Post on 02-Feb-2020
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Government of Lao People’s Democratic Republic
Executing Entity/Implementing Partner: Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry, MAF, Vientiane, Lao PDR
Implementing Entity/Responsible Partner: National Agriculture and Forestry Research Institute, NAFRI
United Nations Development Programme
Selected agriculture concepts, approaches, commodities for development of
Climate Change Training and Adaptation Modules for Lao PDR:
# 4: CROP PRODUCTION
Improving the Resilience of the Agriculture Sector in Lao PDR to Climate Change Impacts(IRAS Lao Project)
Project Contact : Mr. Khamphone Mounlamai, Project Manager Email Address : kphonemou@yahoo.com
June 30, 2012
ສາທາລະນະລດັ ປະຊາທິປະໄຕ ປະຊາຊນົລາວ
Lao People's Democratic Republic
ອງົການສະຫະປະຊາຊາດເພ ື່ ອການພດັທະນາ
United Nations Development Programme
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SUMMARY
The MAF in collaboration with the UNDP and other Government of Lao (GoL) and Non-
government Organisation (NGO) partners, has prepared five (5) modules or guides for
extension officers/workers who will be involved in promoting good practices and technologies for
climate change adaptation in the agriculture sector. Entitled the “Climate Change Training
and Adaptation Module” or CCTAMs, these guides are part of the target outputs of the MAF –
NAFRI project entitled “Improving Resilience in Agriculture Sector to Climate Change” or IRAS
Project. The CCTAMs being developed are:
1. Overview of Climate Change Adaptation (CCA) for Upland farming conditions;
2. Overview of CCA for Lowland Farming Conditions ;
3. CCA through On-farm and Community Level Water Management;
4. CCA in Crop Production;
5. CCA in Small Livestock
Process of preparation. Stakeholder consultations at the provincial and national levels
identified the key issues as a result of the combined effects of natural resources degradation,
inappropriate agricultural land use practices and climate change. Subsequent consultations
identified possible measures that can be applied.
Objectives of the modules. The CCTAMs discusses the challenges posed by the combined
effects of land degradation due to inappropriate land use practices and the effects of climate
change. They then provide an overview of the range of practices and technologies that may be
considered to adapt to climate change, at the same time addressing the issues of natural
resource degradation.
The Climate Change Adaptation in Crop Production. The recommended practices and
technologies for CCA in crop production are as follows:
1. Water management - managing the destructive force of surface run off and storing
surface water (farm ponds), ground water and soil moisture;
2. Soil fertility management – making the plants healthy against moisture stress and pest
and disease;
3. Innovative and nature based production systems - practicing innovative ecological
production such as systems for rice intensification (SRI), direct seeded mulch based
cropping systems (DMC SCV);
4. Use of climate smart varieties- using varieties that are drought resistant or tolerant to
submerged conditions;
5. Crop diversification - growing crops in addition to or as alternative to rice; these crops
are usually more tolerant to either too little or too much water;
THE CLIMATE CHANGE TRAINING AND ADAPTATION MODULE FOR CROP PRODUCTION
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6. Growing vegetables under harsh climatic conditions - making vegetable growing
both at backyard level and market level more resilient to harsh conditions;
7. Growing fruit trees in the farm – using trees to help conserve soil, improve fertility
improve the microclimate and generate income;
8. Integrated pest management – preventing the pest situation from worsening due to
climatic aberrations and protecting the farmer from accident ;
9. Post harvest handling - minimize further losses from already existing low production
levels;
10. Timing of planting production systems - an early advisory system that would enable
a change the time of planting of the major crop to adjust to the availability of rains.
This CCTAM contains two formats of information. The first is the set of existing locally
generated extension materials produced by NAFES, NAFRI, and other GoL agencies as well as
NGOs that can contribute to climate change adaptation. These discuss entire production cycles.
The second format would be the direct description of climate adaptation technologies that are
not yet discussed adequately in existing extension materials. However, the second type would
focus on specific adaptation practices that may be applied to address the effects of climate
change. This CCTAM will occasional refer the reader to other CCTAMs which can discuss
certain topics in detail.
Benefits and Costs. The major benefits from the above technologies are reduction in crop
damage and crop loses (managing surface runoff, use of climate smart varieties and reduced
losses from pests and poor post harvest handling), reduction in production costs (lesser
inorganic fertilizer and pesticide purchases), diversification of sources of income (introduction of
sequential crops, vegetables and fruit trees). Certain technologies will reduce the cost of labor
for weeding,(e.g. mulching, SCV, etc.). If investments are made on water management and soil
fertility improvement, the benefits of other technologies can be sustained.
The major costs are associated with increase in labor requirements especially for the one time
construction of structures for water management, and certain technologies such as composting,
application of mulching, pruning of fertilizer and fodder trees and IPM. Other key costs are
seeds and planting materials. The major capital costs are the purchase of the weeder for SRI
and a hand operated seeder for use in conservation tillage.
Applicability in IRAS Project Sites. The technologies are generally applicable in all project
sites of IRAS. However the exact combinations of technologies to be applied as well as timing
will depend on the actual biophysical and socioeconomic situation in each village. Thus village
conditions need to be studied first and priorities established by farmers (methods discussed
under CCTAM #1 0.
Certain technologies are easy and can be applied immediately such as mulching and sequential
or relay cropping. Others require time but immediate actions need to be done in the first year.
New varieties and species need to be tried out first in smaller plots for one to two seasons.
Technologies requiring new planting approaches and skills (e.g. SRI, SCV) would require
familiarization of the technology in actual practice in other communities.
THE CLIMATE CHANGE TRAINING AND ADAPTATION MODULE FOR CROP PRODUCTION
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List of Acronyms
AWD Alternative Wetting and Drying
ATIK Agroforestry Technology Information Kit
CCA Climate Change Adaptation
CCTAM Climate Change Training and Adaptation Module
DAFO District Agriculture and Forestry Office
DFID Department for International Development
FAO Food and Agriculture Organization
FFTC Food and Fertilizer Technology Center
GoL Government of Lao
ICRAF World Agroforestry Centre
ICRISAT International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics
IFAD International Fund for Agriculture Development
IRAS Improving the Resilience of the Agriculture Sector in Lao PDR to Climate Change
Impacts
IUCN International Union for Conservation of Nature
IWMI International Water Management Institute
MAF Ministry of Agriculture
NAPA National Adaptation Programme of Action
NAFRI National Agriculture and Forestry Research Institute
NGO Non-government Organisation
NVS Natural vegetative strips
PAFO Provincial Agriculture and Forestry Office
UNDP United Nations Development Programme
UNFCCC United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
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Table of Contents
SUMMARY ................................................................................................................................. ii
List of Acronyms ..................................................................................................................... iv
List of Tables .......................................................................................................................... ix
List of Figures ......................................................................................................................... xi
BACKGROUND AND INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................... 1
SELECTED AGRICULTURE CONCEPTS, APPROACHES, COMMODITIES FOR
DEVELOPMENT OF CLIMATE CHANGE TRAINING AND ADAPTATION MODULE
FOR CROP PRODUCTION ....................................................................................................... 4
1.0 ON-FARM AND COMMUNITY LEVEL WATER MANAGEMENT ......................................... 6
1.1 RATIONALE FOR THE ACTION ...................................................................................... 6
1.2 OVERVIEW OF RECOMMENDATIONS........................................................................... 6
1.2.1 MINIMIZING WATER RUNOFF IN THE FARM .......................................................... 6
1.2.2 CONSTRUCTION OR IMPROVEMENT OF VILLAGE PONDS AND FARM
PONDS ............................................................................................................................... 7
1.2.3 IMPROVING EFFICIENCY OF WATER USE ............................................................. 7
1.2.4 IMPROVING THE SOIL WATER HOLDING CAPACITY ............................................ 7
1.2.5 ADAPTING TO FLOODED SITUATIONS................................................................... 7
1.2.6 PROTECTING THE COMMUNITY’S NATURAL WATER SUPPLY SYSTEM ............ 7
2.0 SOIL FERTILITY IMPROVEMENT ......................................................................................13
2.1 RATIONALE FOR THE ACTION .....................................................................................13
2.2 RECOMMENDED PRACTICES ......................................................................................13
2.2.1 ENHANCING THE ROLE OF LEGUMES IN THE FARMING SYSTEM. ...................13
2.2.2 ENHANCING THE ROLE OF TREES IN THE FARMING SYSTEM ..........................14
2.2.3 INTEGRATING THE LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION INTO THE FARMING
SYSTEM ............................................................................................................................14
2.2.4 USE OF BIO-FERTILIZER ........................................................................................14
2.3 BENEFITS AND COSTS .................................................................................................16
2.4 APPLICABILITY IN IRAS PROJECT SITES ....................................................................16
2.5 COMPANION MATERIALS (LOCALLY AVAILABLE) THAT COME TOGETHER
WITH THIS CCTAM ..............................................................................................................16
3.0 INNOVATIVE, NATURE BASED PRODUCTION SYSTEMS ..............................................21
3.1 RATIONALE FOR THE ACTION .....................................................................................21
THE CLIMATE CHANGE TRAINING AND ADAPTATION MODULE FOR CROP PRODUCTION
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3.2 RECOMMENDED PRACTICES ......................................................................................21
3.2.1 THE SYSTEMS FOR RICE INTENSIFICATION (SRI) ..............................................21
3.2.2 THE DIRECT SEEDED MULCH-BASED CROPPING SYSTEM (SVC) ....................21
3.2.3 ORGANIC AGRICULTURE IN PERI-URBAN VEGETABLE GRAOWING
VILLAGES .........................................................................................................................22
3.3 BENEFITS AND COSTS .................................................................................................22
3.4 APPLICABILITY IN IRAS PROJECT SITES ....................................................................23
3.5 COMPANION EXTENSION MATERIALS (LOCALLY AVAILABLE) THAT COME
TOGETHER WITH THIS CCTAM ..........................................................................................23
4.0 USE OF CLIMATE SMART CROP VARIETIES (RICE).......................................................26
4.1 RATIONALE FOR THE ACTION .....................................................................................26
4.2 RECOMMENDED PRACTICES ......................................................................................26
4.2.1 RICE .........................................................................................................................26
4.3 BENEFITS AND COSTS .................................................................................................32
4.4 APPLICABILITY IN IRAS PROJECT SITES ....................................................................32
4.5 COMPANION MATERIALS (LOCALLY AVAILABLE) THAT COME TOGETHER
WITH THIS CCTAM ..............................................................................................................32
5.0 CROP DIVERSIFICATION ..................................................................................................34
5.1 RATIONALE FOR THE ACTION .....................................................................................34
5.2 RECOMMENDED PRACTICES ......................................................................................34
5.2.1 POTENTIAL ANNUAL CROP SPECIES FOR CROP DIVERSIFICATION ................34
5.2.2 FACTORS TO CONSIDER IN CHOOSING THE SPECIES ......................................51
5.2.3 MULTIPLE CROPPING .............................................................................................51
5.2.4 PLANNING FOR INTERCROPPING .........................................................................52
5.2.5 PLANNING FOR SEQUENTIAL AND RELAY CROPPING .......................................53
5.2.6 ADDITIONAL INFORMATION ON CROP CHARACTERISTICS ...............................56
5.3 BENEFITS AND COSTS .................................................................................................58
