Falkné dr. Bánó Klára BGF Külkereskedelmi Főiskolai Kar

Falkne.dr.BanoKlara@kkfk.bgf.hufalk.cs@t-online.hu

MOTIVATION theories

What is Motivation?

The study of motivation is about why people behave

in a certain way. Motivation can be described as the

direction and persistence of action.

It is about why people choose a particular course of

action and why they continue with a chosen action

even in the face of difficulties and problems.

Four common characteristics which underlie the

definition of motivation (Mitchell):

• Motivation - individual phenomenon

• Motivation - intentional

• Motivation is multifaceted – The two most important factors: - what gets people activated (arousal)

- the force of an individual to engage in desired behaviour (direction or

choice of

behaviour)

• The purpose of motivational theories is to predict behaviour.

Four common characteristics which underlie the

definition of motivation (Mitchell): Motivation is not the behaviour itself, and it is not

performance. Motivation concerns action, and the

internal and external forces which influence a person’s

choice of action.

On the basis of these characteristics:

‘Motivation is the degree to which an individual

wants and chooses to engage in certain specified

behaviours.’

The underlying concept of motivation

The underlying concept of motivation is some

driving force within individuals by which they

attempt to achieve some goal in order to fulfil

some need or expectation.

This concept gives rise to the basic motivational

model.

A simplified illustration of the basic motivational model (Mullins)

NEEDS OR EXPECTATIONS

DRIVING FORCE(behaviour or action)result in

DESIRED GOALSto achieve

FULFILMENT which providefeedback

Motivation is influenced by many variables

People’s behaviour is determined by what motivates them.Their performance is a product of both ability level andmotivation. Motivation is a complex subject, it is a very personal thingand it is influenced by many variables. Individuals have a variety of changing, and oftenconflicting, needs and expectations which they attempt tosatisfy in different ways.

A useful three-fold classification for the motivation to work:

EconomicRewards

IntrinsicSatisfaction

SocialRelationships

NEEDSAND

EXPECTATIONSAT WORK

Frustration-induced behaviour

If a person’s motivational driving force is blockedbefore reaching the desired goal, there are Two possible sets of outcomes:• constructive behaviour – positive reaction

1. problem solving 2. restructuring or compromise

• frustration – negative response to the blockage of a desired goal,

results in a defensive form of behaviour

Frustration – possible reactions

• Aggression – physical or verbal attack on some person or object – displaced aggression-find a scapegoat for the outlet of frustration

• Regression – reverting to a childish or more primitive form of behaviour, e.g. crying, sulking

• Fixation – persisting in a form of behaviour which has no adaptive value, repeating actions with no positive results, e.g. trying a machine again and again which will not work

• Withdrawal – apathy, giving up, e.g. absenteeism

Forms of frustration-induced behaviours-usually combined

Most forms of frustration-induced

behaviours are a combination of

aggression, regression and fixation.

An overview of the main theories of work motivation

Maslow’s hierarchy of needs model

Needs levels General rewards Organisational factors

Applying Maslow’s need hierarchy

Herzberg’s two-factor theory

Relationships among Maslow’s, Alderfer’s and Herzberg’s theories of motivation:

McClelland’s achievement motivation theory

McClelland identified four main motives:• Achievement motive• Power motive• Affiliative motives• Avoidance motives(These correspond to Maslow’s self actualisation, esteemand love needs.) He saw achievement need as the mostcritical for a country’s economic success and growth.

Managers seem to be higher in achievementmotivation than in affiliation motivation.

McClelland’s achievement motivation theory (cont.)

Four characteristics of people with a strong

achievement need:

• preference for moderate task difficulty• personal responsibility for performance• need for clear and unambiguous feedback• innovativeness

High achievers – environmental influences

McClelland’s research has attempted to

understand the characteristics of high achievers.

Strong achievement need is not hereditary but

results from environmental influences.

- training programmes to increase the

achievement motivation of managers

Process Theories of Motivation

Process theories place emphasis on the actual

process of motivation. They attempt to identify

the relationships among the dynamic variables

which make up motivation, and how behaviour is

initiated, directed and sustained.

Major approaches in process theories:

• Expectancy-based models –Vroom

Porter and Lawler

• Equity theory - Adams• Goal theory - Locke• Attribution theory - Heider and Kelley

Expectancy theory

The underlying basis of expectancy theory is thatpeople are influenced by the expected results oftheir actions. Motivation is a function of therelationship between:• effort expended and perceived level of

performance• the expectation that rewards (desired

outcomes) will be related to performance• expectation that rewards are available

Expectancy theory (cont.)

These relationships determine the strength of the

‘motivational link’.

The choice of behaviour is based on the

expectancy of the most favourable consequences.

Vroom – 3 key variables: 1. valence of outcomes

2. instrumentality

3. expectancy

First-level outcomes – performance related

Second-level outcomes - need related

What is expectancy?

People develop a perception of the degree of

probability that the choice of a particular action

will lead to the desired outcome.

This is expectancy. – It is the relationship

between a chosen course of action and its

predicted outcome.

Basic model of expectancy theory

Equity theory - Adams

Equity theory focuses on people’s feelings

of how fairly they have been treated in

comparison with the treatment received by

others.

Adams’ equity theory of motivation

Goal theory - Locke

The basic premise of goal theory is that

people’s goals or intensions play an

important part in determining behaviour.

Locke’s theory of goal setting