conducting PL
Activities; Monitoring and Evaluation.
It may be noted that one prime focus of the PLP was a thrust on skill
development apart from literacy. In the literacy programme the reading
libraries along with information centres (Jan Chetna Kendras) were two
critical activities (http://www.nlm.nic.in/pl_nlm.htm).
CEP was designed and implemented in order to support “life-long learning
opportunities to all people beyond basic literacy and primary education”
(Literacy Facts At A Glance. New Delhi: NLM MHRD Govt. of India).
The beneficiaries of the particular scheme were the completers of
functional literacy in TLC and PLP; school drop-outs; pass-outs of primary
schools and Non-Formal Education programmes; all other members of the
community interested in availing opportunities for lifelong learning.
For this purpose first CECs or Continuing Education Centres were
established, that is one CEC for 1500-2000 population and one Nodal CEC
for 8-10 CECs were also established. The CECs were the “providers of
facilities relating to library, reading room, learning centre, training centre,
information centre, charcha mandal (discussion forum), development
centre, culture centre and sports centre” (Literacy Facts At A Glance.
New Delhi: NLM MHRD Govt. of India).
Post-Literacy Programme
Objective:
To prevent regression to literacy To enroll drop-outs and enable non-achievers to upgrade their literacy skills To improve literacy skills to a self-reliant level of learning To enable learners to use literacy skills in day-to-day life To enable learners to acquire skills for economic self-reliance To promote collective action and facilitate take-off to continuing education
Target Groups/ Beneficiaries:
Neo-literates
Drop-outs of primary school/non-formal education programmes Drop-outs /left-outs of Literacy Campaigns (for mopping up operation)
Duration
12 months
Implementation Strategy
Project formulation Re-survey Environment building Mopping up operation Conducting PL activities Skills development
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The CECs were essentially run by “by full-time facilitators or preraks, and
assistant preraks” (http://www.nlm.nic.in/ce_nlm.htm) appointed from
within the community itself.
Some of the basic activities of CEP were the establishment of CECs; and
implementation of target specific functional programmes like:
“Equivalency programme designed as an alternative education
programme equivalent to existing formal, general or vocational
education.
Income-generating programme where the participants acquire or
upgrade their vocational skills and take up income-generating activities.
Quality of Life Improvement programme which aims to equip learners and
the community with essential knowledge, attitude, values and skills to raise
their standard of living.
Individual Interest promotion programme to provide opportunities for
learners to participate and learn about their individually chosen social,
cultural, spiritual, health, physical and artistic interests”
(http://www.nlm.nic.in/ce_nlm.htm).
By the completion of the Xth FYP (March 2007) NLM had covered 597
districts under TLC, 485 districts under PLP and 328 districts under CEP. In
total 127.45 million persons became literate, of which 60 % were females,
23% SCs and 12% STs
(http://www.education.nic.in/Elementary/SaaksharBharat.pdf).
It is important to understand the functioning and dissemination of roles of
the concerned facilitators at different stages. The NLM structure portrays a
picture in the same line.
Fig.1: Structure of National Literacy Mission
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Source: http://www.nlm.nic.in/manstru_nlm.htm
It may be understood that the NLM had a three-tiered hierarchical
organizational structure. It was controlled by NLM Authority and the
Directorate of Adult Education at the national level.
At the state level the State Literacy Mission Authority (SLMA), supported by
the State Directorate of Adult Education controlled the activities and at
the district level the Zilla Saksharta Samiti2 were responsible for the
implementation of the programmes at village and block levels. The district
collector was the chair of the said programme heading and promoting
district level activities. Further Block Coordinator Officers, Resource Persons
(RPs), Master Trainers (MTs), Volunteer Instructors (VIs) were the main
movers of the programme at the village and hamlet levels.
It may be noted that State Resource Centres (SRCs) at the state level,
Block resource Centres (BRCs) at the block level, or the CECs (established
during the CEP implementation) were the specific resource centres for the
literacy programme.
The NLM also introduced a technocratic pedagogic approach, known as
Improved Pace and Content of Learning (IPCL) to address the problems
of slow pace and poor quality of learning among adult learners. The IPCL
2 “The Zilla Saksharta Samitis are registered under the Societies Registration Act as independent and autonomous bodies, to provide a
forum for individuals and organizations to work together” (http://www.nlm.nic.in/manstru_nlm.htm).
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approach assumed that higher quality pedagogic inputs would improve
the pace of learning and enable learners to acquire the expected levels
of literacy in about 200 hours as per the NLM norms.
1.1.c.ii Decentralization and Diversity of Focus in National Literacy Programmes
The NLM policy document envisaged nationwide expansion of post-
literacy and continuing education through new institutional structures,
better utilization of the existing infrastructures and open and distance
learning. However, initially the NLM did not pay adequate attention to
devising appropriate strategies for linking literacy with post-literacy and
continuing education. On the whole, the government‟s commitment to
adult education continued to be programmatic. Unlike, elementary
education, the government did not pay attention to developing a
sustainable system of adult education to promote literacy and continuing
education among adults from disadvantaged and marginalized sections.
Initially, the focus of NLM strategy remained on mass literacy campaigns.
In the absence of effective policy and continuing education yielded
limited results. The Arun Ghosh Committee constituted by the Government
of India emphasized the significance of post-literacy and continuing
education for sustainable literacy and for linking literacy with
development in a way that it is beneficial to the neo-literates and the
Continuing Education for Neo-literates
Objective:
To provide life-long learning opportunities to all people beyond basic literacy and
education
Target Groups/ Beneficiaries:
Neo-literates who complete the functional literacy/post-literacy in the TLC/PLP
School drop-outs
Pass outs of primary schools and non-formal education programmes
All other members of the community interested in availing opportunities for life-
long learning
Implementation Strategy:
To create an effective learning structure for neo-literates to strengthen their
existing skills
Make learning relevant to actual life situations by providing technical and
vocational skills
Encourage creative thinking through participative group activities
Encourage NGOs, universities, SRCs, etc. to actively participate in planning,
management and running of CECs/NCECs Active participation of PRIs
Enlist community participation for community ownership of programme
Active linkages with other development departments at grassroots level
Make the programme sustainable by making it need-based and demand oriented
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poor. With most districts covered under TLC in the late 1990s, it became
essential to move beyond the stage of basic literacy to post literacy and
continuing education. In the Ninth Plan (1997-2002), the NLM‟s approach
shifted towards consolidating the gains of literacy and promoting post-
literacy and continuing education. After the Dakar declaration of 2000,
the targets set by NLM were achievement of 75% literacy and expansion
of continuing education to all districts by 2007.
The NLM continued to focus on the disadvantaged sections such as
women, scheduled castes, scheduled tribes, and backward castes as the
main target groups. There was, however, a subtle change in the
underlying policy discourse. Promotion of literacy among these groups is
not seen as a strategy to address existing educational inequalities, but as
a means to educate a generation which is hoped to be in a better gear
to educate their children to ensure realization of the Education For All
(EFA) goal of elementary education.
The NLM continued to emphasize women as an important target group
for its programmes and gave priority to 45 districts with low female
literacy. It advocated increasing and strengthening women‟s
participation in literacy, post-literacy and continuing education
programmes to attain broader development goals. However, the policy
remained silent on the strategy to mainstreaming gender concerns in
overall planning and implementation.
Despite fragile levels of literacy attained through TLCs and their
sustainability in divergent social, political and economic context, the NLM
assumed that TLCs had succeeded in making a large adult population
literate. Based on this premise, NLM shifted its attention to tackling the
problem of „residual illiteracy‟. The revamped policy adopted an
integrated approach to make basic literacy, post-literacy and continuing
education phases into a learning continuum. It was assumed that such an
approach would achieve continuity, efficiency and convergence as well
as minimize necessary time lag between different phases of learning.
The focus of NLM‟s strategy shifted from mobilization approach to
managerial approach for implementation of literacy campaigns.
Volunteers were no longer the backbone of literacy campaigns as
emphasis had shifted to paid workers (Preraks) with low wages.
There was a major change in NLM policy, its emphasis being on
decentralization of management of adult education from the national to
state and district levels and increase in involvement of PRIs, NGOs and the
community in implementation of various programmes to meet the
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learning needs of the community. Consequently, financial and
administrative roles of the central and state governments, ZSS, PRIs, and
other local bodies and funding norms for NGOs got refined as per the
planning and implementation of various programmes.
The policy emphasized greater role of community in planning,
implementation and monitoring of various programmes at the district
level. It envisaged that such institutional arrangements would facilitate
decentralized and participatory mode of programme planning and
implementation at various levels. Eventually, financing of literacy, post-
literacy and continuing education programmes will be taken over by the
state governments, panchayats and the village community.
The major thrust of NLM‟s revised policy was on efficient management
and delivery of various programmes through devolution of financial and
administrative powers from national to state level, and strengthening and
revamping of existing institutions such as State Resource Centres (SRCs)
and Jan Shikshan Sansthans (JSSs) for providing resource support to
ongoing programmes. At the district level, partnership with the
community, NGOs and panchayats was advocated essentially for
efficient delivery of programmes. The proposed decentralization strategy
expanded the role of state governments, ZSS, and PRIs in financing
ongoing programmes and in supporting them in the long run. However,
decentralization without adequate devolution of powers to the local
bodies, and without building capacity of people at different levels to
effectively plan and manage various programmes further weakened
overall provisions and implementation of these programmes.
Furthermore, the revised NLM policy advocated strengthening institutional
linkages within the educational department and other development
departments to attain the NLM objectives of imparting functional literacy
and building partnership with other agencies and organisations for
implementation of various programmes. Such partnerships were more for
improving efficiency of programme delivery rather than for strengthening
the institutionalized system.
The revamped policy of NLM introduced a significant shift in the direction
of adult education. It continued with the target-oriented approach but
there was a marked transition in terms of conceptualization of different
phases – literacy, post-literacy and continuing education – and the
implementation strategy. Overall, the focus was transformed from
„eradication of illiteracy‟ to removal of „residual illiteracy‟ and from
mobilization approach to managerial approach.
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With the merger of departments of adult education and elementary
education into a single department in the late 1990s, significance priority
given to adult education diminished gradually. Non-formal education for
out-of-school adults and youth and lifelong learning involved multi-
sectoral educational activities. However, there was no inter-ministerial
coordination body at the national level other than NLM to network with
other departments in the matters related to policy planning and
implementation of adult education.
On the other hand, role of the Directorate of Adult Education continue to
be agency, set up within the MHRD to provide necessary technical and
resource support to the National Literacy Mission Authority (NLMA),
weakened over time due to limited institutional resources (human and
financial). There was no other national-level autonomous institution to
provide academic and technical inputs to adult education policies and
programmes.
1.1.c.iii Recent Approaches to Literacy in Five Year Plans
A perceptible shift was noticed from the Ninth Plan (1997-2002) onwards in
the NLM policy towards devolution of powers from the NLMA to the State
Literacy Mission Authority (SLMA). Although SLMA‟s role in financing,
management and implementation of adult and continuing education in
the respective states has expanded, the policy directives are still
determined by NLMA. Given low priority to adult education in basic
education policy, devolution of powers to SLMA has not revitalized the
programmes. It could be seen as a method for the central government
curtailing its responsibility while retaining the control over strategic policy
decisions.
On the other hand the SRCs have been set up by the central government
mostly under the aegis of NGOs to provide support and guidance to the
ongoing programmes of adult education in the respective states. The role
of SRCs has gradually expanded to undertake research, evaluation and
monitoring of various programmes in different states and implementation
of continuing education projects. However, with diminishing technical
and resource support of the DAE for developing their capabilities, only a
few SRCs have the capacity to pursue the new mandate.
The Eleventh Plan (2007-12) envisages achieving faster and more broad-
based and inclusive growth by focusing on reducing poverty and bridging
various divides that exist in society. It expresses concern about both the
magnitude of illiteracy among the adult population and the low quality of
adult literacy. The approach paper acknowledged that of the 300 million
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adult illiterates in the country, a significant proportion of them, particularly
in the 35+ age group are not covered under any adult education
programme. It also underscores that the measure of adult literacy used in
the literacy programme is not an adequate indicator of the level of
functional literacy that is required for the new programme using
computer-based self-learning system for the 35+ age group and
advocates this programme as a national mission for acquiring skills for
reading a newspaper. It envisages that such a mission would make India
100% literate within 5 years. For quickly attaining the goal of functional
literacy, there is a gradual shift from the broad-based concept of
functional literacy towards minimalist approach to literacy acquisition. On
the other hand, the plan proposes to achieve higher levels of literacy
through a workable model of continuing education. Furthermore, the
Eleventh Plan emphasizes the need for assessing the quality of
programmes implemented by NGOs and greater involvement of NYKS
network to fulfill the goal of adult literacy under the overall umbrella of
TLCs.
It would be worthwhile to mention here that on the issue of adult literacy,
the XIth FYP (2007-2012) has put special emphasis on:
Low Literacy states
Tribal areas
North Eastern states
Scheduled castes and schedule tribes
Women
Other disadvantaged groups
Minorities
Adolescents
1.1.d Literacy Campaigns and Female Literacy
Gender parity and social equality are critical variables of social
development. In recent past gender equality has been taken note by
development planning. In the context of literacy also it holds good. It is
understood that in order to bring about any form of development it is
important to first bring about social parity between the advantaged and
disadvantaged groups. Once the latter are more aware they also
contribute in social progress.
Functional literacy is considered to be one of the keys to bringing in
awareness. In order to bring about large-scale development women also
need to be aware of the benefits of learning not only for themselves but
also for their daughters and sons. This will drive them to send the children
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to school, ensure retention in school thus limiting the drop out rate.
Retention in school and higher learning opportunities is envisaged to
produce a more productive population.
Keeping this perspective in mind female literacy has been a prime focus
of education planners. And literacy campaigns are believed to have
brought about some noteworthy changes in favour of women as well as
the society:
Heightened social awareness regarding the importance of education
for children as well as adults, resulting in higher enrolment.
Increased school enrolment, especially of girls.
Increased self-confidence and improved personality of women
participants.
Brought about gender equity and women‟s empowerment by
focusing on the illiterate adult women and providing them opportunity
to learn.
Improved status of women in the family through participation and
awareness as regards their identity and social position.
Brought about educational equality.
Created more women entrepreneurs.
Developed possibilities of facilitating household savings and accessing
credit facilities.
Facilitated better health and hygiene
(http://www.nlm.nic.in/women.htm).
The review of Mahila Samakhya as a programme for women‟s
empowerment offers a variety of approaches and methods in promoting
women‟s literacy. It is important to draw lessons from them for
incorporating the learnings. The Mahila Samakhya launched in 1988 in
pursuance of the goals of the New Education Policy (1986) and the
Programme of Action, 1992, for the education and empowerment of
women in rural areas, particularly of women from socially and
economically marginalized groups. Mahila Samakhya implementation
strategies focused on evolving the implementation in consultation with
women had demonstrated excellent efforts in improving women literacy
and anchoring processes for their empowerment.
Mahila Samakhya demonstrated that the empowerment of women was a
critical precondition for the participation of women and girls in the
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education process. The principal strategy identified for ensuring women‟s
participation was through mobilising and organising them into sanghas
(collectives) and the programmatic cues from the women in the Sanghas
led the process.
The predominant composition of the Mahila Sanghas are SC/ST women,
belonging to land-less and marginalised families, who are engaged in
wage labour. Mahila Samakhya was a radical departure from
conventional programmes and the programme was implemented
through autonomous registered societies set up at the state level. The
rationale behind this was that an autonomous Registered Society alone
can provide the flexibility to administer an innovative programme while at
the same time retaining the authority of the Government structure.
The Mahila Samakhya experience in India offers a unique case of
understanding the issues of women‟s education and empowerment and
the inter linkages thereof in different regional and rural contexts within the
country. It offers an example of the importance of empowerment of
women as a critical precondition to facilitate greater inclusion of women
and their daughters into education. Further, it provides an alternative
paradigm to women‟s mobilisation and empowerment to the current and
dominant focus on economic interventions as the principal strategy for
women‟s empowerment. Some of the key reported impacts of Mahila
Samakhya were:
Enabing women to take difficult decisions of withdrawing children
especially girls from work and providing them an opportunity for
education resulting in improved educational opportunities for girls children
and subsequent reduction in child labour
Improving the literacy status of women as a need felt cause than doing it
in a campaign mode. This warranted years of engagement with women
to address issues of their daily life and place Livelihood issues, savings and
credit, access to government resources, natural resource management
were taken up to empower women. Self-help groups of women played a
critical role in addressing access to credit and resources and thereby to
some extent making women aware of the need for functional literacy. The
self help and livelihood group activities exerted the pressure for writing,
numercay, book keeping and maintenance of accounts.
Participation in local governance by literate and illiterate women with
leadership qualities was emerged. The nurturing of leadership qualities in
the Snghas resulted in the emergence of confident women leadership
and their subsequent participation in the governance processes.
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Mahila Samakhya demonstrates the need for consistent and continuous
engagement with poor illiterate women in their path for empowerment. It
clearly sends a message that literacy is not something which can be
delivered by campaign and inconsistent literacy classes. It reminds us the
need for placing literacy in the larger social and economic fabric of
women‟s life, viz., i) Education as life skills that validates the existence of
self, builds self esteem and confidence and enables decision making, ii)
Education as information and knowledge. This entails not only acquisition
but also effective application of this information and knowledge for
instance in the areas of health, environment, law, government schemes
and programmes and iii) Education as skills. Acquiring basic skills of
reading, writing and numeracy; acquiring skills to directly address
livelihood concerns, breaking gender stereotypes by entering male
domains and acquiring skills traditionally seen as male and becoming of
hand pump mechanics, masons and forest watch and ward, etc.
1.1.e Achievements in Adult Literacy
As a result of the policy thrusts provided in favour of adult literacy India
achieved considerable progress in improving the literacy situation in the
1990s. The literacy rate went up from 51.2% in 1991 to 65.4% in 2001 for the
population in the age group of 7 years and above. The Census of 2001
shows that the all-India literacy rate has increased by 13.2 percentage
points and improvement in literacy rates is evident for all the states/Union
Territories (UTs). Nearly 50% districts recorded literacy rate above the
national average of 65.4% (Registrar General and Census Commissioner
India, 2001). The most striking change visible in the census 2001 relates to
the female literacy rate. About three-fourths of the male population
(75.9%) and more than half of the female population (54.2%) female
population in the country were literate. In fact the growth rate of literacy
had been higher for the female population at 14.9% than for males at
11.7% during the decade in reference. For the first time after
independence, gender gap between male and female literacy rate
gradually declined from 24.8% in 1991 to 21.7% in 2001. Furthermore, there
has been a marked improvement in the literacy situation of the
disadvantaged groups of scheduled castes (SCs) and scheduled tribes
(STs).
A state-wise disaggregated analysis shows that striking disparities in
literacy rates across the States/UTs have persisted. The low literacy districts
(30-36% literacy rates) are scattered in the underdeveloped states of
central and eastern India (Bihar, Jharkhand, Uttar Pradesh and Odisha). It
is usually argued that the problems of uneven progress of literacy and
widespread illiteracy are linked with the political economy of uneven
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development in India. In general the states with overall low literacy rate
continue to have large gender gap also despite substantial improvement
in female literacy. More than 80% districts having female literacy below
50% were concentrated in the nine states of Jammu & Kashmir, Rajasthan,
Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Bihar, Jharkhand, Odisha, Arunachal
Pradesh and Andhra Pradesh. In Bihar there was no district with female
literacy rate more than the national average of 54.2%. The gender gap in
literacy rates among SC and ST was large. In 2001, the literacy rate for SC
males and females was 66.6% and 47.1% respectively. The literacy rate for
ST women was considerably lower (34.8%) than ST men (59.2%).
The literacy rate for Muslims was 59.1%, lower than the national average.
Among the six major religious communities, the gender gap in literacy rate
for Jains and Christians is less that 10 percentage points. Maximum gender
gap between male and female literacy rate is among Hindus (23%),
followed by Sikhs (21.4%), Buddhists (21.5%) and Muslims (17.5%).
Despite growth rate of literacy during 1991-2001, the magnitude of
illiteracy among different populations in absolute terms reveals the extent
of the challenge in the new century. Although the absolute number of
illiterates in the age group of 7+ years has declined from 332.3 million in
1991 to 304.1 million in 2001, the challenge of making India literate was still
very daunting. The non-literate adults constitute about 40% of the adult
population. This means there were around 236 million non-literate adults as
in 2001. In absolute terms, regional and gender disparities in illiteracy were
very alarming. The seven states where literacy rate was below national
average-Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Jharkhand, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh,
Odisha and Andhra Pradesh, accounted for about 59.2% (175.3 million) of
India‟s non-literate population. Despite improvement in female literacy
during 1991-2001, there were about 189.5 million female illiterates
constituting 64% of India‟s illiterate population. There were 17 districts from
the two states of central India (Uttar Pradesh & Chhatisgarh) and three
states of eastern India (Bihar, Jharkhand and Odisha) where not even one
out of four women was literate.
1.1.f Launch of Saakshar Bharat: The New Variant of NLM
Against the foregoing backdrop the Government of India launched a
centrally sponsored scheme in 2009 to continue as well as further
strengthen its focus on women‟s literacy as a strategic driver for furthering
its inclusive growth objective. It aims to further promote and strengthen
Adult Education, specially of women, by extending educational options
to those adults who having lost the opportunity of access to formal
education and crossed the standard age for receiving such education,
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now feel a need for learning of any type, including, literacy, basic
education (equivalency to formal education), vocational education (skill
development), physical and emotional development, practical arts,
applied science, sports, and recreation.
The new initiative recognizes that despite significant accomplishments of
the NLM, illiteracy continues to be an area of national concern. Wide
gender, social and regional disparities in literacy also continue to persist.