5.4 APPLICABILITY IN IRAS PROJECT SITES ....................................................................58
5.5 COMPANION EXTENSION MATERIALS (LOCALLY AVAILABLE) THAT COMES
WITH THIS CCTAM ..............................................................................................................59
6.0 GROWING VEGETABLES UNDER HARSH CLIMATIC CONDITIONS ..............................63
6.1 RATIONALE FOR THE ACTION .....................................................................................63
6.2 RECOMMENDED PRACTICES ......................................................................................63
THE CLIMATE CHANGE TRAINING AND ADAPTATION MODULE FOR CROP PRODUCTION
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6.2.1 PLANNING THE LOCATION AND ARCHITECTURE OF VEGETABLE
PRODUCTION ...................................................................................................................63
6.2.2 PLANNING FOR COMPANION PLANTING ..............................................................65
6.2.3 PREPARING THE GARDEN PLOTS ........................................................................67
6.2.4 RAISING ROBUST SEEDLINGS ..............................................................................67
6.2.5 WATERING THE PLANTS PROPERLY ....................................................................67
6.2.6 RAISING THE HOME GARDEN UNDER VERY WET CONDITIONS .......................68
6.3 BENEFITS AND COSTS .................................................................................................68
6.4 APPLICABILITY IN IRAS PROJECT SITES ....................................................................69
6.5 COMPANION ESTENSION MATERIALS (LOCALLY AVAILABLE) TO COME
WITH THIS CCTAM ..............................................................................................................69
7.0 GROWING FRUIT TREES AND OTHER TYPES OF TREES IN THE FARM .....................73
7.1 RATIONALE FOR THE ACTION .....................................................................................73
7.2 RECOMMENDED PRACTICES ......................................................................................73
7.2.1 CHOICE OF TREE SPECIES ..............................................................................73
7.2.2 WHERE AND HOW TO INCORPORATE FRUIT TREES ..........................................78
7.2.3 PLANNING FOR TREE–CROP INTERACTION (DISTANCING, COPPICING
ETC.) .................................................................................................................................78
7.2.4 PREPARING SEEDLINGS FOR HARSH ENVIRONMENTS IN THE FIELD .............79
7.2.5 ENABLING YOUNG TREES TO WITHSTAND CONDITIONS OF WATER
STRESS ............................................................................................................................80
7.3 BENEFITS AND COSTS .................................................................................................80
7.4 APPLICABILITY IN IRAS PROJECT SITES ....................................................................80
7.5 COMPANION EXTENSION MATERIALS (LOCALLY AVAILABLE) TO COME
WITH THIS CCTAM ..............................................................................................................81
8.0 INTEGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT ................................................................................83
8.1 RATIONALE FOR THE ACTION .....................................................................................83
8.2 RECOMMENDED PRACTICES ......................................................................................83
8.2.1 INTEGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT (IPM) .............................................................83
8.2.2 PRACTICAL PREVENTIVE MEASURES ..................................................................84
8.3 BENEFITS AND COSTS .................................................................................................84
8.4 APPLICABILITY IN IRAS PROJECT SITES ....................................................................85
8.5 COMPANION MATERIALS (LOCAL EXTENSION MATERIALS) THAT COME
TOGETHER WITH THIS CCTAM ..........................................................................................85
9.0 POST HARVEST HANDLING .............................................................................................88
THE CLIMATE CHANGE TRAINING AND ADAPTATION MODULE FOR CROP PRODUCTION
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9.1 RATIONALE FOR THE ACTION .....................................................................................88
9.2 RECOMMENDED PRACTICES ......................................................................................88
9.2.1 RICE .........................................................................................................................88
9.2.2 FRUITS AND VEGETABLES ....................................................................................88
9.3 BENEFITS AND COSTS .................................................................................................91
9.4 APPLICABILITY IN IRAS SITES .....................................................................................92
9.5 COMPANION EXTENSION MATERIALS (LOCALLY AVAILABLE) THAT COME
WITH THIS CTTAM ...............................................................................................................92
10.0 ADJUSTING THE PLANTING PERIOD (FYI ONLY) .........................................................95
10.1 RATIONALE FOR THE ACTION ...................................................................................95
10.2 RECOMMENDED PRACTICES ....................................................................................95
11.0 PHASING THE IMPLEMENTATION OF TECHNOLOGIES ..............................................96
Key References .....................................................................................................................99
THE CLIMATE CHANGE TRAINING AND ADAPTATION MODULE FOR CROP PRODUCTION
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List of Tables
Title Page
Table 1a Examples of soil and water conservation measures that
match different situations
8
Table 2a Nutrient content of various farm materials that are used as straw.
15
Table 4a Specific variety recommendations for potential problem
areas/specific target characters.
26
Table 4b Generally recommended varieties for wet and dry
seasons at different terrace positions in regions in Lao
PDR.
28
Table 4c Description of widely grown varieties (improved variety). 29
Table 4d Description of widely grown varieties (traditional variety). 31
Table 5a Legumes recommended for crop diversification 36
Table 5b Vegetables recommended for crop diversification. 38
Table 5c Additional list of vegetables recommended for crop diversification.
42
Table 5d List of vegetable varieties and horticultural requirements. 44
Table 5e Cropping calendar – time of year preferred for raising specific species.
54
Table 5f Vegetables that can be harvested in less than a month. 56
Table 5g Partial list of crops known for their drought resistance. 56
Table 6a Crop locations and physical arrangements in the home
garden (vegetables and selected important multi-
functional trees).
64
Table 6b Indicative list of companion crops and antagonistic crops.
65
Table 6c Additional information on companion planting. 66
Table 7a Characteristics of tropical fruit trees prioritized for Lao PDR.
74
Table 7b Characteristics of tropical fruit trees potentially important for Lao PDR.
76
Table 7c Fruit varieties being studied by the NAFRI Horticulture 77
THE CLIMATE CHANGE TRAINING AND ADAPTATION MODULE FOR CROP PRODUCTION
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Center.
Table 7d Planning for tree-crop interaction. 79
Table 9a Some examples of maturity indices of vegetable crops. 90
Table 11 Proposed phasing of application of technologies. 96
THE CLIMATE CHANGE TRAINING AND ADAPTATION MODULE FOR CROP PRODUCTION
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List of Figures
Title Page
Figure 1 On farm and community level water management 9
Figure 1.1 Prevalent problems in the upland 9
Figure 1.2 Manage surface runoff 9
Figure 1.3 Simple soil erosion measures that are not labor-intensive 10
Figure 1.4 Farm ponds 10
Figure 1.5 Improving efficiency of water use 11
Figure 1.6 Improving soil water holding capacity 11
Figure 1.7 Sustaining the natural water supply of the community 12
Figure 2 Soil fertility management 18
Figure 2.1 Enhance the role of legumes 18
Figure 2.2 Enhance the role of trees in the farm 18
Figure 2.3 Enhance the role of livestock in the farm 19
Figure 2.4 Use of biofertilizers such as composting and bioextracts 19
Figure 2.5 Mulching 20
Figure 3 Innovative, nature-based production systems 24
Figure 3.1 System of rice intensification 24
Figure 3.2 Direct seeded mulch based system 24
Figure 3.3 Organic agriculture 25
Figure 4 Use of climate smart varieties 33
Figure 5 Crop diversification 61
Figure 5.1 Multiple cropping 61
Figure 5.2 The three sisters 61
Figure 5.3 Community/farmer based seed production 62
Figure 6 Growing vegetables under harsh climatic conditions 70
Figure 6.1 Preparing the garden plots 70
THE CLIMATE CHANGE TRAINING AND ADAPTATION MODULE FOR CROP PRODUCTION
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Figure 6.2 Integrated vegetable garden – alley cropping 70
Figure 6.3 Raising robust seedlings for dry prone areas 71
Figure 6.4 Under very wet conditions 71
Figure 6.5 During flooded conditions 72
Figure 7 Growing fruit trees and other types of tress in the farm
82
Figure 7.1 How to incorporate fruit trees and other trees in the farm 82
Figure 7.2 How to incorporate trees in the farm – continued 82
Figure 8 Integrated pest management and preventive methods
86
Figure 8.1 Integrated Pest Management involves studying the ecology of a particular cropping system
86
Figure 8.2 IPM methods include cultural practices 86
Figure 8.3 IPM does not ban the use of pesticides 87
Figure 9 Post harvest handling 93
Figure 9.1 Pre-harvesting 93
Figure 9.2 Harvesting 93
Figure 9.3 Cleaning, sorting, packing 93
Figure 9.4 Cooling, packing storage 94
THE CLIMATE CHANGE TRAINING AND ADAPTATION MODULE FOR CROP PRODUCTION
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BACKGROUND AND INTRODUCTION
The need for Climate Change Adaptation
The Ministry of Agriculture (MAF) in collaboration with the UNDP is presently implementing the
Project entitled “Improving the Resilience of the Agriculture Sector in Lao PDR to Climate
Change Impacts” or the IRAS Project. This Project addresses the need to adapt to climate
change in the agriculture sector.
The IRAS project document states that “the current and future climate-related risks to Lao PDR
and key areas of vulnerability have been analyzed in the country’s First National
Communication (STEA, October 2000) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate
Change (UNFCCC) and the National Adaptation Programme of Action (WREA, April 2009).
According to the updated Koeppen-Geiger classification from 2006, as cited by the IRAS Project
document, there will be more rainfall events in the centre and the north of the country during the
first half of the century and an expansion of climatic conditions at present prevailing in the south,
these slightly shrinking again in the second half of the century. These expected changes will
require resilience and early gained adaptive capacity of the agricultural sector and the farmers
to cope with the situation. Seen as a function of exposure, sensitivity and adaptive capacity, Lao
PDR ranks as one of the most vulnerable countries in South East Asia.
Climate change is expected to change the frequency, intensity and location of existing climate
hazards and challenge the existing coping mechanisms of the population; especially those living
in rural and remote places. (IRAS Project Document, 2010)
The IRAS Project
The objective of the IRAS Project is to minimize food insecurity resulting from climate change in
Lao PDR and to reduce the vulnerability of farmers to extreme flooding and drought events.
There are four expected outcomes:
Outcome 1: Knowledge base on Climate Change impacts in Lao PDR on agricultural
production, food security and vulnerability, and local coping mechanisms strengthened;
Outcome 2: Capacities of sectoral planners and agricultural producers strengthened to
understand and address climate change – related risks and opportunities for local food
production and socio-economic conditions
Outcome 3: Community-based adaptive agricultural practices and off-farm opportunities
demonstrated and promoted within suitable agro-ecological systems
Outcome 4: Adaptation Monitoring and Learning as a long-term process
THE CLIMATE CHANGE TRAINING AND ADAPTATION MODULE FOR CROP PRODUCTION
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The Climate Change Training and Adaptation Modules or CCTAMs
Under the IRAS project, the MAF in collaboration with the UNDP and other Government of Lao
(GoL) and Non-government Organisation (NGO) partners, is now preparing six (6) guides for
extension officers/workers who will be involved in promoting good practices and technologies for
climate change adaptation in the agriculture sector. Entitled the “Climate Change Training
and Adaptation Module” or CCTAMs, these guides are part of the target outputs of the MAF –
NAFRI project entitled “Improving Resilience in Agriculture Sector to Climate Change” or IRAS
Project. The CCTAMs being developed are:
1. Overview of Climate Change Adaptation (CCA) for Upland Farming Conditions;
2. Overview of CCA for Lowland Farming Conditions;
3. CCA through On-farm and Community Level Water Management;
4. CCA in Crop Production;
5. CCA in Small Livestock; and
6. CCA in Fisheries
Objectives of the CCTAMs
a. Provide an overview of the challenges posed by the combined effects of land
degradation due to inappropriate land use practices and the effects of climate change;
b. Provide an overview of the range of practices and technologies that may be considered
to adapt to climate change, at the same time addressing the issues of natural resource
degradation; and
c. Serve as a quick reference to existing relevant extension materials and making the latter
available to the extension officers/workers.