Adult education is therefore indispensable as it supplements the efforts to
enhance and sustain literacy levels through formal education. The
Government also reiterated that literacy would be its key programme
instrument for emancipation and empowerment of women. Efforts of the
Government to give impetus to school education, health, nutrition, skill
development and women empowerment in general are impeded by the
continuance of female illiteracy. Government expects increase in female
literacy to become a force multiplier for all other social development
programmes. However, this is only the instrumental value of female
literacy. Its intrinsic value is in emancipating the Indian woman through
the creation of critical consciousness to take charge of her environment
where she faces multiple deprivations and disabilities on the basis of class,
caste and gender. In the context of Government‟s overall policy aimed at
empowerment of women and in recognition of the fact that literacy,
especially female literacy, is a prerequisite to socio-economic
development, it was considered imperative that the National Literacy
Mission (NLM), as a programme instrument, be recast with an enhanced
focus on female literacy. It was also felt that such a repositioning of the
mission would have a very positive impact on re-energizing the literacy
movement that, after an initial decade of spirited social mobilization, had
waned over two decades of its operation. It is in this background that
Saakshar Bharat has been devised as the new variant of National Literacy
Mission. Saakshar Bharat aims to cover all adults in the age group of 15
and beyond though its primary focus will be on women. The scheme has
not only been relieved of the shortcomings noted in its preceding editions,
but also, several new features added to it. Basic Literacy, Post literacy and
Continuing Education programmes, will now form a continuum, rather
than sequential segments. Besides, the volunteer based mass campaign
approach, provision has been made for alternative approaches to adult
education. Jan Shiksha Kendras (Adult Education Centres) (AECs), will be
set up to coordinate and manage all programmes, within their territorial
jurisdiction. State Government, as against the districts in the earlier
versions, and Panchyati Raj institutions, along with communities, will be
valued stakeholders. Vigorous monitoring and evaluation systems will be
installed. Last, but not the least, budgetary support has been enhanced
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substantially. Saakshar Bharat has come into operation from 01 October
2009. With the launch of Saakshar Bharat, the National Literacy Mission
and its entire programmes and activities stood concluded on 30.09.2009.
1.1.g Objectives and Targets of Saakshar Bharat
The Saakshar Bharat has four broad objectives, namely:
i) Impart functional literacy and numeracy to non-literate and non-
numerate adults;
ii) Enable the neo-literate adults to continue their learning beyond basic
literacy and acquire equivalency to formal educational system;
iii) Impart non and neo-literates relevant skill development programmes
to improve their earning and living conditions; and
iv) Promote a learning society by providing opportunities to neo literate
adults for continuing education.
Targets for the Programme
The principal target of the mission is to impart functional literacy to 70
million adults in the age group of 15 years and beyond. Auxiliary target of
the mission is to cover 1.5 million adults under basic education
programme and equal number under vocational (skill development)
programme. Within these targets, the Mission will primarily focus on, but
not limit to, women. Schedules Castes (SCs), Scheduled Tribes (STs)
Minorities, other disadvantaged groups and adolescents in rural areas in
low literacy States will be other focused groups. For each focused group
and area, there will be a specific target and for each target, an explicit
approach and strategy.
Women being the prime focus and predominant participants, the entire
programme will be given gender treatment. The gender, social and
cultural barriers that women face will be taken into consideration while
designing teaching learning programmes. Gender will not be seen in
isolation but in conjunction with other social categories like caste,
ethnicity, religion, disability, etc. Gender perspective will permeate all
components of the programme, including the approach, strategies,
planning, management structures, teaching-learning materials and
monitoring and evaluation. Special priority will be given to women
belonging to SC, ST, Minority and other disadvantaged groups in rural
areas.
The approach will be to build on women‟s existing knowledge and levels
of their literacy and numeracy in order to ensure that in the long run the
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existing levels are substantially upgraded and they are able to use the
skills acquired in their own contexts. Innovative, tried and tested
programmes related to women‟s literacy, including interventions related
to thematic or issue-based literacy will be up-scaled. Women will be
engaged in large numbers as volunteers and instructors to encourage
women learners to participate in the programme.
All the envisaged programmes are designed to be implemented by
volunteers in temporary literacy learning centres in a village. The number
of centres would be decided on the basis of the number of learners, that
is, one centre would be set up per 8-10 non-literates. Further the said
centre would be affiliated to Adult Education Centres (AECs) of the
respective villages. The AECs or Lok Shiksha Kendras were to be set up in
villages to provide support to the literacy centres. One AEC would be set
up per Gram Panchayat with a population of 5000 or more. Contractual
coordinators would run the AECs.
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Fig. 2: Organisation-Structure of Saakshar Bharat
Saakshar Bharat Management Structure
It may be noted that the SB organization structure is similar to that of the
NLM organization during the Total Literacy Campaign. A few noteworthy
iterations were in the participation of NGOs and Universities at different
levels.
The above organogram gives a fair picture of the literacy centres at all
the different levels starting from the centre to the village.
Sub-District Level
Literacy Committee Governing Body
Block Resource Group/NGOs
Block Resource Group
Village Level Literacy
Committee Governing Body, Sub-
Committees
Village Level Resource Group/NGOs
District Level Committee Governing Body, Executive
Committee, Sub- Committee
District Resource Group/NGOs
JSS/DIETs/DRUs/Local Universities/Colleges
National Literacy
Mission Authority Council Executive Committee
National Resource Support Group
Central Directorate of Adult Education
Universities (Dept. of Adult Education)
State Literacy Mission
Authority Governing Body Executive
Committee State Resource Centres and State Resource Support
Group
Universities (Dept. of Adult Education)
State Directorate of Adult Education
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1.2 Looking Afresh at the Agenda for the Study on Literacy Programmes for
Women
After observing a very interesting course of journey and struggle depicting
various approaches to India‟s adult literacy programmes, it would be
worthwhile to move forward to have a look at the key issues that we must
focus on while evaluating what role these programmes have played in
bringing women‟s empowerment and inclusion issues to the forefront and
how far women have benefited on several fronts such as employment,
facing lesser discrimination, exercising one‟s own choices in reproductive
matters, participation in village level democratic and political processes,
having greater say in household decisions, etc. For the purpose of looking
at these very important and sensitive development issues the study has
decided to focus on four of the least literate districts of the country. The
four districts are East Singhbhum in Jharkhand, Jhabua in Madhya
Pradesh, Koraput in Odisha and Churu in Rajasthan. Efforts were made to
look at gender across the various aspects of study and the findings were
recorded accordingly.
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2. Review of Literature
2.1 Study of Relevant Literature
In “Literacy Campaign in India” (2000) Soundarapandian M. makes a
review of the Total Literacy Campaign starting from establishment of
National Literacy Mission in 1985 which had the mission of imparting
functional literacy programme to 80 million illiterate persons in the 15-35
age group by 1995. The aim of the literacy campaigns has been imparting
basic literacy and numeracy skills and functional knowledge of day-to-
day affairs and social awareness.
It lists characteristic features of literacy campaigns like creation of
sustainable environment, massive mobilization of volunteers, continuous
participation and involvement, flexibility of syllabus, etc. It profiles
experience of Total Literacy Campaigns (TLCs) in India and mentions
some conditions of TLCs in India including availability of school buildings;
motivation of voluntary organisations; motivating learners through
employment oriented learning; utilizing services of trained women
volunteers for motivating drop-out learners; selecting teaching-learning
schedule keeping in view harvest season and examination period in
schools and colleges; and supplying teaching material to the village
centres before starting the teaching learning process; provision of reading
materials to neo-literates in Post Literacy Campaigns (PLCs); sending out
population education messages to neo-literates.
He suggests that, reading materials should be prepared keeping in view
imparting literacy skills to persons belonging to socially deprived sections
and the poor; the material should be designed to evince interest in neo-
literate adults; emphasis should be given on craft centered studies or
material like farming, spinning, carpentry, poultry, etc.
Another piece of work by Mathew, A. on “The Literacy Movement in West
Godavari District (A.P.): A Report” (2002) highlights literacy movement in
West Godavari (WG) district, i.e. TLC, PLC and CE; activities organized at
CE centre level; programmes on science, nutrition, drinking water and
sanitation; skill development programmes especially on making pain
balm, detergent powder, soap, baskets, weaving, candles, spices and
powders, etc.; activities like sports and games competitions, songs and
cultural programmes.
He observed that CE programmes became more centralized than
community based in contrast with TLCs or PLCs. He discusses the Akshara
Mahila Programme which began as literacy programme for women
through self-help groups. Akshara Sankranthi Programme educated all
37000 illiterate women in the district whether group based or not. Mass
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mobilization strategy, i.e. Akshara Padyatra (Literacy Walk) was also
organized in addition to Akshara Deeksha programme which was a broad
based popular mobilisation organized in support of social groups.
Monitoring of the CE programme shifted from groups to areas and was
done through the Village Literacy Committee (VLC). Motivational
strategies were adopted through Primary Level Motivator (PLM) and
Secondary Level Motivator (SLM) which attempted to link literacy with
cultural life. Community involvement was prioritized through banners and
slogans; adoption of CE centres by civil society. At the end improvement
in attendance and achievement was noticed.
Lessons learnt were, taking up literacy with an organized group to meet
felt functional needs elicits better response; selective group based
approach was more effective than the mass campaign approach in
tackling illiteracy; bifurcating reading and writing into two sequential
stages and a primer based on natural sequence of alphabetic method
served to achieve fast learning progress by retaining learner‟s interest;
IPCL approach was not taking into consideration the intellectual level of
learners and volunteers and natural alphabetical sequence or the
language construction.
A major study by Yagi, Rie entitled entitled “Process Analysis of a Total
Literacy Campaign in India: A Case Study of Udaipur District, Rajasthan”
(2003) analyzed TLC into social and historical context and how the
application so-called a “TLC Model” turns out to be a real challenge in
Udaipur district of Rajasthan to fill the gap between policy and practice.
Hence, this study makes an attempt for a significant reorientation of the
approach to be part of national policy of India. Behind this attempt it is
also argued that one needs to be aware of the limitations and constraints
within which the campaign is conducted in a certain given context. After
all, literacy practices are always embedded in social and cultural
contexts and they are simple neutral artifacts but are inevitably contested
and ideological.
In a similar research attempt to the above a paper by Yadav, P. entitled
“Total Literacy Campaign and Social Change: A Study of the Six Selected
Localities in Bhopal District”, (2003) it has been observed that Total
Literacy Campaigns (TLCs) triggered a number of social outcomes such as
increase in enrolment and decline in drop outs among primary school
children, women‟s empowerment, and adoption of small family norms
and large scale immunization of children, which eventually became
mode for social mobilization.
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In an edited volume entitled “Multi-dimensional approaches to Literacy
Development” (2008) by B.S. Basudeva Rao and P. Viswanadha Gupta
which contains 28 articles on various aspects of education including
female literacy, continuing education programmes and literacy
campaigns for women, etc., the article discussed below is worth
mentioning.
In the article authored by Rao, B.S.B., Rao, M.U.S.B.P. and Gupta P.V. on
“Literacy Campaign for Women: A Field Understanding” a study of
Akshara Sankranthi programme in Andhra Pradesh is made. The
programme was launched in the year 2000 through self help groups
(SHGs) and the main focus were women. It was a micro level study of
Pendarshi Mandal which focuses on statistical profile of sample learners,
social class, occupational background, etc. Literacy performance has
also been assessed in which it was noticed that learners fared significantly
better in reading and arithmetic than writing tests. The authors have
suggested creating awareness for better implementation of the
programme.
Another author Sadananda Mishra in his work “Adult Education and Total
Literacy” (2008) profiles among other things, need and importance of
adult education; model of current adult education programme;
pedagogy adopted by TLCs, i.e. Improved Pace and Contents of
Learning (IPCL) and Rapid Literacy Method (RLM); prescribed levels of
literacy achievement with the help of 3-graded primers prescribed by
IPCL; development of adult education through the Five Year Plan periods;
Adult education programmes in Odisha especially in 6 TLC districts.
While looking critically at the TLCs in Odisha it has adopted methods like
documentation, questionnaire and schedules and evaluates roles of
facilitators, supervisors, administrators and status of learners vis-à-vis their
learning gains. While more facilitators were women (56%) in case of
administrators and supervisors men dominated the scene, i.e. 75% and
77% respectively. Majority of learners had no schooling background.
He cites the reasons for learners not having early schooling experience like
non-cooperation of family; unpleasant experience in school; and poverty.
Learners faced many problems going to TLC centres because of excess
pressure of household work; lack of faith in the perspective of the
programme; majority of classes operated in the evening; instructional
material were not provided and poor quality of reading materials. The
author observes/recommends that duration of teaching learning process
should be 18 months; timing should be flexible; three graded primers
should be discontinued because were burdensome; irrelevance of
teaching learning material (TLM) to life; and legal aid, environment,
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science in everyday life and vocational education was not imparted at
all.
Authors Jena, V.K. and Mathew A. in their edited volume entitled
“Leading the Way: New Initiatives in Adult Education” (2008), they have
compiled 23 articles by different authors on TLC; CE; innovations in literacy
and CE; institutional innovations like Jan Sikshan Sansthan (JSS); state
resource centres (SRCs); Role of ICT in literacy; and monitoring and
evaluation practices under NLM.
In the article by Pisda, K.R. on “TLC in Dantewada District (Chhatishgarh):
Striving for Literacy under Naxal Menace” it has been highlighted that
completing a TLC in a district where life is most difficult due to poverty on
the one hand and the Naxalite violence on the other, Dantewada TLC is a
good example of how the Zilla Saksharata Samiti (ZSS) motivated and
coached the neo-literates to appear for class V examination. To get over
17,000 neo-literates to prepare and enable more than 12000 of them pass
it, is an achievement. Dantewada is an example of the formal school
system responding to the needs of the neo-literates acquire formal school
education. It has been recorded that many of these neo-literates later on
found employment as peons, Anganwadi workers and cooks in schools
and other government institutions.
In a publication entitled “Analysis of External Evaluation Report of Total
Literacy Campaigns (Volume-V)”, (2008) by the National Literacy Mission
very brief summaries have been put together with regard to the
evaluation studies that were carried out of district TLCs. These summaries
list among other things methodology adopted, findings and suggestions
for further action. The methodology usually adopted was administering a
test paper on reading, writing and numeracy (with various weightages
assigned to these three) to the neo-literates as per their learning status (P-
I, P-II or P-III) and selecting the sample at random Block-wise or Mandal-
wise. In addition study schedules were administered to the volunteers,
administration and village leaders to find out their respective roles and
perceptions as well as additional factors that were responsible for the low
or high achievement under TLC in a particular district.
Role of other community based activities like meetings, rallies, human
chains, competitions, kalajathas, dance, drama, women literacy
committees, forming savings habits, etc, were also evaluated in the
success of TLCs.
The summary of the evaluation reports has not shed adequate light on the
methodology adopted in the evaluation studies.
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2.2 Major Highlights of the Literature Reviewed
The literature reviewed above describes the many facets of literacy
campaigns and the multiplicity of factors that contribute to make TLCs or
CEs successful or not-so-successful. Simultaneously, they have also thrown
light on the linkages of literacy with all practical aspects of life starting
from learning functional literacy to imbibing skills for leading the daily life
meaningfully as well as to be productive. The literature also gives an
interesting indication as to the link between the success of group based
exclusive women‟s literacy programmes and the need for launching the
Saakshar Bharat (SB) Programme which puts primary emphasis on
women‟s literacy and learning vocational skills.
However, the need is still felt to bring on board issues like building strong
linkages between literacy programmes (TLC, PLP or CE) and practical life;
building vocational skills among the poor women and men for meeting
livelihood needs; learning about pressing factors like health; reproductive
rights; children‟s early childhood priorities and adolescent life skills;
learning local or external market oriented vocational skills, etc.
Not discussing enough on appropriate Monitoring and Evaluation
strategies for capturing and utilizing learning and for course correction of
programmes is a big gap noticed in the literature surveyed.
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3. Methodology of the Study
The study was designed as a rapid enquiry to understand the key results of
TLC and other adult literacy promotion efforts in the country. This field
based enquiry is intended to build and contribute to Welthungerhilfe‟s
understanding and thus help in building its approach and taking possible
steps for promoting adult literacy in India. The possible approach could
be:
Building partnership with Saakshar Bharat in implementing its activities
in the villages and districts covered by Welthungerhilfe and its CSO
partners
Adopting innovative approaches and strategies in promoting adult
literacy which is a national goal
Making use of the existing infrastructure, material and human
resources already available under the Saakshar Bharat programme for
taking literacy to rural remote areas and in particular promoting
literacy of socially excluded and economically vulnerable groups
Different methods were
evolved by the team in
conducting the study
keeping the complex
nature of the subject
matter as well as the
weak data and
information system
available in the country.
The study methodology
included: visits to select
villages in the four identified districts belonging to four states, interview
with women participants of Literacy Campaign, interviews with Trainers or
Volunteers, focused group discussions with women and men, collect a
few primary data using PRA techniques as well as use the primary data
collected by NGOs through household surveys. Apart from these, pre and
post assessment study workshops were conducted with the NGO
participants, district and block level officers to understand the impact of
literacy campaigns as well as to understand the processes of roll-out of
“Saakshar Bharat”.
For field enquiry, 4 districts covering four states were identified. From each
districts, five hamlets belonging to one or two blocks were chosen for field
enquiry. Due to limitation of time, no survey was done but used a number
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of participatory research techniques like drawing of village resource map,
identifying households who had participants of NLM, general
understanding of the educational status of the people, children going to
school, etc.
The selection of hamlets were basically done in consultation with the local
NGO partner, using a
combination of factors
like number of adult
women in the village,
remoteness, tribe,
presence of Primary,
Middle and High Schools
in the villages. Ten
villages were ranked
against these variables
and the most representative five villages were identified for study
purposes. The sample villages and the hamlet identification were based
on the following criteria:
Village and hamlets with no educational institutions-2
Village and hamlets with one primary school -1
Village and hamlets with one primary and Middle School-1
Village and hamlets with one primary, middle and high school-1
The methodology and study design was guided by three eminent experts
in the field of education and involved with the promotion of National
Adult literacy in India. These experts included Prof. Anita Dighe, Prof.
Shrawan Kejriwal, and
Prof. Ashraf Ali Khan.
These experts were
brought in as Expert
Resource Group to
guide the study design
and methodology, go
through the draft
report of the field
study and provide
their comments and suggestions and help build a strategy for the CSO
sector to understand and get involved in the promotion of adult literacy in
India. A brief profile of the Core Group Members is attached as
Annexure-1
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Detailed methodological framework along with complete ToR is attached
as Annexure-2.
Factors considered while designing the study tools and overall
Methodology
With the re-launch of the National Literacy Mission to promote adult
literacy with a new name “Saakshar Bharat”, it was felt opportune to
reflect on the experiences of adult literacy promotion efforts in India till
2009. It was observed that various approaches had been attempted
since the launch of National Literacy Mission in 1987. However, the various
efforts did not result in significantly reducing the total number of illiterates
in this country. While the literacy rates have improved from less than 20
per cent in 1951, to 52 per cent in 1991, to 65 per cent in 2001, in absolute
terms more than 30 million Indians continue to be illiterate.
More than two decades elapsed since the launch of the TLCs. Most of the
target districts had undergone TLCs, Post-Literacy Campaigns (PLC) and
Continuing Education (CE) phase. This attempt to understand the
contribution, impact and experiences of the literacy campaigns and
what has followed thereafter was by no means an easy task. The
assessment focused on how people (particularly women) participated in
the literacy campaigns and continuing education? What were their
expectations and how far these were met? What were the key processes
adopted in imparting learning during the campaigns, and how were
these impacted in the empowerment processes?
Some of the districts selected for the study have been through the total
literacy and post-literacy and CE phases, with the exception of East
Singhum where the TLC itself was a big failure. This preliminary assessment
study of the adult literacy campaigns has taken into consideration not
only the ability to recognise alphabets but the overall benefits the learners
see as a benefit- be it self development, social and economic
betterment.
Our assessments have attempted to locate literacy within the larger social
and political contexts. The assessment study has focused on
understanding and documenting the overall change processes
happened as a result of their participation in the literacy classes. The
communities selected include the dalits and tribals of rural remote
villages. We have tried to ascertain the different perspectives, to different
groups of people -women, the marginalised and the indigenous groups.
One of the central objectives of the study was to document the
community perceptions on adult literacy initiatives, document
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experiences, identify learning opportunities and strategies for
strengthening learning processes in the future. The assessment study aims
to share its insights and views, including the emerging issues related to
making India literate.
TLC was focused on transferring the ability to read without difficulty.
Additionally, copying at the rate of seven words a minute, counting and
writing from 1 to a 100, adding and subtracting three digit numbers as
well as being able to multiply and divide two digit numbers were also part
of the expected learning outputs.
The review of the literacy campaigns brings out a set of moot questions
like- Is the government capable of imparting adult literacy in India? Is this
something that falls in its key strengths and mandates? How could the
learning and retention of literacy be ensured and sustained? What are the
levels of learning when individuals are unable to relate the images,
contexts and, of course, the language of primers? Finally, what is an
effective evaluation process to measure learning outcomes?
We desist here providing the theoretical underpinnings of the literacy as
this would lead into endless debate of educational discourse. In practical
sense, we tried to look at adult literacy in terms of the ability to read
names, write names and alphabets as well as application of basic
calculations- addition and subtraction of two to three digit numbers which
were the prime focus of TLC campaigns. The main focus of our field
enquiries in the selected villages spread across four districts was on the
implications of making an oral society literate.
TLC is expected to be an essential element in the entire development
process, as it was designed to promote awareness which will lead to
empowerment, particularly of women and strengthen the process of
development. The TLC centres which brings a range of strata (caste and
economic) together was expected to promote social and emotional
integration.
This study looked at the process of learning as an outcome of TLCs and
the links with basic education, development, and overall improvements.
Given that the NLM envisaged the TLC in the context of development, it
became important to look at the historical perspective, organisational
environment, management structures and social and political contexts.
For instance, were patterns of exclusion reinforced or challenged?
The researchers conducted a number of Focus Group Discussions (FGDs),
in-depth interviews and small, purposive samples of women spread across
the field visit villages. More than 5 villages/hamlets per district covering
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over 20 villages/ hamlets were studied. In order to provide consistency to
this assessment, similar questions were asked to all respondents and the
conclusions of the studies have been drawn against the backdrop of the
overall aims of the TLC. The districts chosen for the study were mostly
declared as successful by the government and where there was
continuity between the TLC, PLC and/or CE phases, except district East
Singhbhum in Jarkhand.
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4. Profile of Study Population
This study selected four different districts, one district each from four
States- Jhabua in Madya Pradesh, East Singhbhum in Jharkhand, Koraput
in Odisha and Churu in Rajasthan. These districts were selected to
facilitate the field study by NGOs present in these districts who are
partners of Welthungerhilfe. The study villages were rural remote villages
and habitations of scheduled caste and tribes.