How were the CCTAMs prepared?
Stakeholder consultations at the provincial and national levels identified the key issues as a
result of the combined effects of natural resources degradation, inappropriate agricultural land
use practices and climate change. Subsequent consultations identified possible measures that
can be applied. The CCTAM assembles the key knowledge from communities and researchers
in the areas of natural resource management, sustainable agriculture and recent dialogue on
climate change adaptation.
How will the CCTAMs be used?
The first step is to determine the location-specific needs of farming communities. PAFO and
DAFO personnel may use CCTAM #1 (Upland Farming Conditions) and the CCTAM #2
(Lowland Farming Conditions) to obtain an overview of the upland and lowland situation as well
as problems associated with drought and flood conditions.
THE CLIMATE CHANGE TRAINING AND ADAPTATION MODULE FOR CROP PRODUCTION
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The PAFO and DAFO, together with local authorities and local partners, can use Part 3 of the
CCTAMs #1 (Upland Farming Conditions) and CCTAM #2 (Lowland Farming Conditions) to
facilitate a simple community based action planning process for adaptation to climate change.
Part 3 provides several participatory planning tools. The output will be priority issues and
actions.
Based on the priorities set by farming communities, Extension Officers in consultation with local
authorities will identify priority actions from among the options cited in the CCTAMs. Based on
the agreement with communities, the selected options will then be tested and demonstrated on
the ground. Results from several seasons of observation will be documented and used to revise
the CCTAMs and/or develop more detailed local guides.
THE CLIMATE CHANGE TRAINING AND ADAPTATION MODULE FOR CROP PRODUCTION
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SELECTED AGRICULTURE CONCEPTS, APPROACHES, COMMODITIES FOR DEVELOPMENT OF CLIMATE CHANGE
TRAINING AND ADAPTATION MODULE FOR CROP PRODUCTION
It is generally anticipated that climate change will affect crop production through an increase in
carbon dioxide (CO2) concentration, rise in temperature, increase or decrease in rainfall and the
availability of water, and extreme events such as floods and droughts. Together they have direct
effects on crop growth and development, grain quality, growth of pests and plant diseases.
While rise in carbon dioxide concentration will enhance crop growth and development slightly
improving crop productivity, the temperature rise associated with the increase in CO2
concentration will reduce or if not neutralize this advantage, thereby resulting in reduced yields.
Increased temperature influences effectively all process in crop production and will reduce yield.
Poor and erratic rainfall and lack of water affect crop growth and can reduce crop yields.
Extreme weather events like drought can affect the soil, crop growth and yields, while floods
and typhoons can destroy standing crops.
The CCTAM for crop production aims to discuss the measures that will:
Minimize production losses from the main crop (rice);
Compensate for potential income losses in rice production through crop diversification;
Build sustainability measures through soil management and introduction of trees in the
farm;
Prevent further aggravation of the usual loses from pest and disease and post-harvest
handling;
Reduce the threat to human health (another form of shock) due to pesticide use.
The criteria used in choosing the measures to be included in the CCTAM are based on:
Locally generated experience by farmer leaders and extension personnel;
Promising research results by local and international agencies working in Lao;
Information from other countries in the humid tropics with similar conditions;
Technologies which are not overly dependent on external inputs and high labour inputs.
The recommended practices and technologies for CCA in crop production are as follows:
1. On-farm and community water management
2. Soil fertility management
3. Innovative production systems (SRI, SCV and OA)
4. Use of climate smart varieties
5. Crop diversification
6. Growing vegetables under harsh climatic conditions
7. Growing fruit trees in the farm
THE CLIMATE CHANGE TRAINING AND ADAPTATION MODULE FOR CROP PRODUCTION
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8. Integrated pest management (IPM) and preventive methods
9. Post-harvest handling
10. FYI only - Timing of planting
The technologies were chosen in order to have a balance of short term measures (ensure
immediate productivity) and long term measures (ensure sustainability). Most of the
technologies are short term measures that can be implemented at the farm level.
This CCTAM contains two formats of information:
The first is the set of existing locally generated extension materials produced by NAFES,
NAFRI, and other GoL Agencies as well as NGOs that can contribute to climate change
adaptation. The materials, listed in this CCTAM, normally describe the entire production process
and corresponding agricultural technology of crops. Copies will be provided to the PAFO and
DAFO working in IRAS Project sites.
The second format would be the direct description of technologies that are not yet discussed
adequately in existing extension materials. The descriptions would be an organic part of
CTTAMs. However, they would focus on specific adaptation practices that may be applied to
address the effects of climate change such as rainfall aberrations, drought, floods and increase
in temperature, among others.
For instance, as part of promotion for crop diversification, one can use the existing publications
(by NAFES and NAFRI) on how to grow alternative crops other than rice. To supplement the
existing publications, the CCTAM would provide the decision framework for choosing what
species to grow and how crops can be combined with each other.
The first set of recommended practices and technologies for CCA adaptation in crop production
i.e. on-farm/community level water management is also discussed in detail in CCTAM #3 (Water
Management). On the other hand, the last recommendation i.e. timing of planting is not yet
ready for widespread use, as studies and on-farm trials are being undertaken. However, this
technology is going to be available within the next one to two years and is briefly discussed here
so that the PAFO and DAFO will gain an early perspective of this important technical innovation.
THE CLIMATE CHANGE TRAINING AND ADAPTATION MODULE FOR CROP PRODUCTION
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1.0 ON-FARM AND COMMUNITY LEVEL WATER MANAGEMENT
1.1 RATIONALE FOR THE ACTION
The predicted warming and changes in rainfall pattern could cause a significant decline in water
resources which could decrease water flows, may dry up rivers and lakes, reduce groundwater
recharge and further deplete water resources.
Drought is recognized as a primary constraint for rainfed rice production in Lao PDR. Severe
drought events have affected Lao PDR in the years 1998 and 2003. Unpredictability in the onset
of the rainy season and unreliable rainfall patterns, including rain immediately before or during
harvesting, are already causing losses, and growing confusion and worry in upland farming
communities .Floods also cause indirect damage to rice production through the destruction of
property and farmers’ production means, as well as of infrastructures supporting rice production
such as irrigation systems (e.g. dams, dikes and roads than 50 billion Kip or about 5 million
USD.
Water management would allow the farmer to adapt to the unpredictable availability of water
resulting from changes in climate patterns. At the same time, it reduces the destructive impact
of large volumes of water during extreme weather events.
Without proper water management, physical interventions in the farm (e.g. new varieties, new
crops, natural fertilizers, etc.) may not achieve their full potential. These interventions (e.g. new
varieties) could also be literally “washed away” by surface run-off during heavy rainstorm.
Thus, the ideal first step is to prevent or minimize surface run-off and enhance the conservation
of water in various forms – impounding of surface water, enhancing groundwater, and
increasing soil water holding capacity. At the same time, soil especially top soil, must be saved
to support plant production. It takes time and a lot of money for fertilizers to restore soil fertility if
the top soil is gone. By controlling surface run-off, soil erosion is also minimized.
1.2 OVERVIEW OF RECOMMENDATIONS
A separate guide (CCTAM #3- Water Management) on on-farm and community level water
management describes seven (7) sets of practices. These are briefly summarized below
1.2.1 MINIMIZING WATER RUNOFF IN THE FARM. These are the actions that aim to manage
the powerful force of surface runoff. Key measures include contour plowing, soil erosion control
structures, diversion canals, gully checks and other forms of water and soil conservation. A
labor saving and low cost technology called the natural vegetative strips or NVS is introduced.
Table 1a provides a summary of different soil and water conservation methods. Details are
provided further in CCTAM #3 ( Water Management)
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1.2.2 CONSTRUCTION OR IMPROVEMENT OF VILLAGE PONDS AND FARM PONDS.
These are actions that aim to improve, construct and maintain the ponds to be able to store
more water over longer period of time. These are highly recommended in both upland and
lowland farms.
1.2.3 IMPROVING EFFICIENCY OF WATER USE. This involves actions that make the most of
the available water either from irrigation systems or underground water sources. An example
would include the Alternative Wetting and Drying (AWD) system being demonstrated under
irrigated rice conditions. Another example would be the use of bucket micro-irrigation system,
an inexpensive drip irrigation method for smallholder vegetable production.
1.2.4 IMPROVING THE SOIL WATER HOLDING CAPACITY. By ensuring soils can hold
moisture for a longer period, the farmer can plant more crops in the same piece of land within a
year. Various methods for improving the availability of soil moisture are described under Section
2 and 3 of this CCTAM.
1.2.5 ADAPTING TO FLOODED SITUATIONS. These include various measures to allow
farming to continue during floods.
1.2.6 PROTECTING THE COMMUNITY’S NATURAL WATER SUPPLY SYSTEM. These
include recommendations for community level efforts to protect the headwaters of community
watersheds and ensure groundwater is safe and sustainable by adopting measures for recharge
of groundwater.
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Table 1a Examples of soil and water conservation measures that match different situations
Actual Situation Recommendation
A. Slope category ( topography of the terrain )
Flat to undulating (8-8%)
Plant grasses or trees on farm boundaries
Undulating to rolling terrain ( 8-18%)
Practice simple contour plowing Practice mulching.
Rolling to moderately steep (18% to 30%)
Practice Natural Vegetative strip ( NVS ). Practice vetiver grass stips , napier grass strips.
Moderately steep to mountainous (30% to 50%)
Contour hedgerows ( using leguminous trees) Contour bunds with contour canals
Mountainous (Above 50%)
Implement multi story agroforestry
B Examples of Soil and Water conservation methods ( all laid along contour lines )
Limited labor and limited access to planting materials
Natural Vegetative Strip ( NVS)
Labor available , planting materials available. Areas of low rainfall.
Contour bunds (ridge ) with contour canals ( furrows).
With high labor availability and planting materials . Areas of high rainfall
Terrace construction
With access to planting materials. Grass strips ( vetiver , napier grass etc); leguminous hedgerow ( Leucaena, Gliricidia, Caliandra etc )
Where there are plenty of rocks and stones.
Contour rockwall
Where there are plenty of tree trunks, branches, drift woods, branches .
Fascines as soil barriers ( materials are bundled and laid horizontally against wooden pegs)
c. Special Conservation Structures
Where there are long gullies. Check dams made of rocks , grasses or combination In combination with soil traps
Please also see CCTAM # 3 On- farm and Community Level Water Management
Source:
UP SURP. 2003. National Land Use Committee in Planning and Local Governance
IIRR and FAO 2001.Resource management for upland areas in Southeast Asia
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Figure1 On farm and community level water management
Figure 1.1. Prevalent problem particularly in the uplands: Surface run off & gully erosion.
Effects: loss of valuable soil; landslides in the uplands, local flashfloods in the lowlands (Photos
by IWMC et al MSEC)
Figure 1.2. Manage surface runoff. If the upper portion of the farm is exposed to high surface
erosion from a higher area, establish a diversion canal to divert the runoff and protect the farm
(left). Gully checks may be established on gullies to slow down the flow of water, promote
infiltration into the soil; and collect valuable soil (center and right).
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Figure 1.3. Simple soil erosion control measures that are not labour intensive
Figure 1.4. There is a need to improve farm ponds to lessen evaporation and seepage.
Harvesting rain from the roof can provide water for the household, livestock and small vegetable
garden
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Figure 1.5. Improving efficiency of water use. One way is through the application of Alternative
wetting and drying or AWD (left). For small gardens, the bucket drip irrigation is an option (right)
(Left photo from IRRI)
Figure 1.6. Improving soil water holding capacity is the third form of water storage for crops
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Figure 1.7. Sustaining the natural water supply of the community
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2.0 SOIL FERTILITY IMPROVEMENT
2.1 RATIONALE FOR THE ACTION
The projected increase in the intensity of rainfall and frequency of flood events will likely
increase surface runoff and soil erosion. This will eventually lead to a decline in soil fertility, and
consequently crop yields. Increases in temperature with limited moisture would tend to
negatively affect beneficial soil microorganisms and in the process affect the decomposition
processes.
Losses in rice crop production from dry spells, very wet conditions, or pests and diseases can
partly be minimized if the plants are healthy. Healthy soils produce healthy plants. The full
potential of improved varieties can also be obtained if the soil is able to provide the needed
plant nutrients for optimum growth.
In CCTAM #3 (Water Management), we learn about how to conserve the water and soil. Once
the physical interventions are made to control soil erosion, the next task is to improve soil
fertility. There are many ways to do this. One of the most effective ways is to adapt to the way
Mother Nature improves soil fertility in the humid tropics. In CCTAMs #1 and #2, we learn about
the issue of high surface runoff and high leaching or drainage of soil nutrients due to excessive
rainfall in the humid tropics where Lao PDR belongs.
The major agent for minimizing the runoff and leaching process and making soil nutrients
accessible to the root zone of the plant is the organic matter. Organic matter helps retain soil
moisture and “holds” soil nutrients for plant roots to have easier access to the nutrients. It also
provides fertility improvement.
Build-up of organic matter is the key ingredient in many types of measures that improve soil
fertility and moisture retention such as composting, green manuring, multiple cropping with
legumes, zero tillage, etc.
This concept of fertility improvement is not about increasing the amount and concentration of
nutrients in the soil (e.g. inorganic fertilizers) but rather helping the plants to have easier access
to soil nutrients from both inorganic and organic fertilizers through the build-up of organic
matter.
2.2 RECOMMENDED PRACTICES
The specific measures for fertility improvement that emphasizes the build-up of organic matter
would include the items listed below.
2.2.1 ENHANCING THE ROLE OF LEGUMES IN THE FARMING SYSTEM. This is done
through multiple cropping (e.g. rotational cropping and intercropping) using leguminous species
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such as peanut, mung bean, rice bean, cowpea, winged bean, etc. Please see also Section 5
(Crop diversification) of this manual for details. Legumes are important because:
a) They “fix” or capture nitrogen from the atmosphere and deposit this in the soil upon
decomposition;
b) If planted after cereals, they help break the life cycle of pests.
2.2.2 ENHANCING THE ROLE OF TREES IN THE FARMING SYSTEM (please see Section 7
of this manual). Trees play a major in fertility improvement through the following functions:
a) Enhance water infiltration through the build-up of organic matter under the tree;
b) Protect beneficial microorganisms in the soils from intense heat of the sun and
contribute to the organic matter build up;
c) Pump up nutrients from the deeper parts of the soil and help make this available to the
plants via leaf litter from the tree biomass.
2.2.3 INTEGRATING THE LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION INTO THE FARMING SYSTEM (see
also separate CCTAM #4 Small livestock). Integration of small livestock production in cropping
operations includes:
a) Ensuring that livestock waste remains in the farm as part of natural fertilizer for crops
made possible by the practice of on-farm forage/fodder production and feeding;
b) Through the above practice, the farm family especially the women folk and children can
reduce the time needed to look for feeds, thus, be able to do more productive tasks in
the farm and home;
c) Reduce the incidence of loss of livestock, which could happen if the livestock is allowed
to range freely.
2.2.4 USE OF BIO-FERTILIZER (COMPOST, BIO-EXTRACT, ETC.). Information on the
preparation and use of these materials are available from several sources. Examples of
technologies are provided by attached extension materials to this section. Specific technologies
include the following:
a) Composting - this is the process of assisting the natural biological process of breaking
up organic wastes such as food waste, manure, leaves, etc., into an extremely useful
humus-like substance through the action of various microorganisms. Compost is used to
improve soil fertility and condition of the soil.
b) Bio-extract - is a liquid derived from the fermentation of vegetables and fruits with sugar.
It contains vitamins, minerals, hormones and enzymes. It is an organic substance and
an effective microorganism that helps develop soil productivity. Bio-extract can also
come from animal extracts (fish, crabs, snails, etc.). It can be applied (sprayed) directly
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to plants or to organic materials in the soil. Aside from its soil fertility value, it is useful as
a disinfectant in livestock operations and can be easily prepared at home.
c) Mulching - in agriculture and gardening, mulch is a protective cover placed over the soil
to retain moisture, reduce erosion, provide nutrients, and suppress weed growth and
seed germination. Materials for mulching would include rice straw and leaves. Mulching
in gardens and landscaping mimics the leaf cover that is found in forest floors. This
protects the soil from extreme heat of the sun and supports beneficial soil
microorganisms.
Sometimes undesirable organisms like disease-causing fungi, bacteria and nematodes may be
added to the soil with the application of organic plant materials. Stirring the mulch occasionally
eliminates the mold. During rainy season, mulch should be applied only when the plants are at
least a month old to deter pest attack. To avoid introducing weed seeds use only the middle of
the straw, not the roots or flowers.
Table 2a. Nutrient content of various farm materials that are used as straw.
Nitrogen Phosphorus Potash
Corn cobs x x xxx
Corn silage x x x
Corn stalks x x x
Rice straw xx x x
Rice bran xx x x
Rice hulls
Egg shells x x X
Feathers xxx x X
Sugar by-product X xxx X
Coffee grounds X x X
Tea grounds xx x X
Seaweed xx x X
Fish bones xx xx xx
Banana stalk X xx xxx
Banana skins X xx xxx
Banana leaves X xx xxx
Tobacco leaves xx x xx
Tobacco stalk xx x xx
Fresh manure:
Cattle X x X
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Chicken xx x X
Horse X x X
Swine x x X
Bat X xxx X
Duck X x X
Note: xxx - good source xx – fair source x – poor source
Source: IIRR, 1993
2.3 BENEFITS AND COSTS
The above measures will enhance the organic matter content of the soil and make nutrients
(macro-nutrients and micro-nutrients) more readily accessible to the plant. These ensure that
current crop yields are sustained in the face of climate change, especially as most farmers
would not be able to afford to increase the volume of fertilizer application. These measures may
also be able to increase crop yields if applied with other agronomic practices (e.g. minimum
tillage, crop diversification, etc.).
Most of the practices recommended involve low external inputs. The main costs are cost of
seeds in the case of introducing legumes and legume inoculants and labor costs for multiple
cropping with legumes, preparation of compost, bio-extract and other related actions.
2.4 APPLICABILITY IN IRAS PROJECT SITES
The proposed actions are generally applicable in irrigated and rainfed rice-based farming
systems as well as other production systems (e.g. pig and chicken raising) in Savanankhet and
Sayaboury.
2.5 COMPANION MATERIALS (LOCALLY AVAILABLE) THAT COME TOGETHER WITH
THIS CCTAM
Topic/Title of Publication (Including code # for NAFES
Publications)
Source of Publication
a) Topic: Enhancing the role of legumes See Section 5, this
CCTAM
b) Topic: Enhancing the role of Trees See Section 7, this
CCTAM
c) Topic: Enhancing the role of animals See CCTAM # 5 (
Livestock)
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d) Topic: Enhancing the use of bio fertilizers
Making Compost (C.1L) NAFES
Preparation of Bio extract SAEDA
Preparation of Bio Compost SAEDA
Straw for Improving Soil (C12 B) NAFES
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Figure 2. Soil Fertility Improvement
Figure 2.1. Enhance the role of legumes
Figure 2.2. Enhance the role of trees on farms
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Figure 2.3. Enhance the role of livestock in the farm
Figure 2.4. Use of Bio fertilizers such as composting (left) and bioextracts (right)
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Figure 2.5. Mulching
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3.0 INNOVATIVE, NATURE BASED PRODUCTION SYSTEMS
3.1 RATIONALE FOR THE ACTION
Higher temperature and propensity for drought increases the evapo-transpiration of plants and
evaporation from the soil. High surface runoff and soil erosion result to soils with low fertility.
Lack of soil moisture and lack of fertility affect many farms. How can production systems be
improved without necessarily changing varieties or species?
In CCTAM #3 (Water Management), we discussed the ways to store surface water and improve
the efficiency of water use in rainfed or irrigated rice paddies (especially during land
preparation). In this section, we will discuss about innovative production systems (already being
adopted by many rural communities in Lao PDR) that:
a) improve the access of plants to nutrients in the soil as demonstrated by the SRI;
b) conserve and use of moisture in the soil, therefore, allowing multiple cropping (as
demonstrated by the direct seeded, mulch-based cropping system or SCV); and
c) avoid the use of chemicals in the production system, thereby, allowing natural
processes to provide for fertility improvement and crop protection.
3.2 RECOMMENDED PRACTICES
3.2.1 THE SYSTEMS FOR RICE INTENSIFICATION (SRI)
The system for rice intensification or SRI is a scheme that involves low cost production of
bountiful rice harvests. The underlying strategy is to build hardy roots capable of effectively
capturing soil nutrients. This is achieved by transplanting seedlings while they are still young
and by limiting the days that the crop is submerged to water. Plants have wider spacing and
only one plant is established per hill.
A simple manual plant weeder will help the farmer deal with the weeds under dry conditions.
Natural fertilizers are applied, which makes nutrients readily available for the roots to absorb.
These actions produce healthy plants capable of producing bountiful harvests. SRI is widely
being practiced in parts of the Mekong region. In Lao, it is being practiced in selected districts in
Luang Prabang, Sayaboury and Xieng Khouang particularly where the Department of Irrigation
has implemented it under several projects.
3.2.2 THE DIRECT SEEDED MULCH-BASED CROPPING SYSTEM (SVC)
The direct seed mulch-based cropping system or SVC is a method referred to as conservation
agriculture. It involves zero tillage and is being adopted by many farmers in Sayaboury and
other northern provinces. Rice, corn and other important crops are planted without having to
plow the soil. This is done by maintaining a thick layer of crop residue from the previous crop
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and directly planting the seeds through the biomass in the soil with the help of a simple seeder.
The seeder injects the seed into the friable soil beneath the biomass layer.
The crop residue layer provides many readily available plant nutrients to the plant roots. Soil
moisture is effectively conserved while plant nutrients are made readily available to plant roots,
which make growing of several crops throughout the year possible. Leguminous species are
rotated with cereals like upland rice and maize.
3.2.3 ORGANIC AGRICULTURE IN PERI-URBAN VEGETABLE GRAOWING VILLAGES
Organic agriculture is being piloted in several peri-urban villages in Lao PDR and holds promise
as a means of getting the most of agriculture under water-stressed conditions. Since the system
uses bio-organic fertilizer, organic matter is enhanced and soil moisture and fertility is
maintained. Organic agriculture is most promising for small scale vegetable production, which is
a fall back when supplemental crop based income is needed to compensate the losses of the
main crop.