The literacy status of all the four districts selected for the study shows
below the national average of 65.38. When it is considered for the female
national literacy rate, these districts show even lower status ranging nearly
40% in Jharkhand, 44% in Rajasthan and over 50% in MP and Odisha. The
Table No. 1 explains the picture well.
Table-1: Literacy Rate in Four Focus States-2001
India/State(s) Overall Literacy Rate Male Female
Madhya Pradesh 64.11 76.80 50.28
Rajasthan 61.03 76.46 44.34
Odisha 63.61 75.95 50.97
Jharkhand 54.13 67.94 39.38
India 65.38 75.96 54.28
Source: Census 2001, Registrar General of India, Government of India.
From the State level scenario, let us peep into the literacy status of study
districts. These districts present a precarious picture with relation to the
literacy status, except Churu district of Rajasthan.
Table-2: Literacy Rates in Study Districts-2001
State(s) Overall Literacy Rate Male Female
Jhabua 36.87 N.A. 04.00
Churu 66.81 79.69 53.35
Koraput 35.72 N.A. 24.30
East Singhbhum 45.16 63.07 27.05
Source: Census 2001, Registrar General of India, Government of India.
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Although data on literacy rate of males are not available in case of all the
study districts, the Table No.3 gives a very different picture with regard to
female literacy when we compare it with the overall status of female
literacy in the state. In Jhabua it is only 4% whereas in Churu it is quite
spectacular if one compares its status with the other three. Koraput and
East Singhbhum, both tribal dominated districts depict almost a similar
picture with regard to female literacy, More than 75% of its women still
remain illiterate.
Table-3: Poverty Rate-2004-05*
State(s) %age of Persons
below poverty line District
%age of Persons
below poverty line
Madhya Pradesh 38.30 Jhabua 47.00 (2001)
Rajasthan 22.10 Churu 29.00 (N.A.)
Odisha 46.40 Koraput 83.81 (1997)
Jharkhand 40.30 East Singhbhum 49.40 (N.A.)
India 27.50 - -
1. *Source: Planning Commission of India, Poverty Estimates of 2004-2005 released in March 2007
2. Source: Jhabua-District website; Churu: Report of International Fund for Agricultural Development
on Rural Poverty in Rural India; Odisha: Panchayati Raj Department Website, Govt. of Odisha;
East Singhbhum: Website of Department of Forest & Environment, Govt. of Jharkhand.
[Note: The estimation of state specific and all-India poverty figures given
above has been done by the Planning Commission of India which is the
nodal agency of the Government of India for estimation of poverty at the
national and state levels. The estimate of poverty given above has been
done through Uniform Recall Period (URP) consumption distribution
methodology. For details on this methodology one may refer to the
Planning Commission’s documents on poverty estimation. However, the
district specific data has been estimated by the concerned states and
there is no mention of the methodology applied for arriving at the given
figures.]
The development scenario of the study states and districts were briefly
looked at to gain understanding of the positioning of the State and study
districts in the national context. Data with regard to poverty rates may
not be comparable because of two reasons. One, they pertain to
different time periods and secondly, the methodology of calculating the
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figures for these districts vary. However, these data do depict a general
picture of socio-economic and health positioning of the study districts
within the national picture. District Koraput presents a very disturbing
picture with more than 88% of its people living in poverty followed by East
Sighum and Jhabua with nearly 50% of its people living in poverty. Churu,
like its overall literacy status presents a better economic status. Table No.4
clearly brings out the overall picture.
The status of IMR and MMR is very much linked with the status of female
population in the context of empowerment and having overall say in
decision making. While in all the focus states the MMR is abnormally high
with Rajasthan recording the highest MMR (Rajasthan is worse than others
which is in line with common perception or the societal outlook towards
women and their well-being in general). With regard to IMR, Jharkhand
comes as a surprise having scored better than the national average
which is hard to explain keeping in view the overall health scenario,
literacy and poverty status of the state. Other three states depict a sorry
picture and they must improve the situation for ensuring better well-being
for children by ensuring their survival at the first place and literacy status of
women play a very important role in improving the child health and
educational status. The Table No.4 clearly explains the overall IMR and
MMR status.
Table-4: IMR and MMR in States
State(s) IMR MMR
Madhya Pradesh 70 335
Rajasthan 63 388
Odisha 69 303
Jharkhand 46 312
India 53 254
Source: NRHM Website, Govt. of India
Note: Infant Mortality Rate (SRS 2008); Maternal Mortality Ratio (SRS 2004 - 2006)
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5. Key Study Findings from Preliminary Field Based Enquiry
The study focus was essentially on both male and female participants as
well as non-participants of TLC, that is, the community as a whole along
with trainers, officials and other stakeholders. Besides the above, primary
data collected through PRA methods in Jhabua by the study team as well
as World Vision in East Sighum were also analysed and correlated.
All the focus districts except Churu in Rajahsthan were predominantly
inhabited by scheduled caste and tribal populace. The table 5 gives a fair
picture of the different tribes and castes of the female study population,
that is, the women participants of the FGDs.
Table-5: Tribe/Caste of Female Study Population
Tribe/Caste of Study Population
No. State District Village Tribe/Caste No. of
Participants
1. Madhya
Pradesh
Jhabua Bhandariya Pataliya 11
Khedi Pataliya 14
Narvaliya Bhil 14
Navin
Navapara
1Bhil, 10
Pataliya
11
Jharniya Bhil 10
2. Jharkhand East
Singhbhum*
Deuli SCs and Santhal 15
Bhandarboro Santhal 11
Amla Ghutu Santhal 13
Bardi Santhal 15
Shole Vilalge Santhal
3. Odisha Koraput Badli Kuduma Paraja, Gauda,
Harijan and
Paika
17
Parija Barikanta Harijan, Kanwar,
Paraja
11
Tentulliguda Golari and
Saiga
10
Sakarjala Kandha 14
Gopalpur Kothia 11
4. Rajasthan Churu* Chajusar Mixed
population of
dfferent castes
8
Dhadar Rajputs and
other castes
10
Harasar Mixed 10
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Dhatri Mixed
population
5
Gaurishar Mixed
population of
different castes
4
Sehla Mixed
population of
different castes
8
Total 4 20 222
Age-Group
The age-group of the female participants ranged from 15 years to 35
years and more. This was so keeping in mind the TLC framework‟s focus on
the 15-35 years age-group.
Economy
Agriculture is the mainstay of the study population. The community
studied were mainly engaged in agriculture. Migration in search of work
was observed in districts like Jhabua, East Singhbhum, and Koraput.
Families get migrated for a period of 3 to 4 months every year.
Education of adult women
It was important to understand the education level of the learners in order
to correlate the same with their learning abilities in general and in
particular due to the influence of TLC. The same is presented in a tabular
manner capturing the learning status of the female study population.
Table-6: Education Level of Women Participants in Study Districts
Education Level of Women Participants
No. District Illiterat
e
Sign
only
Sign & Identify
numbers/letter
s
Up to
Class
V
Up to
Matriculatio
n
More than
matriculatio
n
Total No. of
Participants
1. Jhabua 45 10 3 1 1 0 60
2.
East
Singhbhu
m
38 5 0 4 6 1 54
3. Koraput 53 9 0 1 0 0 63
4. Churu 7 23 3 6 5 1 45
Total 143 47 6 12 12 2 222
From the above table one can decipher that 143 (64.41%) out of 222
participants were illiterate. And if the number of people who could only
sign were put together along with the illiterates the number went up to
190 out of 222. That is 85.58% of the study population were illiterate. Very
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few were found to have been to high school or studied further. The
literacy level in Jhabua and Koraput were found to be very poor as
compared to the other two states. Only in Churu and East Singhbhum
some women were observed to have accessed school- both primary and
high school. It may be but noted that in East Singhubhum the literacy level
was better only in one of the four study villages; in the other three villages
the status of learning was found to be quite poor.
In Churu one woman was observed to have done her Masters and in East
Singhbhum one woman had done her graduation. The former was an
active participant in social development of the village, she had also
taught in the TLC programme and helped some women clear the P-III test
of the TLC campaign. The latter was an Anganwadi worker and very
keenly interested in the village‟s development (see case study of Savitri
Nayak, Churu and Daibani Sahu, East Singhbhum).
It is important to correlate the education status of the learners along with
their TLC participation. The following section focuses on the participation
of women in TLC and its impact on their learning.
5.1 Learners/Community
5.1.1 Learning Status of Learners vis-à-vis TLC Participation
Table-7: Learning Status of Learners vis-à-vis TLC Participation
No. District Total No. of
Participants
who could
sign/ read and
write
Participate
d in TLC
Learnt to sign
from TLC and
retained it
Learnt to
sign from
Children/
husband
Learnt to
sign
from
SHG
Learnt to
read/write
from school
1. Jhabua 15 6 5 8 0 2
2. East
Singhbhu
m
16 2 0 9 0 11
3. Koraput 10 18 5 0 9 1
4. Churu* 38 29 19 0 7 12
Total 79 55 29 17 16 26
From a total number of 222 participants in the study only 55 learners of TLC
could be identified. Out of these 55 only 29 had learnt to sign from TLC
and 24 had retained the ability to sign till current times. The government
figures on target number of learners and enrolment along with the
success rate gives a very positive assessment of the situation in Jhabua
and Churu, which is not found to be true on the ground as of today.
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5.1.2 Target number of learners-estimate and reach
Table-8: Success Rate of TLC
State District Target Enrolment P III
Completers
%age of
Achievement
Madhya
Pradesh
Jhabua Phase-I 42508 40526 30128 70.88
Jhabua Phase-II 315795 226964 122265 38.72
Odisha Koraput 343644 276391 148235 43.14
Jharkhand East Singhbhum 121015 108423 4123 3.41
Rajasthan Churu 232658 207277 180885 77.75
Source: Annual Report: 2002-03, NLM Directorate of Adult Education. New Delhi
The above table gives a view of government claim as regards the success
rate of TLC in terms of the total percentage of successful P-III completers.
In Churu the government claims of success in TLC goes beyond 77%. In
Jhabua the first phase success is claimed to be 71% and the second
phase success is 39% which amounts to a combined success rate of
42.50%. In Koraput the official claim of literacy level is 43% and in East
Singhbhum it is at a pathetic level of 3.41%. When we contrast this with the
findings of the study, it reveals that out of a total 55 traceable number of
female learners, only 24 (43.63%) who could barely sign their names had
learnt it from TLC participation. Howsoever, it is well understood that only
signing one‟s name does not make the person literate. Further the focus of
TLC was much beyond teaching to sign only. Therefore, the literacy
campaigns of the government have not been able to create the impact,
which was its aim and the performance was far from satisfactory. Also the
relapsed into illiteracy is as high as over 95% as not more than 3 learners
currently possess reading and writing abilities out of the 55 TLM learners.
5.1.3 Impact - on the community
Keeping in mind the enrolment status vis-à-vis the achievement and the
findings of the study team one may well decipher the impact of the TLC
on the lives of the community.
It may be understood that the people in focus were primarily into
agriculture and their prime concern in life was livelihood.
In the particular context adult literacy was not their priority for sure.
Howsoever, due to various reasons it failed to motivate the learners or
volunteer instructors to take up the task for long and sustain whatever
learning they had achieved. This is evident from the fact that only 3 of the
identified 55 learners still remembered how to read and write.
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In order to understand this slack it is important to locate the adult literacy
programme:
1. Models - that is whether they were TLC, PLP or CEP; As mentioned in
earlier sections the adult literacy programme was implemented in
three different phases - TLC followed by PLP and then CEP.
2. Trainers and the and payment mode;
3. Teaching Learning Material
5.2 Trainers/Volunteers
5.2.1 Types
It may be noted that wherever the trainers were Volunteer Instructors, who
were not paid any honorarium, there the duration of the programme was
short lived. And wherever the trainers, that is, Preraks and Seh Preraks,
were paid some basic wage the programme was functional for longer
periods, at least in pen and paper. Howsoever, the end result was not
outstanding in any of the places.
The table underneath gives a picture of the duration of the programme in
the different study districts.
Table-9: Timeline of TLC Implementation
State District
Official Record People's Memory
Time period Time
period
Duration of
classes (max)
Madhya
Pradesh
Jhabua Phase 1995-2003 1995 6 months
Jharkhand East Singhbhum NT* 1995-2003 Continuous
Odisha Koraput 1993-2007 1999 3 months
Rajasthan Churu NT 1988-2009 2 years
*NT: Not Traceable.
The above table gives an impression that the programme ran successively
for 2 years in Churu and for about 8 years continuously in East Singhbhum.
Additionally it may be noted that the instructors/trainers in the adult
literacy classes in these two districts were paid a basic wage. However, in
Jhabua and Koraput no payment was made to the instructors. It is
pertinent to note that people do not remember the variant of literacy
classes (TLC, PLP, CE) and programmes. The cumulative effect of various
spell of the literacy programmes did not bring about tangible changes in
the literacy status of adults and in particular of women. The success rate
(3%) recorded by East Sighbum in Jharkhand indicate the real picture.
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The discussion with the State government officials reveal that the TLC did
not evolve in the East Sighbum district as the district administration was not
that proactive.
The programme‟s functioning in the different states were different. It was
noted that in Jhabua the programmes were essentially VI based TLCs. In
East Singhbhum and Koraput TLC was followed by PLP. And in Churu CEP
was also implemented. That is the reason, in Churu, one did come across
learning centres which had shut down only in 2009. The study team came
across such learning centres which were earlier functioning in the name of
Mahatma Gandhi Pushtakalaya va Vachnalaya) in Churu.
Some of the centre instructors were traced and the study team visited
such centres and got a chance to see the learning materials as well as
registers..
The registers were well maintained, and interestingly enough the learners‟
attendance was also marked on Sundays (a holiday).
5.2.2 Selection
The selection of the trainers was not based on any entrance test. However
local people who had studied till class V or beyond were selected as
volunteers. A list of the kind of people who could be trainers is as follows:
Students
Educated and
unemployed youth
Teachers
Educated house-
wives
Social workers
Ex-servicemen
Retired government
officials and
Angnawadi and Balwadi workers (Literacy Facts At A Glance. New
Delhi: NLM MHRD Govt. of India)
In Churu the study team found out that many of the instructors had given
bribes to block level officials to get appointed. Some even gave a portion
of their basic wage to evade any kind of evaluation or monitoring at the
block level.
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The study team observed that the trainers were not always mentally well
equipped to motivate rural adults to attend literacy classes. Their
educational qualification was not of really high standard. Neither was the
training they received meaningfully implemented.
5.2.3 Training - duration, focus
Every Volunteer Instructor. Prerak or Seh Prerak was to undergo primer
specific training for at least 9 days under the supervision of Resource
Persons and Master Trainers. The study team found out that the training
period varied in different districts. For instance in Koraput the training
session did not exceed one day, in East Singhbhum it was for 15 days and
in Churu it was for 3 days. In Jhabua the study team could barely trace
any instructor.
The focus of the training programme was to empower the trainers with
interesting mechanisms to teach. Every district adopted innovative
methods for the same. However, to what extent the class V drop outs or
class 9 drop outs could inculcate those trainings and impart the same was
definitely questionable.
For instance in Churu a practicing Homoeopathy doctor was also a
Prerak. He opined that they were trained to use street plays to teach, but
these things were barely implemented. In East Singhbhum an official
opined that roti and (datun) a twig, used for brushing teeth, were used to
teach alphabets like „ka‟.
At the same time one also came across trainers who admitted having
had a good time eating well in the training period and barely gaining any
insight towards teaching adults.
Most of the teachers had their own reasons for the failure of the
programme, some
however, put in extra
effort and ideas to
make it successful. For
instance an instructor in
Koraput opined that
the learners were
taught with the help of
Primers which did not
start with alphabets.
Therefore, it became difficult to teach that is why he developed his own
method and started the classes by teaching alphabets first.
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Not only instructors but also learners and other officials did have their own
observation as regards the primers. It would be essential to briefly
understand the teaching learning material in order to comprehend the
adult literacy programme.
5.3 Teaching Learning Material
5.3.1 Design and Content
The adult literacy classes were designed to teach three different Primers.
These Primers were developed on the basis of IPCL, that is, Improved Pace
and Content of Learning. The objective of the same was to:
Create motivation in the learner
Produce standardized learning material;
Achieve pre-determined levels and
Ascertain better accountability.
The primers were to be taught over a period of 8-12 months for 200 hours
altogether. The content of the same were different socially relevant
chapters, with a focus on teaching words with different letters and basic
numeracy followed by test for self-evaluation.
The focus was to impart basic literacy in the three Rs- reading, writing and
arithmetic. According to the Literacy Facts At A Glance (a manual on
adult literacy programme of NLM) the prescribed levels in the three was
as follows:
Reading
a) Reading aloud in normal accent simple passage on topic related to
the interest of the leaner at a speed of 30 words per minute
b) Reading silently small paragraphs in simple language at a speed of 35
words per minute
c) Reading with understanding road signs, posters, simple instructions and
newspapers for neo-literates etc.
d) Ability to follow simple written message relating to one‟s working and
living environment
Writing
a) Copying with understanding at a speed of seven words per minute
b) Taking dictation at a speed of five words per minute
c) Writing with proper spacing and alignment
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d) Writing independently short letters and application forms of day-to-day
use to the learner
Numeracy
a) To read and write 1-100 numerals
b) Doing simple calculations without fraction involving addition,
subtraction upto three digits and multiplication and division by two
digits
c) Working knowledge of metric units of weights, measures, currency
distance and area and units of time
d) Broad idea of proportion and interest (without involving fractions) and
their use in working and living condition”.
The content was so designed that people could become functional
literates. The big question which follows logically is whether such contents
developed on the basis of felt needs of the learners or whether these
were developed without taking the learners‟ needs into account?
The Literacy Facts At A Glance also states that the TLM was to be so
developed that it would be:
Locally relevant
Conform to IPCL and
Incorporate national values
It is critical to gauge as to what extent all the Primers developed in the
four different districts stuck to the model. A brief on the language used for
the same may throw better light on the issue.
5.3.2 Language
Peculiarly enough the content was understood to be locally relevant if it
was in the local language. This was the understanding of many states,
and accordingly the Primers were developed, just translating the Hindi
Primers. In some places the pain of developing this was also evaded by
using Hindi Primers. For instance in Jhabua and East Singhbhum the local
learners spoke Bhili and Bengali respectively but they were taught from
the Hindi Primers.
It is however, good to know that in Koraput and Churu local Primers were
developed and the language used in the same was Odiya and Marwari
respectively. Some local words were also incorporated in the text. Most
interestingly the content was not a translation of the Hindi Primers. Further
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the content was also locally relevant as it spoke of their day-to-day life
and local festivals.
To the study team‟s dismay, however, in Churu many primers were found
still stocked in locked trunks of the locked learning centres.
The aim of developing the primers was not to leave them in the centre but
to distribute them to the learners and use them for literacy programmes.
But the new unused Primers stacked in chests proved that resources
weren‟t put to best use for which they were deployed.
It is important to understand the programme structure of TLC in the
different state in order to well ascertain the success or failure rates.
5.4 Types of Adult Literacy Programmes
It was observed that all the three programmes- names TLC, PLP and CEP
were not necessarily implemented in every target district. The following
table throws light on the types of adult literacy programme run in the
different districts and the time of the same.
It may be noted that these facts are based on the response of the
participants of the study.
Table-10: Name and Type of Adult Literacy Programme
No. State District Adult Literacy Programme
Duration
Official People's
view
1. Madhya
Pradesh
Jhabua Praud Siksha 1995-2003 1995
2. Jharkhand East
Singhbhum
Bihar Siksha Pariyojna NT* 1995-2003
3. Odisha Koraput TLC 1993-2002 1999
PLP 2003-2007 2003
4. Rajasthan Churu Praud Siksha NT 1988-1996
Akhar Medi 1996-1999
PLP (Uttar Siksha
Sansthan)
1999-2006
CEP (Satat Siksha
Sansthan)
2006-2009
In Rajasthan the adult literacy programmes were implemented with a
better focus. The adult literacy classes were continued for few months
and subsequently the different variants were also implemented. In this
case also, the discontinuation of literacy classes or rather the absence of
a continuous mechanism to engaged the adult neo-literates with reading
and writing resulted in relapse into illiteracy very soon.
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Analysis of PRA Data collected while conducting field visits in
Jhabua
The data below is collected through interactions with the villages during
the filed visit. The primary focus was to ascertain the literacy status of
people at present.
Table No.11: Analysis of data collected through PRA techniques on Literacy Status
Out of 189 Male
Age
Clas
s Illiterate
Can
sign
Female
Age
Clas
s Illiterate
Can
sign
Age <=40 74 17
Age >40 61 1
No Age (Blank
cells) 54
171
Upto Class V 15 0
Class VI to VIII 14 1
Class IX to X 12 4
Above Class X 11 1
Illiterates 137 183
Illiterates who can
Sign 17
18
T O T A L 189 52 137 17 189 6 183 18
In % 28 72 9 3 97 10
Note: age of the respondent was found difficult to collect as the respondents were taking huge time to find
this out. Mostly the respondents belonged to the age group of 20 to 45.
The data collected through PRA techniques while conducting discussions
with the community reveal that 28% of men had schooling. Even in this
case, more than 50% of men studied only up to class 5% and barely know
reading and writing. In the case of women, the picture is even grim.
Approximately 97% of women remain illiterate of which 10% have learnt to
sign their names. The village wise details of respondents is attached as
Appendix-1.
Primary data collected by World Vision Staff in East Sighbhum
Baseline survey conducted by World Vision in East Sighbum was collected
by the team to look at the status of adult literacy. Of 135 male
participants, 42% remain illiterate. Another 11% just know to sign only and
read a few words. One could observe that the age category of 40-50 is
the least educated category with only nine members being literate out of
26. Table no.12 and Figure 3 show clearly the status of literacy.
Table No.12: Status of literacy amongst adults in East Sighbhum (select villages
only)
MALE Illiterate Literate >5 Class 10th or above
Out of 135 56 15 31 33
%age 41.48 11.11 22.96 24.44
Male Age Range Count Illiterate Literate >5 Class 10th or above
15 to 30 65 16 7 20 22
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31 to 40 43 22 4 9 8
41 to 50 26 17 4 2 3
Above 50 1 1
Total 135 56 15 31 33
Fig.3: Status of male literacy in East Sighbhum
Female Literacy Status
The analysis of baseline survey data shows that more than 53% of women
remain illiterate so far. Of this approximately another 10% has only
achieved the level putting their signature. The following table no.13 and
figure no.4 clearly indicate the picture.