3.3 BENEFITS AND COSTS
SRI has been proven effective to increase rice yields by many farmers in the Northern provinces
(including Sayaboury). It uses available water efficiently and reduces the cost of planting
materials. The challenge is the labor requirement for careful weeding operations and snail
control. Weeding effort can be mitigated by a manual weeding machine.
SCV has also been proven to work well in upland crop production especially in the Northern
provinces. This is also being tested in Othouphone, Savanakhet. The system has low labor
requirement as weeding is eliminated. However, it requires the procurement of grain legumes as
cover crops and herbicides in the first few years to suppress weed growth. It also requires the
use of a manually operated seeder.
SCV trainers may be tapped from the network of successful adaptors. The immediate contact in
Vientiane is the National Conservation Agriculture Center (NCAC).
Organic agriculture practices have been proven effective in the pilot sites of the DOA0
HELVETAS Project called PROFIL. These practices include the use of nature based fertilizers
such as compost, bio-extracts, etc., as well as natural crop protection. If the niche market for
organic agriculture is being aimed, certification as organic product may be required from the Lao
Certification Body. The challenge of organic agriculture practices is the labor demand for
preparation of natural fertilizers and pest control.
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3.4 APPLICABILITY IN IRAS PROJECT SITES
SRI and SCV have been tested in several parts of Sayaboury. SCV is being tested in
Othouphone Savanakhet. According to the DOI, SRI was found to be most successful in upland
terrace paddies where the production system is more self-contained and not dependent on a
common decision-making among farmers on irrigation water management.
SRI trainers from Luang Prabang may be tapped to help other farmers learn about the
technology. Contact the Department of Irrigation for the list of communities with farmer trainers.
SCV is applicable in upland conditions in Savanakhet. SCV trainers may be tapped from the
network of successful adopters. The immediate contact in Vientiane is the National
Conservation Agriculture Center.
Organic agriculture practices are applicable in small scale vegetable production in small
townships in Project sites. The practices in preparing natural fertilizers and natural crop
protection can be applied. However, the certification process need not be adopted at this time.
Facilitators and farmer trainers of organic agriculture may be accessed from the DOA of MAF or
the PROFIL Project.
3.5 COMPANION EXTENSION MATERIALS (LOCALLY AVAILABLE) THAT COME TOGETHER WITH THIS CCTAM
Topic/List of Publications Source
Systems for Rice Intensification – DOI guidelines MAF DOI
SRI Lao website http://sri.ciifad.cornell.edu/countries/laos/index.html#presentations
Cornell U, USA
Direct Seeded, mulch based cropping systems (SCV) NAFRI
Organic Agriculture Manual NAFES – PROFIL
Organic Agriculture Pamphlets NAFES PROFIL
SUPPLEMENTAL REFERENCES (GLOBAL)
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Figure 3. Innovative, nature-based production systems
Figure 3.1. System of rice intensification (SRI): a young rice seedling (left); transplanting of
young rice seedlings for good root growth (center); need less water to also promote good
nutrient uptake. To control the weeds the farmer runs a weeder between rice plants. (Source:
WWF 2007)
Figure 3.2. Direct Seeded Mulch Based System. No tillage; mulch covers the soil -keeps soil
moisture intact. Therefore it can support several crops in a year (left); and direct seeding to the
soil though the mulch avoids opening up the soil which causes loss of moisture (right).
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Figure 3.3. Organic Agriculture. This system does not use chemical fertilizers or pesticides and
there is high demand for these products in urban areas.
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4.0 USE OF CLIMATE SMART CROP VARIETIES (RICE)
4.1 RATIONALE FOR THE ACTION
The grain yield of major crops including rice reduces by 5-7% for every 1 deg C rise in mean
daily temperature. A simulation study using the CCAM climate model in Savannakhet Province
projects a 10 percent yield reduction under simulated CO2 concentration of 540 ppm. Also,
farmers in Thailand and Lao PDR recognized that extreme climatic events have caused a loss
of 30-50 percent in productivity during moderate flood years.
To adapt to the changes in climate patterns, the farming community may also choose crop
varieties that are tolerant to extreme weather events such as long dry periods and flooded
conditions. This allows the farmer to continue crop production even during these periods.
4.2 RECOMMENDED PRACTICES
4.2.1 RICE
As of May 2012, NAFRI recommends certain rice varieties (improved varieties and indigenous
varieties) for conditions of drought, flood, low temperature and other special conditions. These
are based on the report of NAFRI (Mr Phoumin Inthapanya, Mr Phetmaniseng Xangsayasane
both of NAFRI RCCRC and Jackue Mitchell and Shu Fukai of the University of Queensland
under ACIAR support) and are indicated in Table 4a.
Table 4a. Specific variety recommendations for potential problem areas/specific target
characters.
Problem area/ Specific target
characters
Recommended Varieties (under key lines)
TDK PNG TSN RD OTHERS
1 Drought‐prone TDK9, TDK11, TDK12 PNG1
PNG3
NTN1
2 Flood prone TDK1 sub1 IR64sub1
3 Low temperature
TDK5, TDK6, TDK8, TDK11
4 Salinity areas KDML105
5 Fe toxicity areas TDK9, TDK10, TDK11 TSN1 RD10
Muang-nga Doktiew
6 Low soil fertility TDK9, TDK11, TDK12 TSN1 KDML105
7 GM problem Muang-nga Ta-khiat Lay-keaw
8 Aroma G RD Kal Noi
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6 Hom-nang-nuan
9 Aroma NG KDML105 HTDK1 VTE-450-1 Homsavanh Homchampa
Adapted from: NAFRI (RCCRC) and University of Queensland 201x. Recommended Rice Varieties for Lao PDR (unpublished)
In addition, NAFRI recommends particular varieties for specific seasons, regions and location in
the rice terraces within the farm. Please see Table 4b.
Upper terraces tend to dry up faster than the middle and lower terraces, following the general
flow of water. Lower terraces tend to be more fertile and can be flooded during the wet season
and can have longer growing seasons, thus, long maturing varieties are useful here.
The middle terraces are more prone to drought. It is the largest type of growing area in Laos
and many varieties are recommended here. The top terraces have a relatively low short growing
season. Therefore, the recommended varieties for this position would be the short maturing and
drought resistant varieties.
The recommendations for particular regions also take into account the need to avoid
susceptibility to common biotic problems such as brown plant hopper blasts.
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Table 4b. Generally recommended varieties for wet and dry seasons at different terrace positions in regions in Lao PDR.
Season
Regions
Terrace Position
Lower Middle Top
Wet
Northern TDK1, TDK5, TDK6, TDK11, TDK8, RD10, Kai Noi
Central‐upper
RD6*, RD8, TDK10
TDK1, TDK1sub1, TDK8, TDK6, TSN1, VTE450‐1*,
TDK4, VTE450‐2, KDML105, RD15, Hom Nang Nouane, Chao Dok Dou
TDK9*, TDK11, TDK12, RD10 , NTN1
Central‐lower
RD6*, TDK10,
TDK1, TDK1sub1, TDK8, TDK6, PNG1, TSN3, TSN1, TSN5
TDK9*, RD15, TDK11, PNG1, PNG3, TDK12, RD10, NTN1
Southern
RD6*, TDK10
TDK1, TDK1sub1, TDK8, TDK6, PNG1, TSN3, PNG5, Chao Dok Dou, PNG6, KDML105*
TDK9*, TDK11, PNG1, PNG3, TDK12, RD10, NTN1, KDML105*
Dry Whole TDK1, TDK5, TDK6, TDK8, TDK11, TSN3, TSN5, PNG1, PNG5, PNG6, NTN1, RD10
Adapted from: NAFRI (RCCRC) and University of Queensland 201x. Recommended Rice
Varieties for Lao PDR (unpublished) Note: Sayaboury is under the Northern region while
Savanakhet is under “Central Lower “regions
The key characteristics of the varieties cited in Tables 4a and 4b are indicated in Table 4c.
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Table 4c. Description of widely grown varieties (improved variety).
Variety Growing Duration/ Flowering
Date
Pest and Disease Resistance Ratings Region Season
Terrace Position BPH BI BL
B NB BD GL
H GM Fe tox
TDK
TDK1 135‐140 MR MR MR S S S MS S N, CU, CL, S WS Middle
TDK4 Mid Oct MR MR R MR R S S S CU WS Middle
TDK5 125‐130 MS MS MR MS R MS S MT N WS All
Whole DS All
TDK6 135‐140 MS MS MR MS R MS MS MT N, CU, CL, S WS All, Middle
Whole DS All
TDK8 135‐140 MS MR MR MS R S S MS N, CU, CL, S WS Middle
Whole DS All
TDK9 Late Sept S R MR MS R S S T CU, CL, S WS Top
TDK10 Mid Oct S R R MS R S S T CU, CL, S WS Lower
TDK11 135‐140 MS R MR MR S S S T N, CU, CL, S WS All, Top
Whole DS All
TDK12 Early Oct S MS MS MS R S MS MT CU, CL, S WS Top
TDK1 sub 1
140‐145 S MR MR S R S S S CU, CL, S WS Middle
RD
RD6 Late Oct MS MR MS MS R S S MT CU, CL, S WS Lower
RD8 Late Oct S MR MS MS R S S MT CU WS Lower
RD10 Mid Oct S S S S R S S T N, CU, CL, S WS All, Top
Whole DS All
RD15 Early Oct S MR MS MS R S S MT CU, CL WS Middle
TSN
TSN1 140‐145 MS MR MR MS R MS MS T CU, CL WS Middle
TSN3 135‐140 MS R R MR MR R S MT CU, CL WS Middle
Whole DS All
TSN5 135‐140 MS R R R R S S MS CL WS Middle
Whole DS All
PNG
PNG1 125‐130 S R MR S R R MS T CL, S WS Middle, Top
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Variety Growing Duration/ Flowering
Date
Pest and Disease Resistance Ratings Region Season
Terrace Position BPH BI BL
B NB BD GL
H GM Fe tox
Whole DS All
PNG3 130‐135 R MR S MS R S S MT CL, S WS Top
PNG5 125‐130 S S MR S R S S MT S WS Middle
Whole DS All
PNG6 130‐135 S R MR MS R S S MT S WS Middle
Whole DS All
VTE
VTE 450-1*
Early Oct S MR MR MS R S S MT CU WS Middle
VTE 450-2
135‐140 S MR MR MS R S S MT CU WS Middle
KDML
KDML 105
Mid Oct S S S S R S S T CU,S WS Middle, Top
NTN
NTN1 130‐135 MS MS MS S R MS S MS CU, CL, S WS Top
Whole DS All
Source: NAFRI 2011. Recommended Rice Varieties for Lao PDR (unpublished) Legend: *non-glutinous Region: N-Northern, CU-Central Upper, CL-Central Lower, S-Southern, Central Lower includes Savanakhet
Season: WS-Wet Season, DS-Dry Season
Pest and Disease Resistance Ratings: R=Resistant; MR=Mildly resistant; MS=Mildly susceptible; S=Susceptible; VS=Very
susceptible; T=tolerant; MT=Moderately tolerant.
BPH=Brown plant hopper; Bl=Blast; BLB=Bacterial Leaf Blight; NB=Neck Blast; BD=Bakanae Disease; GLH=Green Leaf Hopper;
GM=Gall Midge; Fe Tox=Iron (Fe) toxicity.
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Table 4d. Description of widely grown varieties (traditional variety).
Varieties Flowering Time Pest and Disease Resistance
BPH BI BLB NB BD GLH GM Fe tox
Nang‐nuan 5‐10 Oct S S S S R S S MT
Hom‐nang‐nuan 15‐20 Oct S MS MS S R S S MT
Muang‐nga 10‐15 Oct S R S R R S R T
Ta‐khiat 5‐10 Oct S R S R R S R T
Mak‐hing 10‐15 Oct S S S S R S S T
Dok‐mai 10‐15 Oct S S S S R S MS MT
Lay‐keaw 15‐20 Oct S S S MS R S MS MT
Dok‐tiou Late Sept Early Oct S S S R R S S T
Kai‐noi Late Sept S S S MS R S R T
Dodeng Late Sept S R R MR R S S T
Chao Dok Dou Mid Oct S MR MR MS R S MS MT
Source: NAFRI 2011. Recommended Rice Varieties for Lao PDR (unpublished) Legend: Pest and Disease Resistance Ratings: R=Resistant; MR=Mildly resistant; MS=Mildly susceptible; S=Susceptible; VS=very
susceptible; T=tolerant; MT=Moderately tolerant. BPH=Brown plant hopper; Bl=Blast; BLB=Bacterial Leaf Blight; NB=Neck Blast; BD=Bakanae Disease; GLH=Green Leaf Hopper; GM=Gall Midge; Fe Tox=Iron (Fe) toxicity.
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4.3 BENEFITS AND COSTS
Drought and flood tolerant varieties would enable farmers to adapt to climate aberrations better
and ensure chances of harvest within a season. The costs would include the cost of new seeds.
All other production practices would be the same.
4.4 APPLICABILITY IN IRAS PROJECT SITES
The information available indicates what varieties would be suitable to IRAS project sites. Rice
seeds can be sourced from the various NAFRI seed production centers. Drought tolerant
varieties are generally accepted. Sub mergent varieties are still undergoing final observations.
4.5 COMPANION MATERIALS (LOCALLY AVAILABLE) THAT COME TOGETHER WITH THIS CCTAM
Topics/List of Extension Materials Source
NAFRI (unpublished)
Recommended Rice Varieties for Lao PDR
NAFRI
NAFRI – SEARCICE Manual for Conservation of Genetic Resources and Seed Production
NAFRI
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Figure 4. Use of climate smart crop varieties
4.1 Laos is a one of the center for rice biodiversity in the world. Many indigenous rice varieties
form the basis for selecting varieties that are drought tolerant and submergence tolerant( Photos
from http://mikejackson1948.wordpress.com/tag/lao-pdr/)
4.1. As of 2012 NAFRI, I collaboration with development partners and villagers is
recommending 6 varieties that are drought tolerant, two that can tolerate submergence. Most of
these varieties are from TDK lines. Other varieties are recommended for low temperature ( 4);
saline conditions (1); areas with high iron content (7) , and areas with low soil fertility ( 5). See
discussion in this CCTAM.( Photos from NAFRI and IRRI)
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5.0 CROP DIVERSIFICATION
5.1 RATIONALE FOR THE ACTION
Variability in the amount and distribution of rainfall is the most important factor limiting yield of rainfed rice. Project Temperature increases will also be expected to reduce yields. The use of drought or flood tolerant varieties may be a solution. However many farmers would not easily switch to new varieties for various reasons. In this case, adjustments may be made in terms of production systems or adding new crops into the farming system. Crop diversification is growing other annual crops in addition to/or instead of the main crop such as rice. This is done in order to “compensate” the low yields or zero yields of the main crop i.e. rice, due to weather aberrations within the growing season, as well as to drought or flood. There are four ways to diversify with new crops:
a) It may totally replace the main crop and becomes the alternative crop;
b) It is planted before the main crop is established. Usually this is between the early onset
of the rainy season and the peak rainfall when rice seedlings are transplanted;
c) It can be planted immediately after or just before the main crop is harvested, utilizing the
residual moisture of the soil;
d) It can be grown at the same time with the main crop in order to take advantage of full
rainfall.
Alternative crops may be annuals or perennials. Section 5 discusses about annual crops.
Section 6 further discusses the practices to grow vegetables successfully under harsh climatic
conditions while Section 7 discusses the introduction of fruit trees and other types of trees in the
farm.
5.2 RECOMMENDED PRACTICES
5.2.1 POTENTIAL ANNUAL CROP SPECIES FOR CROP DIVERSIFICATION
Tables 5a, 5b and 5c are the summary of recommended legume and vegetable species for crop
diversification. It is based on recommendations from two sources and timeframes. The first
source is the list prepared by NAFRI in 1998 for the whole country. The second is the 2005
recommendation by NAFRI NAFES and NUOL for upland conditions. Additional information is
incorporated in the original sources of information in terms of growing period, soil and water
requirements of these species.
These tables also indicate the growing period (referred to as “crop cycle” in the table) and
environmental requirements (elevation, soil and water). The information comes from FAO
EcoCrop database. The information on crop cycle indicates the range of days of harvesting the
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crop. The lower value refers to the earliest time a crop can be harvested while the higher value
refers to the latest time one can harvest the product in the field. In reality, farmers would not
wait until the latest period. The usual harvesting period would be between 1 to 3 months only.
Table 5d describes the recommended horticultural practices for many recommended vegetables
as prepared by NAFRI.
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Table 5a. Legumes recommended for crop diversification
Species and Production Intensity1
Crop cycle (DAS)
Elevation (m)
Soil Requirement Water
Requirement (mm/yr)
Remarks2
Cowpea (Vigna unguiculata) / 4
30-240 between sea level and 2000
pH 5.5-7.5 light to medium textured, well-drained, moderately fertile
500-1500 -wet and dry season -does not tolerate extended flooding and salinity
French bean (Phaseolus vulgaris) / 4
50-270 600-2000 pH 5.5-7.5 medium textured, well-drained, moderately fertile
500-2000 -dry season -sensitive to flooding
Mungbean (Vigna radiata) / 2
50-120 up to 2000 m pH 5.5-6.2 medium textured, well-drained, moderately fertile
650-900 -wet and dry season
Peanut (Arachis hypogea) / 4
90-150 1500-1650 pH 5.5-6.5 medium textured, well-drained, highly fertile
600-1500 -wet and dry season -There should preferably be no rain on a crop once pods are mature.
Pigeon pea (Cajanus cajan) / 1
90-365 between sea level to 2000
pH 5.0-7.0 texture: medium textured, well-drained, moderately fertile
600-1500 -wet season -Does not tolerate
waterlogging
Rice bean (Vigna umbellata) / 1
40-130 suited to humid tropical
lowlands at elevations up
to 2000
pH 6.0-7.5 medium textured, well-drained, highly fertile
700-1500 -wet season -Tolerant to some degree of waterlogging
Soybean (Glycine max) / 4
75-180 between sea level and 3000
pH 5.5-6.5 medium textured, well-drained, highly fertile
600-1500 -wet and dry season -sensitive to waterlogging
1 Production Intensity refers to: 1 – low of labor and inputs, 2 – high labor and low input, 3 – low labor and high input, 4 – high labor and input
2 NAFRI and NAFES in 2005 indicated which species are suitable for dry, wet, wet and dry or dry and wet seasons. In addition, other recommendations for water requirement from
FAO - Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, 1993-2007, http://ecocrop.fao.org/ecocrop/srv/en/cropFindForm (May 2012) are included here.
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Species and Production Intensity1
Crop cycle (DAS)
Elevation (m)
Soil Requirement Water
Requirement (mm/yr)
Remarks2
Sugar bean (Pisum sativum) / 2
60-140 1000-1200 pH 5.5-7.0 light, medium to heavy textured, well-drained, highly fertile
800-1200
Winged bean (Psophocarpus tetragonolobus) / 2
50-270 up to 2500 pH 5.5-7.0 medium textured, well-drained, moderately fertile
1000-2500 -wet season -Never survives waterlogging
yambean (Pachyrrhizus erosus) / 1
150-270 up to 1750 pH 6.5-8.0 light to medium textured, well-drained, highly fertile
1300-1700 -wet and dry season -Frequent watering during rapid growth
Yard long bean (Vigna unguiculata subsp. sesquipedalis) / 2
50-150 700-1000 m pH 5.5 -7.0 medium to heavy textured, well-drained, moderately fertile
1500-2000 -wet season -Tolerant to some degree of waterlogging
(The list here matches the list of upland species recommended by NAFRI & NAFES, 1998)
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Table 5b. Vegetables recommended for crop diversification.
Species and Production Intensity3
Crop Cycle (DAS)
Elevation (m)
Soil Requirement Water
Requirement (mm/yr)
Remarks4
Angled loofah (Luffa acutangula) / 2
40-150 <500 pH 5.5-7.0 medium textured, well-drained, highly fertile
1200-2000 -dry season more successful -excessive rain may reduce flowering and fruiting
Bittergourd (Momordica charantia) / 4
50-70 500-1000 pH 6.0-6.5 medium textured, well-drained, moderately fertile
2000-2500 -dry season
Mottle gourd (Lagenaria siceraria) / 2
60-120 600-2700 pH 5.5-7.0 light or medium textured, well-drained, highly fertile
1200-1800 -dry or wet season
Cabbage (Brassica oleracea var capitata) / 4
60-200 800-2000 pH 6.0-7.5 medium textured, well-drained, highly fertile
500-1000 -wet and dry season -Weekly irrigation is recommended
Carrot (Daucus carota) / 4
40-150 500-2600 pH 5.8-6.8 medium textured, well-drained, moderately fertile
600-1200 -dry season -Needs a lot of moisture during the first 30 days of growth
Cauliflower (Brassica oleracea var. botrytis) / 4
60-120 >1000 pH 6.0-7.0 medium textured, well-drained, highly fertile
600-1100 -dry season -sensitive to waterlogging
Chinese cabbage (Brassica chinensis) / 4
40-90 1500 pH 6.0-7.5 medium textured, well-drained, moderately fertile
800-1600 -wet and dry season - High water requirement
3 Production Intensity refers to: 1 – low of labor and inputs, 2 – high labor and low input, 3 – low labor and high input, 4 – high labor and input
4 NAFRI and NAFES in 2005 indicated which species are suitable for dry, wet, wet and dry or dry and wet seasons. In addition, other recommendations for water requirement from
FAO - Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, 1993-2007, http://ecocrop.fao.org/ecocrop/srv/en/cropFindForm (May 2012) are included here.