Table No. 13: Status of female literacy in East Sighbhum District (select
villages)
FEMALE Can Sign Literate >5 Class 10th or above Illiterate
Out of 125 12 6 28 12 67
%age 9.60 4.80 22.40 9.60 53.60
Female Age
Range Count Can Sign Literate >5 Class 10th or above Illiterate
15 to 30 71 7 6 17 10 31
31 to 40 30 2 0 11 2 15
41 to 50 24 3 0 0 0 21
Above 50 0 0 0 0 0
Total 125 12 6 28 12 67
Fig.4: Status of female literacy in Select Villages (East Sighbhum district)
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5.5 Women’s expectation from participation in literacy initiatives
Discussions with women
participants were
focused on their views
about literacy and how
would they like to be
involved. The
fundamental issues that
are impacting their lives
are their heavy
engagement with
routine tasks, poor
economic earnings
and the burden of looking after household tasks besides taking care of
children. A wide range of household, social, cultural and economic
factors negatively influence women in their desire to access knowledge,
information, education, mobility and gender justice.
The complex inter-linkages between social and personal factors, one
reinforcing the other cannot be neglected and this calls for active
participation of women in a self-driven and self-motivated strategy for a
basic change in the mind-sets of the individual and people at household
and community levels. The women participants were mainly from the
SC/ST community who are marginal farmers and land-less and mostly
engaged in wage labour. They were mostly illiterate and remained
alienated from educational and other Government programmes and
processes. Women‟s expectation for their participation in literacy
programmes revolve round their family, social and economic life.
Given the complex and deep rooted barriers to women‟s access to
education, it was observed that more inclusion of women volunteers as
instructors is necessary as they understand the compelling situations of
women and relate with their situations with empathy.
The literacy classes were not effective in group processes. It was neither
focused on any individual improvements as well as group improvements.
Women felt that collectivizing women on their issues like sending girl
children to schools, women taking cognizance of the functioning of ICDS
and village schools are important. This means place literacy classes in the
larger empowering context.
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Participation in MNREGS, getting equal wage under MNREGS, improving
savings and evolving informal credit mechanisms through group formation
they like. Activities
that are essential to
run these initiatives
require functional
literacy. The efforts of
placing the demands
for literacy by the
women were found
commendable.
The programme
design should
consciously focus on
enabling women to identify their priorities and issues around which the
programme enables a learning process and plans its strategies and
interventions. This calls for a different approach rather than a centre
based literacy classes run by unpaid volunteer youths.
The learning methods and curriculum could be evolved. Everyone wants
to learn beyond writing their names. The had expressed functional
literacy to read job cards, bank passbook, do simple calculation, write
small applications for job, etc. Therefore, the curriculum should be aimed
in facilitation these processes and indicators of functional literacy should
be benchmarked against these performance indicators like the per
centage of women who can write their names, read bank pass books, do
simple calculations and write applications for pension, wage labour, etc.
This means, the computerized test and other measures being evolved by
the Saakshar Bharat may be reviewed in this context.
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6. Status of Saakshar Bharat
SB was officially launched in September 2009. In total 365 numbers of
districts in 26 states were identified for the implementation of SB in the XIth
Five Year Plan. The principal target of the mission was to impart functional
literacy to 70 million adults in the age group of 15 years and beyond. The
table underneath gives the categorization of the target group in SB.
Table-14: Category Wise Targets
Category Wise Targets Under Literacy Programme (Millions)
Category Male Female Total
SC 4 10 14
ST 2 6 8
Muslims 2 10 12
Others 2 34 36
Total 10 60 70
It is evident that a major percentage (85.71%) of the targets in the literacy
programme was that of females, justifying the prime focus of SB on female
literacy.
In the first phase it was supposed to be implemented in 19 different states
covering 167 districts and reaching out to 3.82 crore adult non-literates in
the first phase (http://education.nic.in/Elementary/DMU.pdf).
It was found out that Jhabua, Koraput and Churu were also identified as
target districts of implementation of SB but East Singhbhum was not.
However, Jhabua and Koraput were not included in the first phase of
implementation.
It was understood that those districts with a female literacy rate of or
below 50% were selected for SB implementation.
6.1. Status of SB Implementation
In the four study states Madhya Pradesh, Jharkhand, Odisha and
Rajasthan the total number of districts identified for the implementation of
SB in the XIth Five Year Plan were 37, 17, 19 and 31 respectively. Out of
which in the first phase the total number of districts selected in MP,
Jharkhand, Odisha and Rajasthan were none, 4, 3 and 31 respectively. An
overview of the status in each study district follows:
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6.2. SB in Jhabua
Saakshar Bharat Mission was yet to be launched in Jhabua district. The
District Project Coordinator Office stated that papers had been filed at
the centre for the launch of the programme but no work had started till
July 2010.
6.3. SB in East Singhbhum
As the female literacy rate of East Singhbhum was more than 50% it was
debarred from being a target district of SB. Thus SB was not to be
implemented in East Singhbhum.
6.4. SB in Koraput
In Odisha 3 out of 19 districts were selected for Phase-I implementation of
SB till March 2010. The districts were Kalahandi, Balangir and Sundargarh.
However from the SLMA it was obtained that though the funds were
available Preraks and Coordinators were not yet appointed. Only after
they were appointed the survey to identify learners would be carried out
and further implementation work would follow.
Koraput was identified for the implementation of SB, howsoever no work
was in progress as it would not be done in the first phase of SB
implementation.
6.5. SB in Churu
Survey was on for the implementation of SB. It started on 22nd July and was
to be completed by 15th August, however it was further extended till the
20th of August 2010; and due to unavailability of survey sheets it was still
extended further (the date was not decided by 26th August 2010, the day
of the Study Team‟s visit to the ZSS office in Churu).
The above section fairly assesses the ground realities of implementation of
the first phase of SB, which was to be over by March 2010.
In the following section the target number of learners for SB in the study
districts has been enlisted.
6.6. Saakshar Bharat in the Study Districts
A fair view of the target learners and trainers in the study districts has been
laid down in a tabular form underneath.
Table-15: SB in the Study Districts
Sl. State Study
District
Total
Number
of
Learners
Number of
Volunteers
No. of
Master
Trainers
Number
of
Resource
Persons
Number of
AECs (Lok
Sikhsa
Kendras)
covered
Blocks
Covered
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1. Madhya
Pradesh
Jhabua 201510 25188 1259 41 663 12
2. Jharkhan
d
East
Singhbhu
m
NA as debarred from implementation of SB
3. Odisha Koraput 206603 25825 1291 43 226 14
4. Rajastha
n
Churu 173039 21629 1081 36 250 6
The table specifies the total number of learners, trainers, resource persons,
and multiple functional Lok Shikha Kendras (Adult Education Centres) or
AECs in three study districts. This also reveals that there is no uniform
standard fixed for number of AECs to blocks.
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7. Relating Study Findings to Impact Assessment of Total Literacy
Campaigns in India
The context of Adult Literacy Education
This field level preliminary assessment was done to gather the resultant
changes of decades old adult literacy programmes in India and
understand the significant lessons learnt in terms of offering adult literacy
programmes in India. The key aim was to understand the programme
delivery structure and design adopted by each variant of the in delivering
adult literacy education, organizing women and men for attending
literacy classes, the infrastructure and other resource support provided by
the programme at the community level, etc.
Primarily, the literacy programmes implemented by the NLM consisted of
three distinct stages- the TLC, the PLC and the CE stage. At the TLC stage,
the following abilities were expected to be transferred to the learners: The
ability to -
1. Read, without difficulty, a description falling within the learners' own
experience;
2. Copy at the rate of seven words per minute;
3. Count and write from 1 to 100, to add and subtract three-digit
numbers, and multiply and divide two-digit numbers. It was also
expected that the transfer of basic general knowledge regarding the
society, community and some basic information about government
institutions would also be achieved.
National Adult Literacy efforts were focused on transferring the ability to
read without difficulty. Additionally, copying at the rate of seven words a
minute, counting and writing from 1 to 100, adding and subtracting three
digit numbers and being able to multiply and divide two digit numbers
were also part of the expected learning outputs.
Findings on Environment Building for promoting Adult Literacy
Being literate does not seem to be everyone‟s priority. The idea of
becoming literate is not seen to be catching the attention of millions of
women and men in this country when their priorities are ranked. Lack of
adequate drinking water, food security and assured wage labour hover
them constantly. In the plight to survive, no wonder, the need for being
literate becomes one of the low priority agendas. While it is understood
that being literate makes the illiterate more aware of the processes and
mechanisms of the system that deprives them of dignified living, and helps
them to conceptualise this awareness, it has been amply proved that
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being illiterate is no incapacity. Moreover, learning how to sign does not
make one literate in anyway.
One of the most positive impacts of the TLC was the spurt in school
enrolments. The field enquiries found that there was a positive growth in
the number of children attending schools.
In all the FGDs, we found that participants were aware of the benefits of
literacy-though in a limited sense. It has been noted that the main
attraction for the new learners was that they would be able to put their
signatures in writing instead of using thumb impressions. This has also
become important in the context of claming wages under Mahatma
Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme (MNREGS) where
they are asked to open bank a/c, post office a/c and sign quite often.
Most importantly, there was a growing awareness that putting signature
elevates their status in the eyes of others and if coupled with number
literacy, they cannot be cheated by the contractors and officials from
obtaining correct wages.
Apart from achieving literacy, the TLC and other programmes were
expected to bring about social changes, social and moral qualities as well
as of personal abilities to look at the issues in an informed manner. During
interviews and focused group discussions with women on their learning
abilities and resultant social change, most of the women were
inexpressive and often silent indicating the absence of these results. On
the other hand, many of the learners whom the team met had learnt to
sign only. Obviously, the numerical abilities were found poor. They were
not able to add and subtract two digit numbers, but however had
demonstrated excellent abilities in handling cash- adding, subtracting,
etc. Only a very few neo-literates tested could read boards, posters and
bold letters (3 women out of 55 interviewed).
The adult literacy campaigns and its various variants officially form part of
a centrally sponsored scheme of the Government of India, originally
conceived as a technology mission, with the primary objective of
eradicating mass illiteracy in a time-bound manner. The achievement of
the literacy rate critically depends on the ability of the administration to
mobilize people and Voluntary Instructors. This throws a big question- is the
bureaucracy capable of mobilizing people, volunteers and trainers in a
sustainable manner? If so, what is the evidence in its history of
performance? The mission is to mobilise people to achieve this goal, is
social mobilisation something that falls in their realm of performance? If
people's participation in the literacy mission is an expected outcome, do
we think the bureaucracy achieved it! Obviously, it was not only different
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for the government and the people, but also amongst the people. The
goals of different age groups, of women and of marginalised and
indigenous groups, were different which were totally overlooked by the
campaign and subsequent programmes implemented by the district
administration from time to time.
Key Programme Delivery Structure and Mechanisms- Findings
Examining the structure and delivery modes of various variants of adult
literacy reveals that the delivery structure of adult literacy was
decentralised in its implementation up to the district level. However, the
decentralization was done in such a manner that from Central and State
level government machinery it slipped into the hands of the district
government structure who never influenced sector-wide reforms. In most
cases, the district collector, who heads all initiatives in the district, led the
campaign. One would wonder does this decentralization make any
difference to those adult illiterates who never had an eye to eye contact
with the district administration.
Though each district had the opportunity to set its own agenda and
programme, the programmes looked homogeneous across the district
and also in the State. Sub-district, block and c1uster level actions and
innovations did not emerge. Pockets of population groups remained un-
approached within the district, such as those in geographically difficult
hilly and remote villages, generally inhabited by indigenous people
belonging to different language groups. The district-level actions by the
bureaucracy did not envisage the transfer of responsibilities to local
bodies and groups functioning at sub district and village levels. Therefore,
even today, the capacity of the local administration to deliver social
projects remains as a critical question that needs further empirical
validation in the future.
The adult literacy programme delivery design looked straight jacketed
with very little scope for innovation and experimenting different models.
The whole responsibility of delivering adult literacy was shouldered by the
district government who had very little people contact (ability to reach
out to the vulnerable sections) as well as experiential knowledge to deal
with various adversities of rural mothers and women. The various modes of
operation viz., the campaign mode and the centre mode, volunteerism
versus paid facilitators, and so on did not result in making adult literacy a
reality. A positive feature is that despite these inherent contradictions and
shortsightedness, all the field studies underline the sincere interest of
women to become literates! The basic emphasis now should be how one
deciphers learning emerging from the poorly cooked strategies and
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approaches to “make India literate”.
Another issue arising out of the programme framework is the gender
aspects. While there has been a greater emphasis on the participation of
women in the literacy classes, gender sensitivity has not been found in the
preparation of the community to allow women to safely participate in the
evening classes, during the time the women attend classes, motivate the
men to attend to household tasks, etc.
It was observed that control by the government has not allowed
organisation at the grassroots to take initiative and participate in the
delivery of adult literacy. In fact, this has hindered the emergence of local
institutional arrangements that could sustain the movement in the long
run.
Timely and consistent funding and provision of resources is another critical
problem that existed all through out. In all the four districts, there were
long gaps between one phase of the programme and the next. The staffs
were not paid for many months and years in Odisha whereas in
Jharkhand they were paid for some months only.
In continuation with the previous point, in all the districts, the literacy
campaign was not successful in ensuring the participation of marginalised
groups of people such as women, tribals and dalits. Further whoever
motivated and began attending the classes, it was also most difficult to
sustain their interest to attend classes even for a month.
The discussions with NGOs revealed that across all four districts, the NGOs
more or less abstained from participating in the adult literacy movements.
They rather saw it as an over play of local government machineries that
have the capacity to mobilize community in a mandatory style and
correspondingly cook results. The absence of database and
comprehensible MIS speak volumes about the inherent nature of poor
accountability and sensitivity of the government at the district level.
The adult literacy promotion efforts saw the mandatory introduction of
volunteerism – the entire campaigns and centre based approaches were
heavily banking on the unpaid Volunteers. How it was possible for the
programme to expect anybody to work without any remuneration and
yet produce results? When people connected with the adult literacy
programmes and working at the higher levels could be paid to perform,
how wise was it to decide not to pay the volunteer on whose shoulders
the ultimate responsibility of making people literate rested so heavily? Has
anyone ever been able to document any other voluntary movement like
TLC in which the top leadership is paid handsomely and the people at the
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lowest category are not paid at all and yet are expected to deliver a
successful programme?
TLC was essentially designed on a campaign mode, through volunteers
identified and trained to impart adult literacy. The design of the
campaign mode was completely based on the commitment and
dedication of the unpaid volunteer.
As the campaign mode operates on a large canvas, interconnectedness
was essential. Not only was this not always possible but also, as
„organisational dynamics‟ were crucial, excessive bureaucratisation did
not help. The absence of inclusive approach to relevant stakeholders like
CSOs, academic and research institutions and PRI resulted in evoking
poor collaborative attempt as well as building links for sustaining the
results.
As mentioned earlier, the backbone of the TLC was the huge army of
volunteers expected to be mobilised by the district teams. However, the
whole literacy promotion approaches (campaign and centre based) had
failed to motivate and train the volunteers due to being bureaucratic,
insensitive to the expectations of the Volunteer Instructors who had
expected social status, better linkages with the local government, etc.
The non-committal of the bureaucracy to provide necessary support in
terms of Kerosene for night lamps, learning materials, follow-up with the
Volunteer Instructors led to collapse of the initiatives within a span of a
month in almost all the areas visited.
The Volunteer Instructors who were selected to impart literacy classes
belonged to various age groups with poor literacy outcomes. It was found
that the selection and training of volunteers lacked screening of
necessary abilities, but were dominated by caste and economic groups. It
was found that there had been insufficient and poor motivational efforts
leading to less personal commitment among instructors in conducting
literacy classes. It was expected that if they were properly committed and
interested, they would overcome most of their deficiencies with regard to
teaching and engaging with the neo-literates.
The instructors were not monitored and supported which led to the
slackening of interest among the instructors. The absence of monitoring of
the classes led to poor ownership of conducting the literacy classes.
One of the crucial shortcomings was the unrealistic expectations from
Voluntary Instructors. If we look at the spirit of voluntarism, it has to be
emerged. If we look for historical perspectives, we do not have evidences
of “government machinery mobilizing volunteerism”. If this is true, what
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provides credibility for a national programme to plan interventions based
on the expected supply of volunteerism? Who in the government
machinery can inspire and encourage masses to come out and
contribute? Alternatively, what mechanisms could evolve voluntary
participation of teachers and trainers?
India has a rich tradition of mobilizing volunteerism. Our freedom struggle,
non-violent movements, Bhoodan movement, etc. were successful
movements which had mobilized the population across the nation without
any boundaries! It was highly unwise for the planners and policy makers to
think and conceive “compulsory volunteerism” without a human touch!
The environment building efforts for promoting adult literacy was very
weak with little involvement of socially committed and educated people,
developing awareness amongst the illiterate adults through community
consultations, meetings and joint planning. The exhibitions on literacy,
family charts on house walls or community centres, special rallies, etc
were had only a temporal effect leading to no significant effects as to
evoke motivation.
Though the Voluntary Instructors acknowledge the fact that they received
training ranging from one day duration to 10 days, they reported that the
training was basically focused on transferring the skills to write alphabets,
but very few sessions were conducted in how to motivate the illiterate
adults, how to conduct efficient classes, and keep the adults motivated
to improve learning outcomes etc.
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Case studies on Trainer’s perception and capacities to look at while selecting trainers
[1]
Daibani Sahu from Village Deuli, East Singhbhum
Daibani Sahu is a 32 year old graduate married to a graduate (earlier a trainer
in an education programme for children).
She has 3 children. She is well versed with the needs of women in terms of
health and education. She serves as an Anganwadi Sevika since 2003. She is
also skilled in:
Tailoring
Shorthand
Typing
While a Sevika in Angawnwadi she had attended training programmes on:
Mushroom cultivation
Mother-child care
Nutrition
Adolescent girls etc
She was the Secretary of one SHG (Gram Kalyan) initiated as it is mandatory to
have one along with an Anganwadi.
Daibani showed a lot of zeal in the adult literacy programme proposed by the
team. She is keen on doing something for the betterment of her village. She
showed high level commitment. She is a very progressive thinking person. This
was evident from her willingness to go for higher studies (B.ED.) in order to
become a supervisor in Anganwadi.
She voluntarily attended the NGO workshop and was more than willing to help
the research team and was very vocal about taking up any education related
work in her village.
[2]
Case Study of TLC Trainers from 1995-2003
Trainers in Villages- Amla Ghutu, Layah Dih and Ban Kuchia
Three trainers of Bihar Sikshya Pariyojna (Jharkhand was a constituent part of
Bihar before attaining statehood) were identified and the research team had
intensive discussion with them. The particular program focused on the 15-35
age-group.
The three trainers, the villages in which they ran the program, the time period
and their class sizes are mentioned underneath:
1. Maharani Murmu- 1995-2003 in Laya Dih and Rahi Dih- the class size varied
from 15-20 per year. In total 60 beneficiaries were part of her classes.
2. Chayalata Majhi- 1995-2003 in Amla Ghutu- the class size varied from 15-20
per year. In total 50 beneficiaries were part of her classes out of which only
5 could sign when during the field study.
3. Phubani Mahati 2000-2003 in Ban Kuchia- the class size varied from 20-25
per year. In total 35 beneficiaries were part of her classes
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All the trainers sounded very promising and gave good insight as regards the
programme. They had worked on an honorarium which started with Rs.200/- in
1995 then it was raised to Rs.250/- and in 2003 they were getting Rs.400/-
They underwent a training of 15 days before starting the class. Intermittent
meetings were held once in 3 months to reflect on the status of progress by the
centre- in terms of what had been taught etc.
The content was to teach how to write names, picture identification, followed
by writing names of pictures. For example, the picture of a house was shown
and the learners were told that it had two sounds „gha‟ and „ra‟.
Charts, flash cards, songs, stories and books were used for teaching. Two
books- Hindi and Maths were taught.
Mostly adolescent girls continued to learn for longer periods and older women
left after learning to sign. Some adolescent girls discontinued after marriage.
Class time was mostly determined by the learners. In summer it was afternoon
and in winter it was evening.
It was observed that the attendance was very minimal in earlier days. Some of
the reasons cited for the same are as follows:
Migration to Vardhaman (as agricultural labourers) for 2-3 months for
sowing; later for harvesting; to Tata projects for construction work and
to brick kilns for 5-6 months.
Difficult to motivate after they returned.
Financial instability/challenges led to migration- these days women go
for only 10 days or so.
Shortage/unavailability of food.
Unaware as regards the need for education.
The feeling as to what would an adult learn and do.
Girls also rarely went out as they would anyway have to marry and slog
in the kitchen (chula phukna).
Schools were situated far away.
During the study period, the trainers stated that the problems were minimised
and the picture was better:
People were aware and conscious
Schools were close by
Poverty was minimal
Government was making a lot of provision for children‟s education
Family members (particularly, in-laws and husbands) were liberal and
allowed women to move out and participate in different activities.
Some key factors which drove people to learn were the following:
They did not want to make thumb impressions anywhere, they felt
ashamed;
They had to learn to sign to collect wages;
They had to learn to sign if they were members of SHGs;
They had to learn to sign to collect ration.
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Women were observed to be very keen on learning. Interestingly in one village
(Bardi) the women said in current times they asked how much their to-be
daughter-in-law had studied, they preferred a girl who was at least a
matriculate.
The trainers came up with insightful suggestions and observations to add value
to similar programmes.
Bengali to be the medium of learning- earlier the learners were taught
Hindi and they did not take much interest as they spoke Bengali.
Lessons to be simpler.
Pictorial representation of text most preferred to written content.
Lessons should deal with people‟s day-to-day life (pictorially presented).
First teaching should be done with board-chalk and chart paper. Later
on can introduce books.
Should teach identification of different currency notes.
Counting should be emphasised.
Teach name and address.
Health-sanitation-information should be given.
Should be told that it is important to give time to children.
Agriculture need-use of high yielding variety seed and fertilizer etc.
Nutritional diet to be emphasised.
Skill development should be incorporated.
The trainers opined that the most important forms of transferring knowledge
could be through songs, stories and pictures.
[3]
Case Study of Chayalata Majhi
A keen participant from Amla Ghutu, a 39 year old trainer at Tagore Society for
Rural Development. Had studied till class 10, husband had studied till class 12
equivalent. She had taught in the TLC classes from 1995 to 2003.
She had substantial experience in similar work as she had taught in SSA, then
she was an Animator in Swadhina and currently she was working in the RISTA
project for adolescent girls on reproductive health.
She was the secretary of an SHG- Amlaghutu Mahila Unayan Samuha (Swarna
Jayanti Swanirbhara Jojana).
In her initial years of association with TLC she was lucky to have a supportive
family who allowed her to contribute for a social cause. In spite of work load at
home she moved out for a good cause. Earlier her neighbours were not very
encouraging, however, she moved on. But later neighbours looked upon her
and wanted their daughter to be like her.
Chayalata, with the support of her family and due to her personal interest in
social development was committed to the cause of women‟s education and
was noted to have well contributed to the cause in the Bihar Sikshya Pariyojna
programme. She showed keen interest in further contributing if any new
programme was to be initiated.
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[4]
Savitri Swami, an Instructor (Prerak) in the PLP (Village Chajusar),
Churu Rajasthan
Savitri Swami is a woman of about 35+ years. She had done her MA in Hindi, her
husband is a graduate and works as a plumber. He has recently relocated to
the Saudi Arabia.
She has 4 children (2 daughters and 2 sons) who are all going to school.
Earlier she worked in different schools- taught at Shiksha Mitra a Govt. school for
2 months and also taught at a private school in Churu for 12 months.
During the time of the study she was working in an NGO, Sat Gramin, a
development organization, as a field worker instrumental in formation of SHGs
of BPL groups. She had formed 4 groups of 10 women each who saved an
amount of Rs. 50/- each per month.
Savitri joined the PLP, which was run along with a library in the name of
Mahatma Gandhi Pushtakalaya and Vachnalaya, from 2003-2009. However,
classes for adult women was effectively functional only from 2004 to 2006.
The Post Literacy Programme classes were run during 2004-2006 only and 10
women attended the class regularly. There were intermittent attendants also.
Out of the ten 3 took the P-III exam and passed with Grade A. According to
Savitri two more could have also passed but they were not willing to go to
Churu to take photos, thus they dropped out of the exam.
In the first year of the initiation of the programme it was difficult for her to
convince women to come to the classes. Initially no one came; newspaper
reading was on among men; however the centre was open everyday in the
morning from 9.00-11.00 am; after 3-4 months Savitri went to people and called
them. She decided to start knitting, tie and dye, and similar things to motivate
women to come over. The women started coming only after one year of
persuasion.
During weeding periods the attendance used to be poor.
Some problems faced by the teacher to motivate the learners
The learners thought that the teacher got paid but they did not gain in
anyway- they did not get any payment so why would they attend the
classes?
Women were not really motivated to learn as such.
Although a total of about 200 women had enrolled in the centre only three
passed the P-III test.
It is Savitri‟s perseverance due to which some result was observed in her centre.
Howsoever, most women were not highly motivated to learn more than signing.
The research team did meet the three P-III pass outs. Two of the three could still
read and write and one was even able to do simple calculations.
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[5]
Gita Devi, Dhadhar, Churu Rajasthan
Gita Devi, a woman of about 50+ years defied age by actively participating in
different kind of activities starting from teaching the unlettered to playing
games and she also won many accolades and prizes.
She had 6 children and had studied till class 8. Her husband had studied till 5.
She still remembered her ABC and could tell them perfectly in order and could
write some of it as well.
Once she went to the bar where her husband was drinking, and told her
husband that she would also drink and told her husband “meri laaj rakho”.
Since then (20 yrs back) her husband has not touched alcohol.
She had participated in many trainings and programmes:
Training in Small Scale Industry- 2001
Won in Kabbadi and rope pulling competition- 1998
Participant in Pulse Polio Campaign
Participant in Saraswati Pariksha Sansthan- 1996-97
Participated in a Kalash yatra- 1998
Attented Nehru Yuva Kendra- Mela (Training Shivir)- 1996
Participated in Shaksharta Abhiyan Dhadhar-1999
Awarded the Lifebuoy Health Family Award
VI in TLC- 1999
She was a VI in the TLC run in the name of Akhar Medi (letter Temple) run in
1999. Her attendance register showed an enrolment of 110 women from 1999-
2001. However, not even one of the learners who could read was traceable.
Gita Devi opined that at her centre 2-3 women could learn to read and write,
and all the others were taught to sign only.
She underwent a 3-day long training- she was asked to take evening classes for
1-2 hrs and teach women. She was paid an amount of Rs. 150 (as TA/DA) for
three months and thought that it was her honorarium. However, when the
payment was stopped after three months she continued for three more months
and later stopped taking classes assuming that the program was stopped.
She took keen interest in village development work her vibrancy had made her
the Ward Panch. She was also the Vice President of SHG „Maataji‟ formed
some 4 months back.
She still participated in literacy program even though she was not paid any
honorarium. She reiterated the fact that an honorarium for the instructor was
essential to motivate her/him to teach. However, she said that she would still
teach without any payment.
According to her the TLC was a failure because of the following reasons:
Men created trouble and said that woman would not achieve much by
being literate;
Work pressure on women; and
People into cultivation were not inclined to learning.
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[6]
Motaram Godara, Village Aabsar, Churu Rajasthan
Motaram Godara, 53, had passed HSC and a successful homoeopathy
practitioner in his village. He has been doing this for more than 20 years and
has had also acquired other qualifications like:
Diploma in Magneto Therapy
CHMS
BMC
DNHE
He undertook a 3-day residential training before initiating the TLC classes. The
training was optimal in his words. It told them to teach through street plays,
pictures, and plays He was associated with the TLC from 1996 to 2001 in
different positions. From 1996 to 2001 he ran the centre (in the name of Jan
Chetna Centre- People‟s Information Centre) from his house as a Volunteer
and got an amount of Rs.150/- as TA/DA.
From 2002-2007 his centre was run as Uttar Sakshar Kendra (PLP). He got an
honorarium of Rs.700/- for 18 months out of 26 months of functioning. There
were 3 other PLP centres in his village. All the other centres were closed in 2009
but Motaram did not return some things like rug, etc. and a library was still
functioning in his house- men came to read newspapers and magazines
(bought by Motaram).
According to Motaram the literacy programme functioning was good and
women showed a lot of interest in it. Although more than 40 learners were
enrolled in his centre about 15 women came regularly. According to him it was
50% successful. 20 persons took the test from his centre and all of them passed
but genuinely only 5 were able to take the test on their own and the other 15
did it with help from the instructors.
None of the learners could read newspapers. The centre was shut because
wages were stopped.
Motaram showed a lot of interest in the programme and on his own developed
monitoring committees. He was running a primary school along with the centre.
According to him the main wheels (the trainers) of the vehicle were not paid
and it was essential that they would be paid to make it a success.
Spending on reporting went a waste as it was mostly paper work not taking into
account the ground reality. In reality only about 50% of the claimed results
could be acceptable.
[7]
Chagan Lall, Village Dhatri, Churu Rajasthan
Chagan Lall, 32 years, HSC, was running a Satat Siksha Kendra (CEP), earlier
known as Jan Sikshan Nilayam, from 2004 to 2009. About 50-60 women enrolled
in the centre and in all 5 years only 20-25 women came to the class. From this a
meagre number of 5-6 women took the P-III test but the results were not
declared ever. The total duration of each attending the class would be 5
months intermittently.
Chagan got an honorarium of Rs.700/- till 2009.
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Monitoring was done by a retired lecturer.
A revealing fact came to light when Chagan admitted that he had given a
bribe of Rs. 500/- to the BCO to get appointed as an instructor.
Chagan opined that the programme could be successful only if the instructor
got a better salary (that would motivate her/him to motivate the learners to
attend the classes), along with that some entertaining programmes; puppet
shows; performances by some artists should be done intermittently in order to
attract the learners. He suggested that the programme should be regularized
to maintain continuity.
[8]
Case Study of Anita Bhabad, Jhabua
Anita Bhabad, 47 years old vibrant lady, was a tribal woman who was married
off at the age of 15. She had studied till class VI before marriage.
However, her marriage brought a turnover in her life‟s values and attitude. Her
working co-sisters, who left behind their children for Anita to look after, turned
out to be her role models. Anita also aspired to go for work with a vanity bag.
After marriage she continued to work in the village. Fortunately, her husband, a
bank peon, took her to Kathiwada (his workplace) for a while. There Anita got
to see more of working women she was told that they had studied till class VIII.
She asked these women if she could also study now. They assured that she
could do it through private board.
Anita took the first step in her brave and commendable journey of success to
empowerment, name, fame and glory. She studied till class VIII and became
an Anganwadi worker. She further did her class XI and became a clerk in the
District Education Office (SSA). In 1990, a camp of National School of Drama
was held in her village; she participated in it and learnt acting.
There was no looking back. She achieved one accolade after another. In 1991
she qualified in the voice audition for AIR Indore and became a reader in the
Radio Literacy Programme and did 52 programmes with them. She was even
awarded in the same programme.
She started motivating other women to get empowered in spite of all the
barriers.
From 1993 to 1994 she became an artist in ISRO after being selected from 500
applicants. She acted in 200 episodes of the ISRO programme (the
programmes stories) were telecast in TV, which the villages had access to
through the ISRO project; these stories. revolved around the problems of
villagers and their life.
She has also worked in two telefilms of DDI- Sangharsh and Vishwas.
Then she took keen interest in writing poems, songs and also scripts.
One of her poems is “Gyan wali maata gyan aali dev”
Anita Bawad was inspired by many to take a leap in life. She is now an
inspiration for many- implementers and learners. Her insight, struggle and
determination have made her an example for the people of Jhabua. She very
clearly conveys the message that there is no age for learning and one can
achieve the unachievable with sheer determination and commitment.
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Key findings on Learning Outcomes
As already said, in all the districts, the momentum was excellent in the
beginning but slowed down over time. Some of the reasons given were
the lack of consistent support, uneven quality of training of personnel, lack
of ownership of the programme by the neo-literates and insufficient
planning (including provision of infrastructure) for the PL phase including
long gaps.
The concept of literacy per se was reduced to a ' "learn to write your
name" campaign'. And even among those who did go beyond this stage,
the relapse into illiteracy was quite fast.
The increase in literacy was not significant despite over many years of
campaign, PLP and CE. These initiatives did not result in any social change
in a significant manner. The community‟s perception has slightly moved to
appreciate the need for literacy, but nothing beyond. It was also found
during the FGDs that the learners were able to empathise and cooperate
with the volunteers, who they found trying to teach them literacy despite
various limitations. The Volunteer Instructors being from their own areas
were highly acceptable to them as they also shared same kind of
situations- they felt the Instructor as one among them.
On an average, it was reported that each Centre had approximately 40 -
50 participants at the beginning. As the classes started to move on, drop
out from the classes were usual phenomena leading to poor attendance
within a short span of a month.
While literacy centres were run at mutually convenient places and during
the evening and night, there were logistical problems, such as the cost of
lighting, or migratory nature of the work, which led to dropouts, delay in
supply of primers and so on.
The volunteers could be classified into three types- key resource persons,
master trainers and the voluntary trainers. Training modules were prepared
in accordance with NLM guidelines and a four to five day training
programme followed. Such sessions helped break down the barriers
between persons from different villages and backgrounds, but did not
transfer skills to engage with the illiterate adults over a period of time.
The major outputs of the Adult Literacy programmes were the ensuring of
community participation and the creation of a 'voluntary instructor force'.
Both had begun well. However due to lack of interest and vision from the
district bureaucracy, the interest died down faster. The poor selection,
lack of motivation and adequate training led to heavy dip in the interest
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of the Voluntary Instructors soon after the euphoria over conducting
voluntary adult literacy classes.
And finally what should be the course content of Adult Literacy
Programme? Should it be linked to development activities, day-to-day
tasks as well as relating to various stakeholders? A significant proportion
of the adults find it very difficult to internalise ‘literacy’ when it is not
juxtaposed with their daily lives and day-to-day life situations.
The neo-literates were left without any support and motivation to practice
what had been learnt by them. The failure to retain literacy among the
neo-literates was mainly due to this.
Though the external evaluation studies conducted in Koraput, Churu and
Jhabua reported significant achievements in adult literacy status, most of
this was meant „the ability to put signature‟ by writing their names. The
evaluations done were not based on any verifiable database but based
on the written examination and most of the candidates were not verified
before being admitted to write the exams.
It was found that the literacy activities had not been a continuous
process, and NLM programmes in the field had witnessed serious gaps
and discontinuity between different phases of the programme and poor
targeting of the neo-literates from TLC to post literacy and then to
continuing education. No such logical links could be observed in any of
the four districts. The neo-literates mostly remained as neo-literates with
the ability to sign only!
The other significant element of the programme implementation relates to
the language and content of the primers and other literacy materials.
Were local knowledge and culture represented in the primers? The field
studies have found that despite flexibility provided to the district, lack of
time and capacities at the district level have often led to the use of
primers developed at the state level, which cannot be fully sensitive to the
local language and culture. In the case of Jhabua, for instance, the Hindi
primers developed at Bhopal were often irrelevant and incomprehensible
to a large majority of the Bhil and Pataliya community. Generally
everyone understands and agrees that language is a key element in the
process of learning, it often remains neglected.
Different approaches and strategies have to be made, as it is clearly not
possible to satisfy the needs of all these groups with one strategy or
approach. Where is the implementing government machinery conscious
of such needs? Did they become cognizant of such special needs? The
pattern of adult literacy promotion campaigns point that these factors
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were not taken care of as the government was not capable of evolving
multi-faceted approaches and strategies for different sections of people
like the poor dalit women workers in Bihar, UP, Chattisgrah, MP, etc. In
Jhabua, the majority of the illiterates were the indigenous groups- Bhils
and Pataliyas. While the campaign focused on poverty and
development, and through this could mobilize large numbers of people, it
failed to even use the local language Bhili while producing course
materials.
The discussions with NGOs showed that “adult literacy” is something,
which is very low in their scheme of things to do. The lack of awareness
and willingness to make individuals literate or integrating literacy with their
key projects is also shocking! Probably the funding from the government
and donor community in undertaking the adult literacy was not
forthcoming.
Case Studies
Chandragolari, Tentulliguda, Koraput
Chandragolari, a woman in her 60s, was considered to be a successful farmer
and a good reference point for other villagers. She has a small family of a
husband, two sons, and one daughter-in-law. Although she had sent her
children to school (one had studied till class 9 and one till class 5) she and her
husband, both were illiterate.
She had attended the TLC class for only 3 days as she did not see any benefit
for her in the programme.
Though unlettered she was well versed in using an innovative technique of
irrigation facilitated by local NGO Agragamee.
Through her efforts she not only earned Rs.50,000.00 by selling tomatoes in one
season, in a leased land, but also got the recognition as a successful farmer by
the State Chief Minister‟s Office.
Ever since the installation of a water pipe (last couple of years) connecting
from the mountain (by Agragamee) she has had high yield of vegetables from
for the last couple of years.
Chandragolari may not be lettered but it would be incorrect to say that she is
illiterate. She is very much literate in her economic pursuit and was an example
for all the villagers. Her enthusiasm in learning tricky nuances of agriculture
could be simulated in adult literacy programmes as well.
Savitri Nayak, Gopalpur, Koraput (Age 35)
Savitri Nayak is the Ex-village Mukhia‟s daughter. During the study period her
husband- a live-in groom- was the village Mukhia, as she did not have any
brothers.
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She is a very progressive, vocal and confident woman. When the research
team met her she was all ready to leave for her SHG meeting. Although she
was getting late for her work she was more than willing to share her
experiences as regards TLC and her SHG‟s accolades.
She had studied till class 5, and when TLC was functional in her village (during
her girlhood days- some 15 years back) she was an active participant along
with other girls of her age.
She is currently the president of Kanyakumari SHG. Her SHG took a loan of 3
lakhs from ORMAS, an NGO promoted by the Panchayati Raj Department of
Govt. of Odisha. It spent 2.8 lakhs and produced Kandula Dali (a pulse). They
earned a profit of Rs.59,275/- (after deducting travel expense and interest).
Their SHG‟s success was highly applauded by the authorities including the State
Chief Minister‟s Office.
She shared her own experience in the TLC Programme and about education in
general:
The classes were stopped as the Instructor stopped teaching.
Mothers rarely came as they were busy tending to their children and
alcoholic husbands.
Adults rarely attended as they wondered as to what was the need for
learning; earlier the need to sign for wages was not there.
Presently people wished to at least know how to sign as they needed it
while taking wage, kerosene or in the SHG.
10-15 yrs back people sent children to school, the govt. authority motivated
for the same.
The then school master sat on the Verandah and taught the children.
All children went to school.
The village had an upper primary school (till class 8).
Children went to the High School in a nearby village- Dumpriput (2 km)
walking.
After meeting Savitri Nayak it was evident that people in Gopalpur were
motivated to send their children to school and they were open to learning in
current times. Although most children went to school a decade back women
were not very motivated. However, things are more positive in current times.
Case Study of Guli Parmar from Bhandariya (Holi Phaliya), Jhabua
About a 45 year old woman sat amongst the 11 participants. Like all the others
she also reiterated the need for education. However, her status as an adult
literate cannot be questioned.
Though she was a part of the TLC about 10-15 years back she could still identify
some of the letters and numbers in the TLC primer. She could still recall the signs
of „+‟ and „–„ and do addition and subtraction of unitary numbers.
She very well knew how to sign her name and drew respect of all the other
women of her Phaliya. However, her husband knew only how to sign.
It may be noted that the TLC was implemented for a few months there not
followed by any PLP or CEP. Guli Parmar voiced that when TLC was functional
in her block there was only one family of three brothers and only three women
(wives of the three brothers), out of which one was away at her parent‟s house,
the other didn‟t attend the classes but she sat with the men, in the adult
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literacy classes. The biggest factor for her own interest to learn was her son‟s
presence as a trainer.
She may not have used her literacy to take up a job. But her being able to
recall the alphabets and numbers and the twinkle in her eyes on seeing the TLC
primer does give positive implication of her being well exposed to the adult
literacy programme she was a part of.
Case Study of Kama Panasingh, Village Narvaliya, Jhabua
Kama Pansingh a case of an enterprising woman aged about 32-35. She had 7
children; the first born was of 14 years. She showed a positive attitude towards
learning.
She learnt the nuances of selling garlic from a boy who stood the elections. This
boy asked all the women to learn about the weights and sell vegetable by
buying them at a wholesale price. However, except Kama and her husband no
one took up this trade. Kama and her husband went to places like Ratlam by
train or bus, bought garlic and sold it in the local haat (market).
They went to three different haats in a week and sold about 20 kgs of garlic in
one day making a profit of almost Rs.30-40 in each kg.
Kama Pansingh was carrying out her garlic business against all odds. Most
women from her phaliya said they wouldn‟t do such things because they had
a lot of work- cooking, farming, tending to the children‟s needs and attending
to livestock.
Kama was equally burdened with all these chores. However, she was
determined to earn an extra buck by putting in more hard work.
Her positive attitude also reflected in her willingness to join literacy classes.
There were some other women in the „philaya‟ who were not very keen on
literacy classes as they felt overburdened with work. However, Kama
convinced them that they could and they should take out time for the cause
as this would help them in the long run.
Case Study of Kamli Bai of Village Navi Navapura, Jhabua
Kamli Bai aged about 35 years has 4 children- two boys and two daughters.
She remembered going to the TLC classes much before her children were born
(about 15 years back), with her husband and sister-in-law only for one week.
She stopped going because the road to the classes was dark and people
believed that the ghost of a person who had died, during the same period,
was sitting on their way to the class.
She showed a lot of interest in the proposed literacy programme of IGSSS and
was more than willing to lend her home space for the classes.
She also intermittently went to Surat to earn wages 2-3 months in a year.
She was also well versed with a few English words like „earring‟ and „time‟ due
to her exposure to other places like Surat.
She seemed very excited about the literacy classes and took every opportunity
to tell other women that it was important to join such programmes.
She may not have benefited from the week-long TLC classes she attended
more than a decade back. But her interest in learning to write more than her
name and the wish to catch up with what she could have learnt from the TLC
classes was immense.
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8. Recommendations
As the NLM is in the process of being revitalized through the introduction
of Saakashar Bharat (SB) it is pertinent to reflect on some of the preliminary
study observations and identify actions for improving the strategies and
processes of achieving adult literacy in a broader perspective.
The recommendations are made with respect to programme structure
and design; objective and reach; delivery of results; targeting and TLM
language and content, etc. These recommendations are suggested
based on the analysis of community perspectives and what they look
forward in terms of literacy.
The literacy initiatives need to be linked to innovative and effective
approaches that enable women to shed their traditional boundaries, gain
confidence to deal with local government machineries particularly in the
context of participating and securing wages under the MNREGS, securing
pensions and other schemes that are aimed at improving their economic
conditions and social status.
The findings and insights gained through the quick field visits and
interviews with women reveal a number of serious issues involved in
making India literate. The key limitations are:
Making adult illiterate requires a combination of approaches that would
enable them to relate to their day-to-day life situations, help them enjoy
the evenings after a hard work and draw humorous comparisons that
would make them laugh and learn. The highly target (number) driven
campaign with poorly defined strategies to engage with the illiterate
resulted in waste of time and resources.
The high rate of relapse into illiteracy critically indicates that much more is
required to impart as well as sustain literacy. The poorly designed literacy
programmes and campaign got caught in the making up of numbers
(target) without looking at the critical issues of sustaining literacy. This is
especially important when it is realized that the effect of training without
practice is zero, likewise rapid assistance to learn alphabets and numbers
cannot be sustained without continuous practice and use of the learning.
It has been observed that most of the TLC women learners from the study
districts retained their skill to draw their signature mainly because of their
involvement in SHG functioning and signing of SHG loan documents. The
practice of signing various SHG loan documents helped most of the
learners to retain their knowledge of signing documents.
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Adult literacy to be meaningful and effective, should be able to build a
strong link to the social and economic life of the people for whom such
campaigns and other initiatives are made. Elements of such an effort
were not visible in all the four districts and hamlets visited by the team. The
consultations with the community and interviews with the Voluntary
Instructors and Trainers revealed that the programme was “straight
jacketed” to make the participants write or draw their names. Even to do
this, consistent support from the district officials who were in charge of
such campaigns were not received.