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Species and Production Intensity3
Crop Cycle (DAS)
Elevation (m)
Soil Requirement Water
Requirement (mm/yr)
Remarks4
Chinese kale (Brassica oleracea L. cv. Group Chinese Kale) / 4
60-85 up to 3000 pH 5.4-6.0, light, medium, heavy textured, well-drained, moderately fertile
450-1000 -dry season -irrigation often produce optimum yield
Chinese mustard (Brassica juncea) / 1
50-100 up to 2000 pH 5.5-6.5 medium textured, well-drained, highly fertile
700-2400 -wet and dry season -Regular watering to maintain uniformly moist soil
Chinese radish (Raphanus sativus) / 3
50-80 DAS
pH 6.0-7.0 light to medium textured, well-drained, highly fertile
1000-1500 -wet and dry season -sensitive to waterlogging and water deficiency
Cucumber (Cucumis sativus) / 4
40-180 1200-2000 pH 6.0-7.5 medium textured, well-drained, highly fertile
1000-1200 -dry season -Requires constantly available water
Eggplant (Solanum melongena) / 4
70-120 800-1200 pH 5.5-6. medium textured, well-drained, highly fertile
1200-1600 -wet season -Require ample moisture at all times
Garland chrysanthemum (Chrysanthemum coronarium) / 1
30-55 - pH 6.0-6.5 medium to heavy textured, well-drained, highly fertile
800-1300 -wet and dry season
Garlic (Allium sativum) / 4
90-120 500-2000 pH 6.0-6.6 light to medium textured, well-drained, highly fertile
750-1600 -dry and wet season -Does not grow well in areas with excessive rainfall
Lettuce, head and leaf type (Lactuca sativa) / 4
35-85 1000 pH 6.0-7.0 light to medium textured, well-drained, moderately fertile
1100-1400 -dry and wet season -Needs a relatively high water requirement
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Species and Production Intensity3
Crop Cycle (DAS)
Elevation (m)
Soil Requirement Water
Requirement (mm/yr)
Remarks4
Pepper
hot (Capsicum frutescens) / 4
120-180 between sea level up to
1800
pH 5.5-6.8 medium textured, well-drained, highly fertile
600-1500 -wet season -Uniform rainfall is preferred
sweet (Capsicum anuum) / 4
60-180 1500-2500 pH 5.5-6.8 medium textured, well-drained, moderately fertile
600-1250 -wet season -Low tolerance to flooding
Morning glory/Kangkong (Ipomoea aquatica) / 1
30-70 DAS
- pH 5.0-7.0 shallow, poorly drained, highly fertile
2000-2500 -marshy, waterlogged areas
Multiplier onion (Alluim cepa var. aggregatum) / 1
60-100 between sea level up to
2500
pH 6.0-7.0 light textured, well-drained, highly fertile
450-600 -dry season -moist conditions but not excessive
Onion (Allium cepa) / 4
85-175 up to 2000 pH 6.0-7.0 medium textured, well-drained, moderately fertile
350-600 -dry and wet season - Sensitive to water deficit
Pak Choi (Brassica rapa Pak Choi) / 3
21-45 - pH 5.5-7.0 light to medium textured, well-drained, moderately fertile
900-1400 -wet and dry season
Pumpkin/squash (Cucurbita maxima) / 4
80-140 up to 2000 pH 5.5-7.5 wide range of soil type, deep, well-drained, highly fertile
600-1000 -wet season -Can tolerate dry and wet conditions fairly well
Smooth loofah (Luffa cylindrical) / 2
70-120 up to 1000 pH 5.5-6.5 medium textured, well-drained, moderately fertile
1200-2000 -wet season
Snake gourd (Trichosanthes cucumerina) / 1
50-130 days
<1000-1500 pH 6.5-7 light, medium or heavy textured, well-drained,
2000-2500 -does not tolerate dry soils but also sensitive to waterlogging
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Species and Production Intensity3
Crop Cycle (DAS)
Elevation (m)
Soil Requirement Water
Requirement (mm/yr)
Remarks4
moderately fertile
Spring onion (Allium fistulosum) / 3
60-160 1000-2000 pH 6.6-7.4 medium textured, well-drained, highly fertile
850-1600 -wet season -Moist soil is required throughout the growing period, but excessive soil water and high humidity encourage diseases
Tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum) / 4
70-150 1000-2000 pH 5.5-6.8 medium textured, well-drained, highly fertile
600-1300 -dry season -Sensitive to waterlogging
Watermelon (Citrullus lunatus) / 4
80-110 up to 1000 pH 6.0-7.0 medium textured, well-drained, highly fertile
500-700 -dry season -excessive rainfall can reduce number of fruits and promote disease
The list here corresponds to NAFRI’s list of recommended vegetables in NAFRI & NAFES, 1998)
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Table 5c. Additional list of vegetables recommended for crop diversification.
Species and Production Intensity5
Crop Cycle (DAS)
Elevation (m)
Soil Requirement Water
Requirement (mm/yr)
Remarks6
Bitter cucumber (Citrullus colocynthis) / 2
80-180 - pH 4.5-7.5 light textured, well-drained, moderately fertile
300-500 -wet season
Chayote (Sechium edule) / 1
100-180 300-2000 pH 5.5-7.0 medium textured, well-drained, highly fertile
800-2000 -wet season -Requires evenly distributed rainfall
Chinese water chestnut (Eleocharis dulcis) / 2
200-240 50-1200 pH 6.9-7.3 heavy textured, poorly drained (saturated > 50% of yr), highly fertile
1600-2000 -marshy, waterlogged areas
Chive (Allium schoenoprasum) / 1
70-100 up to 2000 m pH 6-6.6 medium textured, well-drained, highly fertile
450-1600 -dry and wet season -Regular watering throughout growth
Coriander (Coriandrum sativum) / 1
35-140 500-2200 pH 5.5-7.5 medium textured, well-drained, highly fertile
500-1400 -dry and wet season
Dill (Anethum graveolens) / 1
100-180 200-2000 pH 6.0-7.0 medium textured, well-drained, highly fertile
800-1200 --dry and wet season -Water only when rainfall
is sparse
Hindu lotus (Nelumbo nucifera) / 1
120-200 - pH 6.0-6.5 heavy textured, poorly drained (saturated > 50% of year), moderately fertile
2000-2800 -marshy, waterlogged areas
Leek (Allium ampeloprasum L. cv. Group Leek) / 2
120-150 500-1000 pH 6.0-6.5 medium textured, well-drained, highly fertile
750-1000 -dry season -Keep moist, not
waterlogged
5 Production Intensity refers to: 1 – low of labor and inputs, 2 – high labor and low input, 3 – low labor and high input, 4 – high labor and input
6 NAFRI and NAFES in 2005 indicated which species are suitable for dry, wet, wet and dry or dry and wet seasons. In addition, other recommendations for water requirement from
FAO - Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, 1993-2007, http://ecocrop.fao.org/ecocrop/srv/en/cropFindForm (May 2012) are included here.
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Species and Production Intensity5
Crop Cycle (DAS)
Elevation (m)
Soil Requirement Water
Requirement (mm/yr)
Remarks6
Peppermint (Mentha piperita) / 1
40-330 1000 pH 5.5-6.5 shallow, well-drained, highly fertile
1000-2200 -dry and wet season -Requires a high water
requirement
Spiny bitter cucumber (Momordica cochinchinensis) / 1
60-240 - pH 6.5-7.0 medium textured, well-drained, highly fertile
1500-2500 -wet season
Sweet basil (Ocimum basilicum) / 1
80-270 up to 1000 m pH 6.0-7.0 medium textured, well-drained, highly fertile
1000-1600 -dry and wet season - Needs to be watered from below, avoiding stem and leaves
Sweet melon (Cucumis melo) / 4
50-120 near sea level up to 1000
pH 6.0-7.5 medium textured, well-drained, highly fertile
1000-1300 -wet season - Requires lots of moisture
Water lily (Nymphaea odorata)
- - - - -marshy, waterlogged areas
Water yam (Dioscorea alata) / 1
220-300 15-2500 pH 5.5-6.5 medium textured, well-drained, highly fertile
1200-4000 -marshy, waterlogged areas
Watercress (Nasturtium officinale) / 1
40-80 1000 pH 6.5-7.5 light to medium textured, poorly drained (saturated >50% of yr) moderately fertile
1000-2300 -marshy, waterlogged areas
Wax gourd (Benincasa hispida) / 2
80-160 up to 1500 pH 5.6-6.8 light textured, well-drained, highly fertile
400-800 -wet season -ample irrigation is needed during dry periods
(Note: The list constitute the NAFRI list of 2005 that was not part of the NAFRI 1998 table).
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Table 5d. List of vegetable varieties and horticultural requirements.
Name of
vegetable
Method of
planting
Quantity
of seeds
per rai
Planting distance Harvesting
period
(Day)
Appropriate
Fertilizer
formula
Fertilizer
application
Remark
Between
hill
Between
row
Chinese
cabbage
Sowing
Seed
dropping
2 kg
800 gram
30
30
40
40
40-60
40-60
12-8-8
12-8-8
After
transplanting
or aged 3
weeks old.
Chinese green
cabbage
Sowing
Seed
dropping
Seedling
2 kg
800 gram
200 gram
50 60 65-90 12-8-8 Two times:
before growing
and after
transplanting,
50-70 Kg/time
Transplant
after seedling
get 3- 4
weeks
Chinese mustard Drop seed
Seeding
800 gram
200 gram
50 60 55-75 12-8-8 After
transplanting or
aged 3 weeks
old
Pak choi Sowing 2 kg 25 30 45-55 12-8-8 After
transplanting or
aged 3 weeks
old
Chinese Kale Sowing
Seed
dropping
2 kg
800 gram
20 20 45-60 12-8-8 After
transplanting or
aged 3 weeks
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Name of
vegetable
Method of
planting
Quantity
of seeds
per rai
Planting distance Harvesting
period
(Day)
Appropriate
Fertilizer
formula
Fertilizer
application
Remark
Between
hill
Between
row
old
Lettuce Sowing 1.2 kg 25 30 40-50 12-8-8 After
transplanting or
aged 3 weeks
old
Head lettuce Sowing 50 gram 30 50 60-75 12-8-8 Two times:
before growing
and after 2
weeks of
transplanting.
75 Kg/time
Transplanting
after seedling
get for 3-4
weeks
Garland
Chrysanthemum
Sowing 4 kg 30-35 12-8-8 After
transplanting for
2 weeks
Cabbage Seedling 100-150
gram
40 60 60-90 12-8-8 Two times:
before growing
and after 2
weeks of
transplanting
Transplanting
after seedling
get for 3-4
weeks
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Name of
vegetable
Method of
planting
Quantity
of seeds
per rai
Planting distance Harvesting
period
(Day)
Appropriate
Fertilizer
formula
Fertilizer
application
Remark
Between
hill
Between
row
100 Kg/time
Cauliflower Seedling 100-150
gram
50 60 60-90 12-8-8 Two times:
before growing
and after 2
weeks of
transplanting
100 Kg/time
Transplanting
after seedling
get for 3-4
weeks
Chinese radish Sowing
Row
making
2 kg
1,8 kg
20 20 45-60 10-12-8 Two times:
before growing
and after 2
weeks of
transplanting
100 Kg/time
Transplanting
after seedling
get for 3-4
weeks
Carrot Sowing 1,2 kg 10 30 55-75 10-12-8 After
transplanting for
3weeks
yard long bean Hole
making
3-4 kg 50 80 60-90 8-12-12 After
transplanting for
3weeks
1 seed/hold,
making a
pole when it
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Name of
vegetable
Method of
planting
Quantity
of seeds
per rai
Planting distance Harvesting
period
(Day)
Appropriate
Fertilizer
formula
Fertilizer
application
Remark
Between
hill
Between
row
is growing up
French bean/
Sugar bean
Hole
making
5-8 kg 30 70 60-90 8-12-12 After
transplanting for
3weeks
2 seeds/hold,
making a
pole when it
is growing up
Cowpea Hole
making
1,5-2 kg 50 50 90-120 8-12-12 After
transplanting for
3weeks
1 seed per
hole
Cucumber Hole
making
1,5-2 kg 40 100 60-90 6-10-10 Before growing 1-2 seed per
hole
Bottle gourd Hole
making
1,2-2 kg 150 150 90-110 6-11-10 After
transplanting for
3weeks
1 seed per
hole
Pumpkin Hole
making
0,6 kg 300 300 90-120 6-10-10 After
transplanting for
3weeks
1 seed per
hole
Water melon Hole
making
200 gram 300 300 80-120 6-10-10 After
transplanting for
3weeks
1 seed per
hole
Sponge gourd Hole
making
1,5-2 kg 30 100 50-60 6-10-10 Before growing 1seed per
hole
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Name of
vegetable
Method of
planting
Quantity
of seeds
per rai
Planting distance Harvesting
period
(Day)
Appropriate
Fertilizer
formula
Fertilizer
application
Remark
Between
hill
Between
row
Bitter gourd Hole
making
1,5-2 kg 50-60 200 80-120 15-15-15 After
transplanting
1-2 seeds
per hole
Onion or
Spring onion
Seedling 450 kg 10-12 10-12 120 - 130 10-10-5 Two times:
before growing
and after 30
days of
transplanting.