The significant need today is to understand these phenomena in a proper
perspective, it is essential to ponder deeper into the processes and
approaches undertaken hitherto, examine both strategically linked
factors of collaboration and support rather than delivering adult literacy.
The straight jacketed and inflexible guidelines and the envisaged
mechanisms of delivering adult literacy need to be revisited with an open
mind and allow the space to other stakeholders who are best suited to
undertake the job optimally!
A combination of activities required to address the problem of literacy.
This includes better training for literacy personnel, creation of infrastructure
and related processes, such as adult learning through reading
programmes that would encourage self-learning processes, individually or
in groups.
The Volunteers and learners need to be appreciative of each other. This
means the Volunteer Instructors need to be capable of arousing adults‟
interest to learn, deal with their questions relating to day to day life,
governmental schemes, etc. It would serve no good to appoint a 5th class
drop out boy of 14 years of age to shoulder the responsibility of Volunteer
Instructor.
Literacy needs to be placed within a larger social, economic and political
framework. The political will to make India literate should translate in
enabling villages to locally based strategies to get literate and sustain. The
local government at best come-up with broad guidelines and expected
results. It should solicit and muster the support of CBOs, NGOs, Corporate
groups to undertake partnership initiatives in imparting adult literacy.
Social accountability norms may be strictly followed and conduct social
audits of the programme at regular interval and share the findings
publicly. Prepare the participants of adult literacy programmes to be the
social stock takers of the programme!
Creation of robust database of the adult literacy programme is extremely
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crucial. The external evaluations should be based on the base-line data
and progress achieved within each timeline.
There seems to be lack of interest and initiative from the CSO community
in undertaking and assimilating the need for promoting adult literacy.
Both the government and donor organizations may identify promotion of
adult literacy as a cross-cutting and important intervention in making
women empowered. Donor agencies may accord priorities and make
provisions for supporting CSO led initiatives in achieving sustainable
literacy performances.
Promotion of adult literacy seems to be nobody‟s priority! NGOs and
Corporate groups should be approached for evolving innovative models
of promoting adult women literacy in rural remote villages, villages
affected by social unrest and socially marginalized sections.
Structure - the design
The government may think of the role of a facilitator of adult literacy
rather than the doer. The local CSOs may be bronght in along with PRI
institutions may be brought in as the main driver of the adult literacy
classes rather than the district administration directly delivering literacy
through PRIs alone!
The current structure of the literacy programmes needs a change in
favour of the lowest level of its implementation, i.e. the Panchayat
being the centre of all activity and availability of earmarked funds
directly transferred to the Panchayats from the District.
District to retain the earlier Society (ZSS) structure with a senior local
teacher administrator as its head rather than the District Collector
being overburdened with its responsibility
The ZSS need to be the administrative unit responsible for
implementation of the programme as a facilitator and capable
partnerships needs to be evolved with CSOs for filed level
implementation
The SLMA should only function as the quality regulator or monitor of the
programme in the state and oversee that the curricular needs are
met.
The SRCs should have the mandate as well as the ability of making
several types of TLM by incorporating local needs at the district and
sub-district levels. Big size states need several types of material varying
from district to district. SRC to ensure that the curriculum designs are
fully met as per needs.
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NLMA to oversee timely distribution of funds and adherence of
programme milestones as mandated by the programme road-map.
Department of Adult Education may be engaged in research in
appropriate curriculum that may assist SRCs in framing appropriate
TLM, engage a number of third party researchers or research
organisations for monitoring and evaluation, conduct user/beneficiary
satisfaction surveys at least three times during the programme
implementation stage and make suitable policy changes based on
findings from studies, monitoring and evaluation exercises and
beneficiary satisfaction surveys.
Mahila Samakhya provides a variety of successful approaches to
empower women. If the larger goal is to empower women enabling
them to participate in governance, improve their social and
economic status, partnership with Mahila Samakhya could be looked
at in improvising approaches in the changing environment
The placing of implementation responsibilities in the hands of PRI may
be reviewed in the current context. The PRI institutions are already
struggling with a heavy overload of implementation schemes and
programmes with little demonstrated evidence of good governance
and efficiency. In many States with poor women literacy status, the
representation of women in PRI institutions is symbolic with majority of
them being illiterate. Therefore, the suitable conditions that are
required to place Saakshar Bharat in the hands of PRI may be
reviewed and done on a case to case basis
Objective - and reach
Objective should be more tilted towards ensuring that learners are
able to relate the TLM and instructional methods with their livelihood
needs (agriculture, plumbing, electrical and electronic works, etc.)
participating in decision making at home as well as the community
levels, having a say on their own family size and take care of their own
health needs, motivate their children to regularly attend and learn at
schools, make homes more hygienic places in terms of food
preparation and living conditions, become catalysts in forming
women‟s groups at the hamlet or village level so as to increase their
say in decision making at the community level
Panchayats to ensure that programme reaches women and excluded
groups irrespective of gender;
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Motivating Panchayats with awards to be given by the MHRD in the
same way as Nirmal Gram Purashkar are given by the Rural
Development Ministry
Reach to be enhanced by linking up the programme performance
with enhanced outlay in other schemes
Delivery of results
Delivery of results to be mapped at the Panchayat and district levels
Each Panchayat to be made answerable for delivery of its self-
decided target by fulfilling the pre-decided quality parameters and
benchmarks
District level targets along with quality benchmarks are to me
monitored regularly for time-bound achievement of targets
All officials at the supervisory and programme delivery levels are to be
trained at least thrice during the programme implementation phase
for increasing programme relevance and quality of programme
impact
Targeting-age-group
The target age group as envisaged by the programme, i.e. 15-35 is the
right age group and targeting this group especially women will be the
sole responsibility of the Panchayat and the Panchayat level worker
Participation will be linked with participation in other programmes
Completion of the programme with emphasis on skill formation,
enhancement or upgradation will be rewarded with special incentives
like ready availability of bank credit, offer of higher subsidy, etc.
TLM-language, content
The language has to be aligned with locally spoken or used language
Content should be linked with skill formation for pursuing vocational
options or with those making living better like knowledge of basic legal
rights, practice of hygienic standards, compulsory immunization to
children, do‟s and donot‟s during pregnancy, child protection,
decision making in family and community contexts, etc.
It has to be commensurate with the lowest required standards of
language, text and intellectual capability of participants
Trainer-selection, training
Trainers should be a mix of men and women
Locally chosen and selected without compromising the minimum
standards of selection
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Training them minimum thrice during the programme implementation
cycle to make them more relevant contributors to the programme.
Monitoring/Supervision/Evaluation
Monitoring should be done at all four levels, i.e. Panchayat or
community, district, state and national levels
National level monitoring could be a mix of internal and third party
Supervision should be done by internal mechanisms on a variety of
levels, i.e. beneficiary selection, trainer, curriculum, meeting of target,
quality assurance, etc.
Evaluation should be done thrice during the programme by third party
and beneficiary satisfaction survey should be inclusive of this process
Follow-up-continuity
Continuity should be strictly based on programme evaluation findings
Beneficiary satisfaction survey results should guide the structure and
design of continuity programmes
Continuity must ensure higher level of targets – from quantity or quality
or both these perspectives
Improving Participation of women
Given the complex and deep rooted barriers to women‟s access to
education, it was observed that more inclusion of women volunteers
as instructors is necessary as they understand the compelling situations
of women and relate with their situations with empathy
This means place literacy classes in the larger empowering context.
The literacy classes were not effective in group processes. Efforts for
collectivizing women on their issues like sending girl children to schools,
women taking cognizance of the functioning of ICDS and village
schools may be seen as expected performances.
The programme design should consciously focus on enabling women
to identify their priorities and issues around which the programme
enables a learning process and plans its strategies and interventions.
This calls for a different approach rather than a centre based literacy
classes run by unpaid volunteer youths.
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9. References
Annual Report: 2002-03, NLM Directorate of Adult Education. New Delhi
Centre for Media Studies (2004), Continuing Education Programme-An
Impact Study, Planning Commission, New Delhi.
Government of India, 1986, National Policy on Education, Department of
Education, Ministry of Human Resource Development, New Delhi.
Government of India, 1992, National Policy on Education-Programme of
Action, Department of Education, Ministry of Human Resource
Development, New Delhi.
Government of India, 1994, Evaluation of Literacy Campaigns in India,
Report of the Expert Group, Department of Elementary and Adult
Education, Ministry of Human Resource Development, New Delhi.
Government of India, 2001, National Policy for the Empowerment of
Women, Department of Women and Child Development, Ministry of
Human Resource Development, New Delhi.
Government of India, 2003, EFA-National Plan of Action, India,
Department of Elementary Education and Literacy, Ministry of Human
Resource Development, New Delhi.
Govinda R. and Biswal K. (2005), Mapping Literacy in India-Who are
Illiterates and Where do we Find Them? Background Paper Commissioned
for the EFA Global Monitoring Report 2006, Literacy for Life.
Jena, V.K. and Mathew, A. (Eds., 2008) Leading the Way: New Initiatives in
Adult Education, Directorate of Adult Education, New Delhi.
Karlekar, Malavika (ed.) (2000), Reading the World: Understanding the
Literacy Campaigns in India, Asian South Pacific Bureau of Adult
Education, Mumbai.
Karlekar, Malavika (ed.) (2004), Paradigms of Learning: The Total Literacy
Campaigns in India, Sage Publications India Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi.
Literacy Facts At A Glance. New Delhi: NLM MHRD Govt. of India
Mathew, A. (2002) The Literacy Movement in West Godavari District (A.P.):
A Report, Paschima Godavari Akshara Samiti, Eluru.
Where Are We! A Rapid Assessment in Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh, Odhisa and Rajasthan
for Indo-Global Social Service Society & Welthungerhilfe, New Delhi
79 | Pag e
Mishra, S. (2008) Adult Education and Total Literacy, Regal Publications,
New Delhi.
NLM (2008) Total Literacy Campaigns: Analysis of External Evaluation
Reports, National Literacy Mission, New Delhi.
Rao, B.S.B. and Gupta, P.V. (Eds., 2008) Multi Dimensional Approaches to
Literacy Development, Associated Publishers, Ambala Cantt.
Registrar general and Census Commissioner of India (2001), Census of
India 2001, Government of India, New Delhi.
Rie, Yagi (2003) “Process Analysis of a Total Literacy Campaign in India: A
Case Study of Udaipur District, Rajasthan”, University of Oxford,
International Journal of Adult and Lifelong Education, Vol.1, No.1 (Jan-
June 2003).
Saakshar Bharat. 2009. New Delhi: Dept. of School Education and Literacy,
MHRD, Govt. of India
Saldanha, Denzil (1999), Residual Illiteracy and Uneven Development-II:
Literacy and Development Characteristics, Economic and Political
Weekly, July 10, 34 (28), pp. 1907-21.
Soundarapandian, M. (2000) Literacy Campaign in India, Discovery
Publishing House, New Delhi.
Wazir, Rekha (ed.) (2000), The Gender Gap in Basic Education-NGOs as
Change Agents, Sage Publications India Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi.
Yadav, P. (2003) “Total Literacy Campaign and Social Change: A Study of
the Six Selected Localities in Bhopal District”, International Journal for Adult
and Lifelong Education, Vol.1, No.1 (Jan-June 2003)
Websites
http://www.education.nic.in/Elementary/SaaksharBharat.pdf
http://education.nic.in/Elementary/DMU.pdf
http://www.nlm.nic.in/ce_nlm.htm
http://www.nlm.nic.in/manstru_nlm.htm
http://www.nlm.nic.in/pl_nlm.htm
http://www.nlm.nic.in/tlc_nlm.htm
http://www.nlm.nic.in/women.htm
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80 | Pag e
http://164.100.12.157:14000/sb
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10. Annexures
Annexure-1
Brief Profile of the Core Group Members
Profile of Prof. Anita Dighe
Prof. Anita Dighe has a Ph.D. in Speech Communications from Ohio State
University, U.S.A. She has been associated with the adult education programme
in the country for the last thirty years. She has worked in JNU and IGNOU and
retired as Director, Campus of Open Learning, University of Delhi. She has
attended a large number of international conferences and seminars and has a
large number of publications to her credit. She was a member of two Task Forces
set up by the MHRD recently for the Saakshar Bharat programme and is now a
member of the group on National Curriculum Framework for Adult Education set
up by MHRD for the Saakshar Bharat Programme.
Profile of Professor S. K. Kejariwal
Prof. S.K. Kejariwal holds a Doctorate Degree from the University of Paris (I),
France. He started his career in the field of education when he joined as a
Consultant to the International Institute of Educational Planning (IIEP), Paris. In
1979 he joined the Group on Adult Education in the Jawaharlal Nehru University
(JNU) where he is currently serving as Professor of Adult Education since 2006-07.
During 1994-2006 period he was Head of Adult Education Department in the
University of Pune, Maharashtra. During his stint in the University of Pune he was a
member of the Advisory Committee of State Resource Centre (SRC) of Adult
Education in Maharashtra. During this period he was associated with several
evaluation studies of Total Literacy Campaigns (TLC) and Post Literacy
Campaigns (PLC) implemented across many states. At JNU apart from being a
Professor he was the Director of Group of Adult Education until recently.
Profile of Prof. Ashraf Ali Khan
Prof. Ashraf Ali Khan is currently a Faculty in the Department of Adult, Continuing
Education and Extension, Jamia Millia Islamia, New Delhi. He holds a Doctorate
Degree and two Masters Degrees-one in Social Work and the second one in
Science. In the past he has offered consultancy services to agencies and
organisations like Centre for Development and Population Activities, USA; UNICEF
in India and Kenya; USAID in India; and Directorate of Adult Education, Ministry of
Human Resource Development, New Delhi. He has co-authored a training
package “Population Education Under Vocational Training Program” for UNFPA
and Government of India.
He is associated with India Islamic Cultural Centre, Dr. Zakir Husain Memorial
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Welfare Society and Family Planning Association of India as a Life Member.
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Annexure-2
Detailed Methodological Framework & ToR
Study Framework
Adult Women Literacy – A Community Centered Assessment of Government Adult
Literacy Programmes: Previous and Current Status & Probable Steps Forward
1. Introduction
A Participatory Assessment of the impact of Total Literacy Campaigns (TLCs) conducted
by National Literacy Mission (NLM) and the response of the youths and adults (with
special focus on women and adolescent girls) on the efforts of newly launched Saakshar
Bharat (SB) is proposed. The study is aimed to build critical knowledge base for
implementation of SB at the central, state, district and local levels. The study will also look
into the enabling and impending factors for the implementation of Saakshar Bharat. The
study will focus on the educational opportunities that were and are available and
identify gaps as per the actual requirement of adolescent girls and women. This
participatory assessment is being commissioned for providing inputs and strategic
direction to the project co-financed by Welthungerhilfe and European Union titled
„Empowering Women: Access and ownership over land and land based activities
through education, legal literacy and advocacy in rural India‟. It is expected that the
study would bring forth a community based analysis and reflection of needs which would
not only be beneficial to this project but would also to the adult literacy planners,
implementers, CSOs and other actors.
2. Objectives
The broad objective of the study is to understand the situation of adolescent girls and
women with regard to educational opportunities created through Total Literacy
Campaign (TLC) and the current Saakshar Bharat (SB) Scheme of Government of India.
It would also identify the hindering and supporting factors regarding SB and to suggest
probable ways forward in the context of the project referred above.
The specific objectives are:
a. To assess the impact of the TLC implemented by National Literacy Mission (NLM) -
focus on community perspective
b. To Study the transformation process from TLC to SB. The study will explore how the
existing resources and learnings are utilized to leverage the achievements as well as
lessons learnt from failures.
c. To study the key interventions proposed to be adopted by SB in the four study states.
Challenge and opportunities as perceived by the community in the study districts
from four states viz-a-viz the proposed interventions will be captured.
d. To understand community‟s perception on adult literacy (focus on women literacy)
3. Scope
1. Preparation of a framework for the study with detailed action plan.
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2. Development of study design - methods & strategies, (based on literature review)
3. Identification and finalization of study areas – 5 villages from each of the following
project districts from 4 focus states: Jhabua of M.P; Churu of Rajasthan; East
Singbhum of Jharkhand & Koraput of Orissa – in discussion with respective state
partners
4. Identification of potential respondents (no and profile to be mentioned) at various
levels – in states, with help of respective partners - and to develop appropriate tools
for the study.
5. Organize a small Expert Group meeting of subject experts from eminent institutions for
discussing the framework including the methodology and study tools
6. Carry out the field testing of the study methods in M.P in collaboration with the state
partner
7. Collaborating with respective project partners, carry out the field work in all the four
programme states.
8. Collaborating with the project partners and other stakeholders in the states,
organising state level consultation of NGOs / Civil society to orient them and also to
encourage them to participate in research
9. Organising debriefing session after the field study in coordination with the respective
project partners, other stakeholders in the states, NGOs / Civil society
10. In consultation with respective state partners, suggest guidelines and structure for
state level advocacy platform.
4. Methodology
Sl.
No.
Key Study
Activities
Methodology Key Output/Results
01 Preparatory
Work
Initial study design
development - tools,
methods, approaches,
strategies, sampling
Identification of primary
(respondents )and
secondary sources of
data collection
Meeting with Expert
Group; inputs on study
design, tools -including
refinement of design and
tools
Preparation of detailed
study and field plan
Study design
Consultation with Expert Group (EG
)- Prof. Kejariwal, Prof. Anita Dighe
and Prof. Ashraf Ali Khan
Refined & final study design
Detailed study & field plan
02 Background
formation for
the study
Literature review: Mission
assessment reports,
technical reports,
academic works,
database, articles etc.
Report contextualizing the key
points from the literature review in
the light of the objectives of the
study.
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Sl.
No.
Key Study
Activities
Methodology Key Output/Results
develop checklists for the
assessment of target
groups‟ perspectives,
benefits and suggestions
Supplement the literature
review findings in
consultation with national
level resources – govt.
departments, ministries,
NLM, officials, experts.
National level detailed situation
State/district/area specific broad
indicators and facts, with respect to
TLC, SB & adult women literacy
regarding 4 study states
03 Initial field
testing in 5
villages of
Jhabua
district, M.P
Collaborating with the
state partner, select 5
programme villages as
sample for the study –
representative and cross-
sectional of the project
area
In consultation with the
state partner and other
stakeholders in the state,
organising state level
consultation of NGOs /
CSOs to orient them and
also to encourage them
to participate in the
research
Field tested study design and tools
State/district/area specific FACT
SHEET (M.P) with respect to TLC, SB &
adult women literacy
04 State level
preparatory
meetings in
each of the 4
states
Collaborating with the
respective state partners
and other stakeholders in
the states, organising
state level consultation of
NGOs / CSOs to orient
them and also to
encourage them to
participate in the
research
Planning, preparation of
background note,
presentation, etc
NGO/CSO partners (minimum 6
from each state/district) identified
Stakeholder participation report for
4 study states
Final plan of action for study for the
4 study states
05 Field study in
each of the 4
states
covering 5
villages from
one project
district each
from the 4
focus states
Gathering information at
The State level
District level
Block level
Village/local level
Special focus on women
State district/area FACT sheets with
respect to TLC, SB & adult women
literacy, updated and finalized, for
each of the four states
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Sl.
No.
Key Study
Activities
Methodology Key Output/Results
06 State level
debriefing
session, after
the field
study
in each of
the 4 states
Sharing respective field
findings, consolidation of
information in respective
states; developing
guidelines for setting up
of state level advocacy
platform
Stakeholder perspectives on
the study findings from each state
on the community perspectives on
community based impact
assessment of the key results of TLCs
community reflections on the
proposed efforts, various aspects &
action framework of SB in facilitating
adult literacy with special focus on
girls and women
community perceptions and
opinion on adult literacy –
specifically adult women literacy
specifically women‟s inputs
suggest guidelines and structure for
state level advocacy platform
community based strategies and
approaches for the smooth
implementation of SB, role of NGOs,
resource agencies, etc, in each
state/district
the matrix of key sustainability
factors, options and practices with
respect to adult women literacy
on case specific documentation –
as per area, geography & social,
economic and cultural contexts –
from the field
on case studies from all the four
states
07 Sharing the
preliminary
findings of
the research
with Expert
group and
incorporating
their inputs
Sharing field findings from
all the 4 states,
consolidation of state
level information &
guidelines and structure
for state level advocacy
platform;
A comprehensive over all
report framework
Inputs from experts. Their perspectives
on the study findings from each
state
on the community perspectives on
community based impact
assessment of the key results of TLCs
on community reflections on the
proposed efforts, various aspects &
action framework of SB in facilitating
adult literacy with special focus on
girls and women
on community perceptions and
opinion on adult literacy –
specifically adult women literacy
specifically women‟s inputs
on community based strategies and
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Sl.
No.
Key Study
Activities
Methodology Key Output/Results
approaches for the smooth
implementation of SB, role of NGOs,
resource agencies, etc
on the guidelines and structure for
state level advocacy platform
on the matrix of key sustainability
factors, options and practices with
respect to adult women literacy
on case specific documentation –
as per area, geography & social,
economic and cultural contexts –
from the field
on case studies from all the four
states
on overall study results,
recommendations and proposed
action plan
on draft report framework
08 Organising a
National
Consultation
Collaborate with all the
project partners, experts
of the Expert group, other
stakeholders from 4 states
and Welthungerhilfe
Organising a gathering of
selected representatives
from relevant
government departments
and ministries; national
level networks; planners
and policy makers;
activists, academia and
thus, providing a
common platform for
sharing the study findings,
enabling interactions and
discussions resulting in
proper inputs and
feedback on this study
Inputs enabled on all the
components of the Draft Report, so
that the preparation of Final Report
is enabled
09 Finalising the
Research
Report and
Action Plan
for way
ahead
Collaborate with all the
project partners and
Welthungerhilfe
Incorporation of inputs
from national
consultation
A comprehensive Final Research
Study Report is enabled with all the
relevant and expected
components/aspects
5. Expected Deliverables
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A comprehensive Final Research Study Report including:
Community perspective on community based impact assessment of the key
results of TLCs
Community reflections on the proposed efforts, various aspects & action
framework of SB in facilitating adult literacy with special focus on girls and
women
Status of Sakshar Bharat
Community perceptions and opinion on adult literacy – specifically adult
women literacy specifically women‟s inputs
Community based strategies and approaches for the smooth implementation
of SB, role of NGOs, govt, resource agencies, etc
Suggest guidelines and structure for state level advocacy platform.
To develop matrix of key sustainability factors, options and practices with
respect to adult women literacy.
Detailed field notes and photographs from all the four study areas
Case specific documentation – as per area, geography & social, economic
and cultural contexts – from the field
20 case studies from all the four states – 5 from each state/district/ one from
each of the 5 villages of each district
6. Duration & Time Line: The study will be conducted within 42 days spread over a
period of 3 months. The entire task will be completed within three months from the
date of signing of the agreement. The detailed task-wise time plan is given below:
Task/Activity Days
Preparatory Work – in Delhi
Literature Review
Interviews in Delhi
Initial study design development (tools and main
approaches)
Consultation with Expert Group on study design, tools
(including refinement of design and tools)
6 days
2 days
2 days
1 day
1 day
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Field Study – in 4 States
Initial Field testing in MP
State level consultation and staff orientation
Interviews and interactions with officials and other
stakeholders at the state and district level
Community level interactions – women, adolescent girls,
youth, SHGs, women‟s groups, PRIs, CBOs/NGOs, teachers –
through FGDs, interviews and other methods
Sharing with stakeholders at the state level
Field Study in Three States (Orissa, Jharkhand, Rajasthan)
Same break up as that of MP field study
28 days
½ a day
2 days
4 days
7 days
½ a day
(7 days*3
states)
21 days
Analysis of Data & Draft Report 5 days
Final Report 2 days
National Consultation 1 day
Total 42 days
7. Study Team
The field team consists of the Team Leader and two Associates (Dr. Manoj Dash and
Dr. Sridhara Mishra). Mr. K.P Rajendran will be in the capacity of the team leader and
will be taking up the responsibility of executing the study. The study team will work in
collaboration with all the four implementing partners. From IGSSS, Tina Khanna, the
national coordinator, will be the contact person for study.
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8. Roles and Responsibilities
Research Team
WHH and IGSSS (National
and State level
coordination)
AGRAGAMEE, SCRIA,
SWADHINA, IGSSS (State
level coordination)
1. Develop study
design, tools and
study plan
2. Carry out discussion
and take inputs from
expert group experts
3. Plan & execute the
study
4. Carry out the field
study
5. Organise two state
level meetings -
preparatory meeting
& stakeholder
debriefing – in each
of the 4 study states
6. Suggest community
based strategies and
approaches for the
smooth
implementation of
SB, role of NGOs,
resource agencies,
etc
7. Develop guidelines
and structure for
state level advocacy
platform, in
consultation with
respective partners
& stakeholders
8. Provide the matrix of
key sustainability
factors, options and
practices with
respect to adult
women literacy
9. Provide field notes &
quality photographs
of the field
1. Facilitating the entire
study concept and
the study in 4 states
2. Identifying,
contacting and
facilitating Expert
Group meeting for
finalizing the study
design & plan
3. Facilitate information
gathering at the
national level
4. Facilitate field studies
in all the 4 states,
collaborating with
respective partners
5. Arranging the travel,
stay and other
necessary
requirements of the
study team, in
coordination with
respective state
partners, so as to carry
out the study in 4
states
6. Facilitating the
discussion on study
findings with the
expert group and
study team
7. With the study team,
facilitate National
Consultation
8. Facilitating the
documentation of the
National Consultation
9. Documentation of
national level
1. Guidance, support &
participation in
planning and field
execution of the
Saakshar Bharat (SB)
study.
2. Facilitating logistic
arrangements for field
team.
3. Coordination with
respondents at the
village, district and
state levels for data
collection (including
NGOs, universities, govt
officials etc)
4. Guidance & support
for the study team in
organizing two state
level meetings
(preparatory and de-
briefing)
5. Documentation of the
state level
consultations
(preparatory and de-
briefing)
6. Support field team in
gathering and
compiling information
(information regarding
the study: e.g. state
guidelines, ACTs for
Saakshar Bharat, TLC
etc)
7. Suggest stakeholders/
CSOs/NGOs/participan
ts for state and
national level
consultations and
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Research Team
WHH and IGSSS (National
and State level
coordination)
AGRAGAMEE, SCRIA,
SWADHINA, IGSSS (State
level coordination)
interactions by the
study team during
the study in all the
four state
10. Provide case specific
documentation – as
per area, geography
& social, economic
and cultural contexts
– from the field
11. Provide 20case
studies from all the
four states – 5 from
each state/district/
one from each of
the 5 villages of
each district
12. Discuss the draft
report with the
expert group and
incorporate their
inputs in the final
report
13. Organise the
National
Consultation, to
share the study
findings at the
national level
14. Provide the final
study report,
incorporating inputs
from National
Consultation.
consultation meetings.
8. Guidance & support
for the study team in
developing guidelines
and structure for state
level advocacy
platform
Annex-1: Key questions for the study
Few key questions given below within the 3 broad areas would enable achieving the
study objectives mentioned above:
A. Total Literacy Campaign (TLC)
1. Details about TLC (Activities and components of the campaign)
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2. Whether the TLC was operational in the study areas? If so, which all
components? Who were the participants? What exactly were happening on the
ground? Women‟s/adolescent girl‟s participation?
3. Who were the stakeholders? NGOs? Schools & Teachers? Volunteers? Women‟s
groups? Youth Groups? PRIs? Local Leaders and their level of participation?
4. Whether people are aware that the TLC scheme is over? Has been closed
properly? The condition during the closure? What happened after the closure? To
the structures – physical and thematic? The processes – classes, exposure visits
etc? The resources – community as well as human? Any document or report
available such as evaluation of JSS in these areas?
5. Whether the activities are suspended or still continuing, after the closure? The
structures are closed or still functioning (JSS)? People/organisations associated
with the programme still continuing or withdrew?
6. Area specific results, achievements, success stories; people‟s perception?
Challenges, gaps, constraints, failures? Any sustainability aspects – in vision & in
reality?
7. If no TLC activities in these areas, why? Any other schemes were operational in
these areas? Both governmental and non-governmantal efforts? If so, need to
gather details with respect to those initiatives as per 1&2.
8. These programmes are still on or not? Details. If yes, possibilities of collaboration in
respective areas?
B. Saakshar Bharat (SB)
9. SB details? State/area specifications? Strategies, plans & components?
Specifications, specialties, innovations?
10. Are people aware of the new scheme, SB? Aware of shift of focus….focus on
women?
11. If so, how? To what extent? Any activities initiated under SB? What are their
expectations? Any comments, opinion, suggestions? Women‟s, adolescent girls‟
and women‟s organisations‟ opinion?
12. If no, trace the answer from other stakeholders; PRI? NGOs? Schools & Teachers?
Volunteers? Women‟s groups? Youth Groups? Local Leaders? JSS?
13. Areas (w.r.to SB) aligning with our project objectives, strategies, components and
activities? Possible areas of convergence with respect to each of the 4 study
districts/areas?
14. Status of National and State level implementation of Sakshar Bharat Study (This
will entail: a) Status of plan development in 4 states (Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan,
Where Are We! A Rapid Assessment in Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh, Odhisa and Rajasthan
for Indo-Global Social Service Society & Welthungerhilfe, New Delhi
93 | Pag e
Orissa, Jharkhand) b. Status of curriculum development c. Are there any specific
steps laid out in the study to ensure commitment towards women‟s education)
C. Adult Literacy and Adult Women Literacy
15. People‟s opinion on: a) adult literacy and b. adult women literacy (- relevance,
priority, demand? Reasons: Positive/negative) Women‟s and adolescent girls‟
opinion about adult women literacy - relevance, priority, felt need, demand? If
positive, reasons? If negative, reasons?
16. Issues, challenges, constraints (eg: economic cost of attending classes) shared?
Positive responses, initiatives, lessons, success stories? Suggestions?
17. Specifications or attributions with respect to area, geography & social, economic
and cultural contexts.
18. Feedback from other stakeholders on aspects under 16, 17
Annex 2: State Level Meeting I – Preparatory Meeting
Half a day stakeholder meeting is organized before the initiation of the field work in each
state. Nearly 20 people will attend this initial orientation meeting. This includes members
from partner organizations, NGOs / CSOs, activists, experts, govt. officials and people
from academia. The team needs to share the background and purpose of the study and
orient them to be part of the network and also to encourage them to participate in the
research. Field study plan, approach and strategies could be shared with them.
Annex 3: State Level Meeting II – Stakeholder Debriefing
Half a day stakeholder debriefing session is organized after the completion of the field
study in each state. The same set of stakeholders who attended the preparatory meeting
will attend this debriefing session. The research team will be sharing the respective field
findings and then will do the consolidation of information in respective states. Developing
guidelines and structure for state level advocacy platform and agreeing upon the
guidelines, action plan & milestones; identifying the potential members of this forum.
Sharing the community based monitoring and evaluation system are also done in this
session.
Annex 4: National Consultation
One day national level consultation is organized for sharing the study findings, after
finalization of the draft report. This is to be done in collaboration with project partners,
expert group, other stakeholders from 4 states and Welthungerhilfe. This needs organising
a gathering of selected representatives from relevant government departments and
ministries; national level networks; planners and policy makers; activists, academia and
thus, providing a common platform for sharing the study findings, enabling interactions
and discussions resulting in proper inputs and feedback on this study. Proper
documentation of the consultation needs to be done and resultant outcomes and
suggestions need to be incorporated in the final report.
Where Are We! A Rapid Assessment in Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh, Odhisa and Rajasthan
for Indo-Global Social Service Society & Welthungerhilfe, New Delhi
94 | Pag e
Annex 5: State Level Advocacy Platform
A network envisaged in each of the four project areas in four states. It comprises a group
of alert and active women who are the vigilant members from the community. This
group could enable the participatory monitoring of adult women literacy programme in
their respective area, a continuous process throughout the project period, across various
levels - national, state and community level – and also with sustainability components.
The members of this platform could be from the community itself along with people from
NGOs / CSOs, activists, experts, academia, media and local leaders.
Annex 6: Profile of Study Team
Team Leader: K.P. Rajendran has about 20 years of experience in the Development
Sector. He holds a Masters Degree in Economics from the University of Madras and Short-
term Advanced Course on Urban Management from School of Public Policy, University of
Birmingham, United Kingdom. Before founding and leading FourX4 Rajendran had
previously held key managerial and leadership positions in development agencies such
as Aga Khan Foundation, Orbis International and Christian Children‟s Fund. He has been
a consultant to many national and international agencies including UNICEF, WHO, DFID,
USAID, Project Hope, SOS-Kinderdorf International, ActionAid, HelpAge India and SOS
Children‟s Villages of India.
Team Member: Dr. Manoj K. Dash has more than 14 years of experience in the social
development field with multi-sectoral focus. He holds a Doctoral Degree in Economics
from the Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi and a Bachelor Degree in Law from
Utkal University, Odisha. Before joining FourX4 as co-leader, Dr. Dash had previously held
pivotal as well as leadership positions in Rehabilitation Council of India, CORE, SOS
Children‟s Villages of India and SOS-Kinderdorf International. In the past he has provided
consultancy services to Centre for Multi Disciplinary Development Research, Ministry of
Human Resource Development, Management Services of India and Association for
Voluntary Action, New Delhi.
Team Member: Dr. Sridhara Mishra is a sociologist by profession and academic training.
She evinces keen interest in the social development sector and has worked in this sector
in different positions (Field Investigator, Research Coordinator, Sociologist, Research
Assistant, Project Manager and Consultant) spanning from 1996 till date. She has also
worked as a consultant in corporate organizations like 3i Infotech, Mumbai and Kalinga
Software Private Limited, Bhubaneswar. She is a fulltime Consultant to FourX4.
Appendix-1
95 | Pag e
IGSSS - TLC Assessment (East Singbhum)
PRA Summary Sheet
Sl. District Village Name of Para Name of Adult Men
Literacy Status Literacy Status
Age Illiterate Literate >5 Class 10th or above
Name of Adult Women
Age Can Sign Literate >5 Class 10th or above Illiterate
1 East Singhbhum Gohala - Devli Pal Tola Prakash Chandra Pal 28 y Sukumita Pal 26 y
2 East Singhbhum Gohala - Devli Pal Tola Shenlata Pal 45 y
3 East Singhbhum Gohala - Devli Pal Tola Govind Pal 20 y
4 East Singhbhum Gohala - Devli Pal Tola Trilotal Pal 18 y
5 East Singhbhum Gohala - Devli Pal Tola Vishnu PodePal 35 y Kukulai Pal 33 y
6 East Singhbhum Gohala - Devli Pal Tola Sukesh Chandra Pal 46 y Kalpana Pal 42 y
7 East Singhbhum Gohala - Devli Pal Tola Meghnad 19 y
8 East Singhbhum Gohala - Devli Pal Tola Hare Krishna Pal 50 y Binapani Pal 46 y
9 East Singhbhum Gohala - Devli Pal Tola Jogan Sevan 32 y Kusum Sevan 27 y
10 East Singhbhum Gohala - Devli Pal Tola Rinta Sevan 26 y
11 East Singhbhum Gohala - Devli Pal Tola Mrinalin 46 y
12 East Singhbhum Gohala - Devli Pal Tola Chandrasekhar Pal 22 y Ganga Pani Pal 18 y
13 East Singhbhum Gohala - Devli Pal Tola Mihir Shekhar Pal 19 y
14 East Singhbhum Gohala - Devli Pal Tola Nityanand Pal 26 y Nitu Pal 21 y
15 East Singhbhum Gohala - Devli Pal Tola Niranjan Pal 22 y
16 East Singhbhum Gohala - Devli Pal Tola Sindhu Pal 45 y
17 East Singhbhum Gohala - Devli Pal Tola Grahaspati Pal 23 y Simwari Pal 20 y
18 East Singhbhum Gohala - Devli Pal Tola Nilkant Pal 40 y Deepali Pal 35 y
19 East Singhbhum Gohala - Devli Pal Tola Dilip Kumar Pal 20 y
20 East Singhbhum Gohala - Devli Pal Tola Tapan Kumar Pal 19 y
21 East Singhbhum Gohala - Devli Pal Tola Srikant Pal 32 y Smiti Pal 27 y
22 East Singhbhum Gohala - Devli Pal Tola Sitanath Pal 42 y Ramna Pal 38 y
23 East Singhbhum Gohala - Devli Pal Tola Rishikesh Pal 28 y
24 East Singhbhum Gohala - Devli Pal Tola Devrat Pal 19 y
25 East Singhbhum Gohala - Devli Pal Tola Marovayani Pal 45 y Swati Pal 37 y
26 East Singhbhum Gohala - Devli Pal Tola Susil Kumar Pal 32 y Jyotsna Pal 27 y
27 East Singhbhum Gohala - Devli Pal Tola Ravikant Pal 29 y Rupali Pal 24 y
28 East Singhbhum Gohala - Devli Pal Tola Jagdish Chandra Pal 40 y Rakha Rani Pal 33 y
29 East Singhbhum Gohala - Devli Pal Tola Harish Chandra Pal 25 y Hemavati Pal 23 y
30 East Singhbhum Gohala - Devli Pal Tola Tanu Kumar Pal 22 y Tanina Pal 20 y
31 East Singhbhum Gohala - Devli Pal Tola Ramesh Chandra Pal 33 y Krishna Pal 27 y
Appendix-1
96 | Pag e
Sl. District Village Name of Para Name of Adult Men
Literacy Status Literacy Status
Age Illiterate Literate >5 Class 10th or above
Name of Adult Women
Age Can Sign Literate >5 Class 10th or above Illiterate
32 East Singhbhum Gohala - Devli Pal Tola Suresh Chandra Pal 35 y Lakh Rani Pal 31 y
33 East Singhbhum Gohala - Devli Pal Tola Taralata Pal 45 y
34 East Singhbhum Gohala - Devli Pal Tola Shiv Charan Pal 25 y Sujata Pal 21 y
35 East Singhbhum Gohala - Devli Pal Tola Vishwanath Pal 23 y
36 East Singhbhum Gohala - Devli Pal Tola Durga Murni 20 y
37 East Singhbhum Gohala - Devli Pal Tola Aina Murni 18 y
38 East Singhbhum Gohala - Devli Pal Tola Madhu Murni 48 y Hira Murni 45 y
39 East Singhbhum Gohala - Devli Pal Tola Chandra Mohan Murni 28 y
40 East Singhbhum Gohala - Devli Pal Tola Jiten Murni 25 y Kajol Murni 21 y
41 East Singhbhum Gohala - Devli Pal Tola Bade Murni 23 y
42 East Singhbhum Gohala - Devli Pal Tola Sumitra Pal 20 y
43 East Singhbhum Gohala - Devli Pal Tola Sunita Pal 18 y
44 East Singhbhum Gohala - Devli Pal Tola Dhirendranath Pal 48 y Durupati Pal 43 y
45 East Singhbhum Gohala - Devli Pal Tola Sondar Pal 26 y Sumati Pal 20 y
46 East Singhbhum Gohala - Devli Pal Tola Rohi Das 24 y Bhagwati Pal 19 y
47 East Singhbhum Gohala - Devli Pal Tola Gyanchandra Pal 44 y Savita Pal 40 y
48 East Singhbhum Gohala - Devli Pal Tola Vidhulata 19 y
49 East Singhbhum Gohala - Devli Pal Tola Vikarant Pal 19 y Chandra Prakash Pal 17 y
50 East Singhbhum Gohala - Devli Pal Tola Nityanand Pal 46 y Namita Pal 41 y
51 East Singhbhum Gohala - Devli Pal Tola Rajesh Kumar Pal 18 y
52 East Singhbhum Gohala - Devli Pal Tola Dinesh Kumar Pal 16 y
53 East Singhbhum Gohala - Devli Pal Tola Phulo Hemrom 47 y
54 East Singhbhum Gohala - Devli Pal Tola Sushil Hemrom 19 y
55 East Singhbhum Gohala - Devli Pal Tola Lakha Hemrom 17 y
56 East Singhbhum Gohala - Devli Pal Tola Surai Hemrom 43 y Maina Hemrom 37 y
57 East Singhbhum Gohala - Devli Pal Tola Gagiya Hemrom 39 y Sukul Hemrom 34 y
58 East Singhbhum Gohala - Devli Pal Tola Surdhai Besra 45 y
59 East Singhbhum Gohala - Devli Pal Tola Prithvi Nath Besra 26 y
60 East Singhbhum Gohala - Devli Pal Tola Baroram Besra 21 y Jamna Besra 15 y
61 East Singhbhum Gohala - Devli Pal Tola Prithvi Besra 26 y Karun Besra 22 y
62 East Singhbhum Gohala - Devli Pal Tola Duli Besra 17 y
63 East Singhbhum Gohala - Devli Pal Tola Hewai Besra 48 y Kuchlo Besra 41 y
64 East Singhbhum Gohala - Devli Pal Tola Prithvinath Besra 24 y Kenu Besra 21 y
65 East Singhbhum Gohala - Devli Pal Tola Bhuwan Besra 18 y
Appendix-1
97 | Pag e
Sl. District Village Name of Para Name of Adult Men
Literacy Status Literacy Status
Age Illiterate Literate >5 Class 10th or above
Name of Adult Women
Age Can Sign Literate >5 Class 10th or above Illiterate
66 East Singhbhum Gohala - Devli Pal Tola Maina Besra 45 y
67 East Singhbhum Gohala - Devli Pal Tola Phuli Besra 21 y
68 East Singhbhum Gohala - Devli Pal Tola Dhnai Besra 44 y
69 East Singhbhum Gohala - Devli Pal Tola Salma Besra 39 y
70 East Singhbhum Gohala - Devli Pal Tola Diku Besra 16 y
71 East Singhbhum Gohala - Devli Pal Tola Dula Ram Besra 36 y
72 East Singhbhum Gohala - Devli Pal Tola Sambari Besra 31 y
73 East Singhbhum Gohala - Devli Pal Tola Ramesh Besra 25 y
74 East Singhbhum Gohala - Devli Pal Tola Ghani Ram Besra 48 y
75 East Singhbhum Gohala - Devli Pal Tola Pekro Besra 42 y
76 East Singhbhum Gohala - Devli Pal Tola Sarla Besra 48 y
77 East Singhbhum Gohala - Devli Pal Tola Nirmala Besra 45 y
78 East Singhbhum Gohala - Devli Pal Tola Chita Besra 21 y
79 East Singhbhum Gohala - Devli Pal Tola Malti Besra 19 y
80 East Singhbhum Gohala - Devli Pal Tola Sapan Besra 17 y
81 East Singhbhum Gohala - Devli Pal Tola Lachu Besra 28 y
82 East Singhbhum Gohala - Devli Pal Tola Manki Besra 25 y
83 East Singhbhum Gohala - Devli Pal Tola Raghunath Mardi 48 y
84 East Singhbhum Gohala - Devli Pal Tola Sona Mardi 32 y
85 East Singhbhum Gohala - Devli Pal Tola Budhan Mardi 36 y
86 East Singhbhum Gohala - Devli Pal Tola Suni Mardi 27 y
87 East Singhbhum Gohala - Devli Pal Tola Rinta Mardi 19 y
88 East Singhbhum Gohala - Devli Pal Tola Shyam Mardi 16 y
1 East Singhbhum Gohala - Devli Hurang Darga Dinesh Kumar Shaw 26 y Rinki Shaw 19 y
2 East Singhbhum Gohala - Devli Hurang Darga Lakshmi Kant 40 y Parvati 35 y
3 East Singhbhum Gohala - Devli Hurang Darga Sudhanshu Pal 30 y
4 East Singhbhum Gohala - Devli Hurang Darga Himanshu Shaw 35 y Nanita Pal 30 y
5 East Singhbhum Gohala - Devli Hurang Darga Bhanu Nath Shaw 40 y Deibani 35 y
6 East Singhbhum Gohala - Devli Hurang Darga Sapan Kumar 32 y Laxmi Shaw 27 y
7 East Singhbhum Gohala - Devli Hurang Darga Kenu Shaw 45 y Revthi Ravi Shaw 40 y
8 East Singhbhum Gohala - Devli Hurang Darga Arvind Pal 33 y Lakhi Pal 30 y
9 East Singhbhum Gohala - Devli Hurang Darga Sunil Kumar Pal 30 y Sunita Pal 27 y
10 East Singhbhum Gohala - Devli Hurang Darga Srikant Pal 22 y Ruma Pal 18 y
11 East Singhbhum Gohala - Devli Hurang Darga Anand Lal Pal 38 y Durga Rani Pal 35 y
Appendix-1
98 | Pag e
Sl. District Village Name of Para Name of Adult Men
Literacy Status Literacy Status
Age Illiterate Literate >5 Class 10th or above
Name of Adult Women
Age Can Sign Literate >5 Class 10th or above Illiterate
12 East Singhbhum Gohala - Devli Hurang Darga Ravindranath Pal 31 y Rupa Rani Pal 28 y
13 East Singhbhum Gohala - Devli Hurang Darga Ramesh Pal 34 y Putual Pal 30 y
14 East Singhbhum Gohala - Devli Hurang Darga Ashok Kumar Pal 39 y Gunwati Pal 35 y
15 East Singhbhum Gohala - Devli Hurang Darga Shyam Kumar Pal 34 y Binodi Pal 30 y
16 East Singhbhum Gohala - Devli Hurang Darga Nitin Pal 48 y Malti Pal 45 y
17 East Singhbhum Gohala - Devli Hurang Darga Vipul Kumar Pal 21 y Kakali Pal (Sister) 18 y
18 East Singhbhum Gohala - Devli Hurang Darga Karthik Pal 35 y Sunita Pal 32 y
19 East Singhbhum Gohala - Devli Hurang Darga Bhim Singh Pal 32 y Anita Pal 27 y
20 East Singhbhum Gohala - Devli Hurang Darga Nandi 35 y Rai Divan 30 y
21 East Singhbhum Gohala - Devli Hurang Darga Babul Deor 28 y Promita Deor 25 y
22 East Singhbhum Gohala - Devli Hurang Darga Virendra Bhagat 30 y Kavita Bhagat 25 y
23 East Singhbhum Gohala - Devli Hurang Darga Bimal Bhagat 28 y Pari Rani Pal 25 y
24 East Singhbhum Gohala - Devli Hurang Darga Sanathan Pal 45 y Kamla Pal 40 y
25 East Singhbhum Gohala - Devli Hurang Darga Rajan Devar 45 y Charu Devar 40 y
26 East Singhbhum Gohala - Devli Hurang Darga Dharni Devar 36 y Vaishakhi Devar 30 y
27 East Singhbhum Gohala - Devli Hurang Darga Jitendranath Pal 40 y Januka Pal 35 y
28 East Singhbhum Gohala - Devli Hurang Darga Bolaran Pal 45 y Kavita Pal 40 y
29 East Singhbhum Gohala - Devli Hurang Darga Loli Kumar Pal 28 y Moni Pal 25 y
30 East Singhbhum Gohala - Devli Hurang Darga Radha Kant Shaw 38 y Moli latha 30 y
31 East Singhbhum Gohala - Devli Hurang Darga Uma Kant Shaw 26 y Ambika Shaw 23 y
32 East Singhbhum Gohala - Devli Hurang Darga Manoranjan Shaw 32 y Sushmita Pal 28 y
33 East Singhbhum Gohala - Devli Hurang Darga Karnu Pal 26 y Jayanti Pal 22 y
34 East Singhbhum Gohala - Devli Hurang Darga Dilip Pal 36 y Thakurani Pal 30 y
35 East Singhbhum Gohala - Devli Hurang Darga Dhalani Pal 32 y Promita Pal 27 y
36 East Singhbhum Gohala - Devli Hurang Darga Manoj Kumar Pal 34 y Sanju Rani Pal 30 y
37 East Singhbhum Gohala - Devli Hurang Darga Chetra Hasda 36 y Taman Mai 26 y
38 East Singhbhum Gohala - Devli Hurang Darga Rathi Harda 48 y Pulmani 42 y
39 East Singhbhum Gohala - Devli Hurang Darga Sushant Devar 40 y Gunwati 35 y
40 East Singhbhum Gohala - Devli Hurang Darga Mangal Devar 35 y Surumai 30 y
41 East Singhbhum Gohala - Devli Hurang Darga Galu Seth 45 y
42 East Singhbhum Gohala - Devli Hurang Darga Lakhim Seth 25 y
43 East Singhbhum Gohala - Devli Hurang Darga Gayan Seth 45 y
44 East Singhbhum Gohala - Devli Hurang Darga Vithal Seth 25 y Konika Seth 20 y
45 East Singhbhum Gohala - Devli Hurang Darga Subrath Seth 40 y Kavitha Seth 35 y
Appendix-1
99 | Pag e
Sl. District Village Name of Para Name of Adult Men
Literacy Status Literacy Status
Age Illiterate Literate >5 Class 10th or above
Name of Adult Women
Age Can Sign Literate >5 Class 10th or above Illiterate
46 East Singhbhum Gohala - Devli Hurang Darga Kusha Pal 35 y Chanchal Pal 30 y
47 East Singhbhum Gohala - Devli Hurang Darga Choteram Pal 32 y Resnita Pal 28 y
48 East Singhbhum Gohala - Devli Hurang Darga Juble Sabrang 36 y
49 East Singhbhum Gohala - Devli Hurang Darga Dheya Pal 45 y
50 East Singhbhum Gohala - Devli Hurang Darga Mithun Karmakar 20 y
51 East Singhbhum Gohala - Devli Hurang Darga Pradeep Karmakar 30 y Rekha Karmakar 25 y
52 East Singhbhum Gohala - Devli Hurang Darga Shanti Hasda 21 y
53 East Singhbhum Gohala - Devli Hurang Darga Bhatla Desrat 50 y Shanti Misra 45 y
54 East Singhbhum Gohala - Devli Hurang Darga Bhodhan Pal 45 y Kularani Pal 40 y
55 East Singhbhum Gohala - Devli Hurang Darga Sahdev Pal 55 y Durgawati Pal 47 y
56 East Singhbhum Gohala - Devli Hurang Darga Barhim Pal 34 y Shushila Pal 27 y
57 East Singhbhum Gohala - Devli Hurang Darga Duryodhan Pal 40 y Savithri Pal 35 y
58 East Singhbhum Gohala - Devli Hurang Darga Debasis Pal 17 y
59 East Singhbhum Gohala - Devli Hurang Darga Devarishi Shekhar Pal 28 y Sudopa Pal 26 y
60 East Singhbhum Gohala - Devli Hurang Darga Debraj Pal 39 y Indrawati Pal 42 y
61 East Singhbhum Gohala - Devli Hurang Darga Raikant Pal 36 y Mamta Pal 30 y
62 East Singhbhum Gohala - Devli Hurang Darga Uthkal Pal 18 y
63 East Singhbhum Gohala - Devli Hurang Darga Rajendra Pal 29 y Sulekha Pal 24 y
64 East Singhbhum Gohala - Devli Hurang Darga Basant Pal 34 y
65 East Singhbhum Gohala - Devli Hurang Darga Hemant Pal 23 y Miltan 21 y
66 East Singhbhum Gohala - Devli Hurang Darga Dijan Kant Pal 21 y
67 East Singhbhum Gohala - Devli Hurang Darga Chandi Charan Pal 46 y Jherobala Pal 42 y
68 East Singhbhum Gohala - Devli Hurang Darga Uthan Kunal Pal 31 y Nile Pal 25 y
69 East Singhbhum Gohala - Devli Hurang Darga Niruthan Pal 28 y Sukumari Pal 23 y
70 East Singhbhum Gohala - Devli Hurang Darga Kalipudo Bhagat 46 y Naina Bhagat 40 y
71 East Singhbhum Gohala - Devli Hurang Darga Pankaj Kumar Pal 25 y Tamal Rani Pal 22 y
72 East Singhbhum Gohala - Devli Hurang Darga Raju Pal 22 y Putul Rani Pal 20 y
73 East Singhbhum Gohala - Devli Hurang Darga Bhushan Pal 28 y Chanda Pal 25 y
74 East Singhbhum Gohala - Devli Hurang Darga Garsh Chad Pal 42 y Durgawati Pal 38 y
75 East Singhbhum Gohala - Devli Hurang Darga Ranjit Pathan 48 y Sandhya Rani Pal 39 y
PRA DATA - JHABUA
Sl. Village Name of Househead Age
Educational status Wife Educational Status
Boys No
Educated
Girls No
Educated
TLC Participants
Migrants Class Illiterate
Can sign
Age Class Illiterate Can sign
Class Illiterate School going
Class Illiterate School going
1 Kheri Laliya parthiya 24 y y y 2 y
2 Kheri Mukesh himala 25 8th y y 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
3 Kheri Jenu dhanna 27 y y 25 y 3 y 2 y
4 Kheri Titu fatiya 27 y y y 1 y
5 Kheri Gopal guman 27 9th 10th 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
6 Kheri Narshing bathiya 28 8th y y 0 0 0 0 1 y
7 Kheri Khuman pidiya 28 8th 7th 0 0 0 2 y
8 Kheri Munna kasna 29 5th y y 2 y 1 y
9 Kheri Himta naniya 30 y y y 2 y 3 y
10 Kheri Makana sakra 30 8th y y 2 y 1 y
11 Kheri Andaru buniya 32 10th 29 y 2 y 1 y
12 Kheri Babalu vesta 32 10th 9th 2 N. A. 1 y
13 Kheri Dula pidiya 32 y y y y 3 y
14 Kheri Kaliya virshing 34 8th 12th 1 y 3 y
15 Kheri Mansaing vesta 34 B.A. 9th 2 y 0 0 0 0
16 Kheri Dalla somla 35 y 32 y 1 0 0 n 2 0 0 n
17 Kheri Prakash saliya 35 y y 1 y 1 Y
18 Kheri Chagan maniya 35 8th y 2 y 1 y
19 Kheri Dalla dita 35 y y 1 Graduate 3 y
20 Kheri Unkar pidiya 35 12th y y 1 y 4 y
21 Kheri Dhuliya kasna (Teacher) 36 B.A. y y 2 y 2 y
22 Kheri Toliya guman 36 y y y 1 y 3 y
23 Kheri Kalu saliya 38 y y 2 Y 1 Y
24 Kheri Toliya nanshing 38 y y y y 2 y 1 y
25 Kheri Hiriya ditiya 38 9th y 1 y 2 y
26 Kheri Hiira makna 40 8th 34 y 2 0 y 1 0 y 0 0
27 Kheri Ramu prakash saliya 40 y y 2 Y 1 Y
28 Kheri Himmat fatiya 40 8th y y 2 y 1 y
29 Kheri Rupla rama 40 y y y 1 y 0 0 0 0
30 Kheri Prakesh pidiya 40 B.A. 9th 2 y 1 y
31 Kheri Khimla kadva 41 y y 2 y 3 y
32 Kheri Amar singh 42 9th 38 y 2 y 5 y
33 Kheri Ditiya saliya 42 y y y 6 y 1 y
34 Kheri Gopal kasna 42 y y y 1 y 5 y
35 Kheri Madiya sakra 42 5th y 1 y 2 y
36 Kheri Ratan parthiya (Teacher) 42 B.A. y y 2 y
37 Kheri Himla puniya 43 y y y 1 8 y 3 y
38 Kheri Zummla rupla 43 5th y 3 y 1 y
39 Kheri Ravla ditiya 43 y y 1 y 1 y
40 Kheri Kuka sakra 44 y y 2 y 3 y
41 Kheri Mansingh senga 45 y y 1 y
42 Kheri Virsingh Ditta 45 y y 1 y 1 y
43 Kheri Vesta sakra 46 5th y 2 B.A, 11Th 0 y 2 y
44 Kheri Virsingh Ramla 52 y y 1 8
45 Kheri Mannu somla 55 y y 50 y 1 9 0 Y 2 Y
46 Kheri Kila shohan(Vidva) 55 y y 2 y 1 y
Sl. Village Name of Househead Age
Educational status Wife Educational Status
Boys No
Educated
Girls No
Educated
TLC Participants
Migrants Class Illiterate
Can sign
Age Class Illiterate Can sign
Class Illiterate School going
Class Illiterate School going
47 Kheri Fatiya mangaliyab 55 y y 1 5 y
48 Kheri Naniya bhaliya 60 y y 1 n
49 Kheri Kaliya ramla 60 y y 1 y
50 Kheri Virshing somla 60 y y y 1 y 4 2
51 Kheri Madiya punjiya 62 y y 1 y
52 Kheri puniya dita 65 y y 1 y 5 ANM y
53 Kheri Parthiya virshing 67 y y 1 y
54 Kheri Virshing ravla 70 y y y 1 Forest y y 4 y
55 Kheri Munna rupshing B.A. y 2 y
56 Kheri Jenu khuman 9th y y 1 9Th y 1 9Th y
57 Kheri Rupshing ditiya 11th y 2 y 1 y
58 Narvaliya Bachu kaliya 25 5th y 2 n 1 y
59 Narvaliya Kaliya pidu 25 y y
60 Narvaliya Ramesh magaliya 26 y y
61 Narvaliya Jitra bhava 27 y y
62 Narvaliya Titiya Sillu 27 y y
63 Narvaliya Siliya mansingh 30 y y
64 Narvaliya khunna ditiya 35 y y
65 Narvaliya Kamta gavji 35 y y
66 Narvaliya Kesa kidu 35 5th y
67 Narvaliya Kodariya Kamla 35 y y 2 7 1 8
68 Narvaliya Bhadur Bhima 35 y y y y
69 Narvaliya Hura kaliya 35 5th y 1 5 1 y
70 Narvaliya Vesta kamta 35 y y N
71 Narvaliya Makna Pidu 35 y y
72 Narvaliya Tidu skka 36 y y 2 6 y
73 Narvaliya Simmu bhura 37 y y 2 0 0 n 2 0 0 0
74 Narvaliya Mansingh Bhima 37 y y y y 2 5 y 2 y
75 Narvaliya suniya ditiya 38 y y
76 Narvaliya Picchu bhura 40 y y 3 1,5,2Th y y 0 0 0 0
77 Narvaliya Madhu kittu 40 y y
78 Narvaliya Mangiya sakriya 42 y y 0 0 0 n 0 0 0 0
79 Narvaliya Nura madiya 42 5th y 4 10,11,6,4 1 7
80 Narvaliya Sakariya kana 42 y y 1 5
81 Narvaliya Bacchu somala 45 y y y 1 7Th y y 1 10Th 0 y
82 Narvaliya vasna gavji 45 y y
83 Narvaliya Kasan gavji 45 y y
84 Narvaliya Badiya jala 45 y y 1 10
85 Narvaliya Magaliya Mihya 45 y y 2 11,7
86 Narvaliya Sandiya ditiya 47 y y
87 Narvaliya Badriya sakriya 50 y y 5 0 0 n 0 0 0 0
88 Narvaliya Dhulsingh malla 50 y y 1 7 y
89 Narvaliya Nansingh sumla 52 y y
90 Narvaliya Bhurji mithiya 55 y y 1 6 1 6
91 Narvaliya Bhurji Thavariya 57 y y
92 Narvaliya Bhura gavji 60 y y 6 2,4Th y y 0 0 0 0
93 Narvaliya Kamji hakriya 60 y y 0 0 0 n 0 0 0 0
94 Narvaliya Kamta dhana 60 y y 1 10
Sl. Village Name of Househead Age
Educational status Wife Educational Status
Boys No
Educated
Girls No
Educated
TLC Participants
Migrants Class Illiterate
Can sign
Age Class Illiterate Can sign
Class Illiterate School going
Class Illiterate School going
95 Narvaliya Kittu naniya 65 y y
96 Narvaliya Madiya garegore (Teacher) B.A. y
97 Narvaliya Tershing humji y y 4 0 0 n 2 0 0 0
98 Narvaliya Bapu humji y y 3 0 0 n 3 0 0 0
99 Narvaliya Varshing pangla y y 0 0 0 n 0 0 0 0
100 Narvaliya Haru pangla y y 0 0 0 n 0 0 0 0
101 Narvaliya Mesu somala 5th y
102 Narvaliya sama kamakl 5th y
103 Narvaliya Kalu kamala y y
104 Narvaliya Mansingh Kamji y y
105 Narvaliya Ramesh Kodariya 7th y 1 y 2 y
106 Narvaliya Kegu Bhima y y
107 Narvaliya Kaliya mithiya y y
108 Narvaliya Bhura madiya y y 1 8
109 Narvaliya Babu Bijiya 10th y 2 4,3 2 y
110 Narvaliya Ratan sakka y y 1 6 1 y
111 Narvaliya Hudiya sakka y y
112 Narvaliya Tersingh sakariya y y
113 Narvaliya Pansingh rajiya y y 1 y 1 y
114 Narvaliya Tejiya kana y y 2 1-7,1-N 1 y
115 Narvaliya Bhura himta y y
116 Narvaliya Malla kamta y y
117 Narvaliya Tidu bhava y y
118 Narvaliya Dita bhava y y
119 Narvaliya Mangu kamta y y
120 Navapada Dhuliya kuka 25 9th y 2 y 0 0 0 0 0
121 Navapada Parma parthiya 28 10th y y 1 y 3 y 0
122 Navapada Rupshing naniya 30 10th y 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
123 Navapada Kalu kuka 30 y y 3 y 0 0 0 0 0
124 Navapada Gorshing rajshing (Teacher) 32 B.A. y 2 y 1 y
125 Navapada Ramla naniya 35 y y 4 y 4 y 0
126 Navapada Parshing toliya 35 y y 1 6Th y 4 y
127 Navapada Keku mesu 37 y y y 2 10, 7Th y 1 7Th y
128 Navapada Kuka bijiya 37 y y 2 5Th y 1 y
129 Navapada Lala jawla 40 y y 1 y 3 0
130 Navapada Mangu bijiya 42 3rd y 2 y 1 y
131 Navapada Pema vasna 45 y y 1 5Th y 1 10Th y 0
132 Navapada Narshing bhurji 50 y y 1 B.A.job y 4 0 0 0
133 Navapada Vesta valiya 50 7th y y 3 y y 3 5,6,7Th y 0
134 Navapada Partiya valiya 55 y y 2 10,11Th 2 y 0
135 Navapada Pema bhurji y y 1 y
136 Navapada Mesu visan y y 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
137 Navapada Fatiya bijiya 10th y y 1 10Th y y 1 5Th y y
138 Navapada ramshing mangu (Bank job) B.A. y 0 0 0 0 3 5,3,4Th y
139 Jharniya Ramesh - bijiya 25 y y 2 0 y N 1 0 N N
140 Jharniya Badiya - tajshing 26 y y y 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
141 Jharniya Badu - tejiya 28 y y y 1 0 y n 1 y
Sl. Village Name of Househead Age
Educational status Wife Educational Status
Boys No
Educated
Girls No
Educated
TLC Participants
Migrants Class Illiterate
Can sign
Age Class Illiterate Can sign
Class Illiterate School going
Class Illiterate School going
142 Jharniya Tanshing - gajhing 30 y y 2 0 y 2 5,2, y
143 Jharniya Motiya - jhumla 30 5th y 1 N 3 y
144 Jharniya Manshing - gajhing 32 y y 3 y 2 y
145 Jharniya Sama - karmdiya 35 y y 2 y 2 y
146 Jharniya Malla - tolshing 35 y y 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
147 Jharniya Dhanna - hurshing 35 y y 1 N 1 y
148 Jharniya Panshing - kidiya 37 y y 2 y 3 1=grejua
t y 1Y
149 Jharniya Dhuliya - kidiya 40 y y 6 1= 3Th y 1 4 2=5Th y 2 y
150 Jharniya Bahadur - balu 40 y y 2 5,6Th y 7 y
151 Jharniya Addu - hurshing 40 y y 3 N 5 N
152 Jharniya Mesu - hurshing 40 y y 4 1 y=3 1=y 0 0 0 0
153 Jharniya Vakji - kidiya 42 y y
154 Jharniya Kesro - bhurji 42 y y 3 1 y=1 1 y
155 Jharniya Narshing - bijiya 45 y y 1 y 0 0 0 0
156 Jharniya Gamnita - narvo 50 y y 1 y 2 7,10Th y
157 Jharniya Varshing - bijiya 50 y y 4 1y 3 1y
158 Jharniya Mansu - hurshing 50 y y 8 1 8 N
159 Jharniya Ramshing - narvo 55 y y 3 y N 4 N
160 Jharniya Rajshing - narvo 55 y y 3 y N 2 0
161 Jharniya Tejiya - apshing 60 y Y 4 y 1 y 0 0 0
162 Jharniya Balu - bhavla 60 y y 5 0 0 N 4 y N
163 Jharniya Nana -narvo 65 y y 2 y N 2 12, 1 1,y
164 Jharniya Karmdiya - pratap 70 y y 3 1=5Th 1 y y 2 0
165 Jharniya Jogdiya - hurshing 70 y y 3 y 2 N
166 Jharniya Dalshing - partap 72 y y 1 0 2 y N
167 Jharniya Bajshing - bijiya y y 3 N 4 0 y N
168 Jharniya Dhumshing - bijita y y 2 N 4 N
169 Bhandariya Gopal Dalla 6th 35 y
170 Bhandariya Maniya fatu y 38 y 1 10
171 Bhandariya Kuka Chaniya y 38 y 1 7
172 Bhandariya Dhuliya Bhima 5th 35 y
173 Bhandariya Mithya Bhima y 37 y
174 Bhandariya Ramla Bhima 5th 40 y 2 9,8
175 Bhandariya Mansingh Manji 5th 30 y 1 7
176 Bhandariya Ramu Manji y 28 y y 1 7 1 8
177 Bhandariya Shantiya Dalla y 30 y
178 Bhandariya Ramla Somla y 30 y
179 Bhandariya Virsingh bhima y 40 y 1 7 1 9
180 Bhandariya Narsingh Raysingh y 30 y 1 9
181 Bhandariya Ramsingh javla y y
182 Bhandariya naval singh Kaliya (Teacher) B.A. y
183 Bhandariya Ras y y
184 Bhandariya raysingh Javla 7th y
185 Bhandariya Amra bapudiya 7th y
186 Bhandariya kalu badiya 9th y
187 Bhandariya jala mangaliya y y
188 Bhandariya jhanu jitra 7th y
Sl. Village Name of Househead Age
Educational status Wife Educational Status
Boys No
Educated
Girls No
Educated
TLC Participants
Migrants Class Illiterate
Can sign
Age Class Illiterate Can sign
Class Illiterate School going
Class Illiterate School going
189 Bhandariya dannu bhilji y y