50 Kg/time
Garlic 1 piece of
garlic/hole
80-120 kg 10-12 10-20 120 - 130 10-10-5 Two times:
before growing
and after 30
days of
transplanting
50 Kg/time
Red small onion/
sharllots
1
head/hole
100-200
kg
6-8 20 60-80 10-10-12 After the stems
are getting 5 cm
high
Multiplier onion 1 piece of 60 kg 10-15 10-15 50-60 8-10-12 After the stems
are getting 5 cm
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Name of
vegetable
Method of
planting
Quantity
of seeds
per rai
Planting distance Harvesting
period
(Day)
Appropriate
Fertilizer
formula
Fertilizer
application
Remark
Between
hill
Between
row
stem / hole high
Kangkong/
Morning glory
Sowing 12 kg - - 25-35 12-4-4 After the stems
are getting 5 cm
high
Tomato Seeding 300-500
gram
50 80-100 60-70 5-10-5 Two times:
before growing
and after 2
weeks of
transplanting
5 Kg/time
Transplanting
after
seedlings are
getting for 4
weeks
Snake gourd/
Angled loofah
Seeding 250 gram 50 100 80-100 15-15-15 Two times:
before growing
and after 30
days of
transplanting
50 Kg/time
Egg plant Seeding 100-150
gram
50 80-100 60-120 15-15-15 Two times:
before growing
and after 30
days of
Transplant
when
seedling are
getting 4-6
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Name of
vegetable
Method of
planting
Quantity
of seeds
per rai
Planting distance Harvesting
period
(Day)
Appropriate
Fertilizer
formula
Fertilizer
application
Remark
Between
hill
Between
row
transplanting
50 Kg/time
weeks
Source: NAFRI Horticulture Centre, 1998. Vegetables Handbook in Lao PDR).
Note (direct translation):
1. For amount of seeding and transplanting, the harvesting period starts to count since the transplanted day to harvested day.
2. The fertilizing ratio would vary depending on the fertility of soils in a locality for some vegetables species, there is short period
harvesting, namely: Chinese cabbage, lettuce, Shallots, Kangkong and Garland Chrysanthemum and etc. They will be
planted in a small seedbed and will be applied with ammonia sulfate for 100 gram/m2 or Urea for 50 gram/m2 , by mixing with
manure, 2-3 kg and use for two times, e.g. the first time, when vegetables 7- 10 days old and the second time, when they are
15- 20 days old.
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5.2.2 FACTORS TO CONSIDER IN CHOOSING THE SPECIES
a) Prepare the list of choices based on biophysical conditions. Study the soil, water and
other growth requirements of the crop. It must match the existing climatic and soil
conditions in the area. Tables 5a, 5b and 5c above summarized the environmental
requirements of various annual crops.
a.1. The rainfall pattern would dictate the crops to be grown in what part of the year. One
must know the rainfall pattern in order to make sure that water is available at the
right stage of plant growth. Many crops require adequate rainfall for growth but they
also need dry conditions during reproductive stage (e.g. grain filling). Others prefer
evenly distributed rainfall (e.g. some leafy vegetables).
a.2. The soil texture would influence the amount of moisture left in the soil to support a
successor crop. For instance, after the main crop of paddy rice it would be easier to
plant sequential upland crops in slightly light textured soils with sufficient organic
matter than formerly puddle, heavy soils with limited organic matter content.
a.3. Certain crops grow better in cool highland areas (e.g. cabbage) while others grow
better in lower elevations (e.g. grain legumes).
b) Identify crops that can grow before the main crop, during the same period of the main
crop (wet season) or after the main crop (dry season).
c) Check farmer’s preferences on the list developed from criteria (a) and (b) above. Access
to markets would vary from one community to another. Those near markets can have
more choices. Those that are distant from markets will have fewer choices. Farmers
usually choose the species that need not be sold right away and can be stored for longer
periods (e.g. grain legumes).
d) Check farmer’s capacity based on the current farming practices as well as the availability
of farm inputs. Some crops would require more skills while others are easier to grow.
Availability of seeds must also be considered. Unless training and close supervision and
planting materials can be provided, it is better to recommend crops that are not difficult
to grow. The tables above indicate the production intensity associated with the
production of particular species. This index (production intensity) is only indicative and
based on experience in production in Philippine vegetable production setting. It needs to
be validated in the field.
5.2.3 MULTIPLE CROPPING
After determining what species to plant, decide on the planting scheme for the new crops. In
general, grain legumes and root crops are grown in the field. Salad vegetables and indigenous
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52
vegetables are generally grown in smaller gardens near the home. The discussion on field crops
is discussed in this section while vegetable production near the home garden is discussed in
Section 6.
Multiple cropping is the planting of several crops in the same piece of land in a calendar year.
The basic types of multiple cropping are:
a) Mixed cropping - this is a traditional practice where crops are grown together at random
without any distinct arrangement.
b) Intercropping – two or more crops grown at the same time following spatial
arrangement (in rows). An example would be planting corn with peanut.
c) Sequential cropping - plant the 2nd crop after the main crop is harvested. This is a
simple multiple cropping operation. An example would be planting cowpea after rice.
d) Relay cropping – plant the 2nd crop days before the main crop is harvested. This
ensures that the 2nd crop does not compete too much with the main crop but at the same
time take full advantage of the residual moisture in the soil. An example would be
planting of rice bean in between rows of mature corn. The rice bean then uses the corn
stalk as stake.
e) Growing the other crop before the main crop – this can be done in areas where there
is a long gap between the onset of the wet season (first rainfall) and the time that rice
seedlings are actually planted (peak rainfall period). The land could potentially support a
crop that has hardy seedlings to withstand wet conditions and can be harvested during
the wet season (e.g. corn, cowpea, green soybean). This operation, however, is quite
complex and is not recommended by this CCTAM.
The benefits of multiple cropping can be seen in the example of a certain practice among
indigenous North Americans which they call The Three Sisters. These involve the planting of
corn, bean and pumpkin in same piece of plot in the same growing period (intercropping). The
corn provides energy for the diet. Its stalk provides the stake for the climbing bean. The bean is
the source of protein for diet. It improves the fertility of the soil that benefits the corn and
pumpkin. The pumpkin provides the vitamins and minerals for the diet. For its fellow plants, it
covers the soil, thus, preventing weeds and at the same time improves soil fertility by protecting
beneficial soil microorganisms from direct sun.
5.2.4 PLANNING FOR INTERCROPPING
Under multiple cropping, one must decide on the right crop combination to avoid or minimize
competition for light, water and nutrients between crops. Examples of what to consider under
intercropping are:
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53
a) The 2nd or 3rd crop must be able to adapt to the same soil and rainfall requirement of the
main crop. The cropping calendar prepared by NAFRI (Table 5e) will help us determine
the suitable period of the year to plant crops. The cropping period was developed more
than 10 years ago, rainfall patterns may have changed but they can still provide an
indication as to what crops require more rain or less.
b) Combine tall with short crop to minimize competition for sunlight. Example is corn and
peanut. Plant the main crop (rice or corn) slightly ahead of the intercrop.
c) Keep the proper distance between rows of crops. At the very least, the planting distance
of crops when grown as single crop must be maintained. Even better if the planting
distance is slightly increased.
d) Combine crops that help one another in terms of crop protection (corn and peanut
minimizes corn borer, or tomatoes and carrots). This is sometimes referred to as
companion planting.
5.2.5 PLANNING FOR SEQUENTIAL AND RELAY CROPPING
a) For successful sequential and relay cropping, the soil must have sufficient soil moisture to
support a second crop. Thus, it is important to make sure that the soil has sufficient
organic matter to “hold” the water in the soil for several months. Actions to ensure
sufficient organic matter content are discussed in Section 2 of this CCTAM.
b) The sequential or relay crop must be able to grow on the available soil moisture after the
first crop. If the soil moisture is not sufficient, only short duration crops should be planted
to reduce the risk of rapid moisture depletion during the growth and reproductive periods
of the sequential crop.
c) Rotate cereals (rice) and legumes (cowpea) so that the latter can help restore the
nutrients depleted by the previous crop of cereals.
d) In flooded rice paddies, drain the water from the field two to three days before the rice is
to be harvested. If the soil is heavy and difficult to work on (puddled soils that have
hardened), one can practice minimum tillage for the sequential crop. This is by done by
cutting the rice straw immediately after harvesting or even at the time of harvesting.
Dibble the seeds into the soil immediately after harvest. This will give it a head start over
the emerging weeds. Drill the seed near the former hill of the rice because it is usually
looser, has some aeration and is usually elevated above other parts of the paddy. Use
the rice straw as mulch.
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Table 5e. Cropping calendar – time of year preferred for raising specific species.
Vegetable names Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May June July Aug Sep
White cabbage
Green cabbage
Kuangfutsoi
Kohlrabi
Lettuce
Chinese cabbage
Chrysanthemum
Cabbage
Cauliflower
Radish
Carrot
Convolvulus
Sweet potato
Water melon
Cucumber
Pumpkin
Squash
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Bitter gourd
Kind of squash
Yard long bean
Green bean
Winged bean
Pigeon pea
Tomato
Small chili
Shallots
Garlic
Spring anion
Eggplant
Onion
Potato
Parleys
Source: NAFRI, 1998. Manual of Vegetable Planting. (translation under verification).
THE CLIMATE CHANGE TRAINING AND ADAPTATION MODULE FOR CROP PRODUCTION
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5.2.6 ADDITIONAL INFORMATION ON CROP CHARACTERISTICS
Additional information may be considered in choosing the species for crop diversification. Some
crops require short growing periods while others are considered to have high resistance to
drought situations. Table 5f shows preliminary list of what are considered as short duration
crops.
Table 5f. Vegetables that can be harvested in less than a month.
Scientific name Common Name Number of days from planting to
harvesting
Brassica juncea Mustard 25
Brassica chinensis Pechay 25
Raphanus sativus Radish 20-25
Basella alba Basella 25
Amaranthus gracilis Amaranth 25-30
Ipomoea batatas Sweet potato 20
Ipomoea aquatica Swamp cabbage 20
Coriandrum sativum Coriander 15
Cucumis sativus Cucumber 30
Lactuca sativa Leaf lettuce 25
Portulaca oleracea Purslane 25
Talinum triangulare Philippines spinach 25
The information below is partial list of crops known for their drought resistance. This information
will be useful for areas where soil moisture is low and long dry seasons are expected.
Table 5g. Partial list of crops known for their drought resistance.
Scientific Name Common Name Degree of Resistance
Arachis hypogaea Peanut Highly drought-resistant
Vigna sesquipedalis Yard long bean Highly drought-resistant
Cajanus cajan Pigeon pea Highly drought- and heat-resistant once
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established
Abelmoschus
esculentus
Ladyfinger Fairly drought-resistant
Vigna aconitifolia Moth bean Most drought-tolerant crop grown in India
Sorghum bicolor Sorghum Highly drought-resistant
Vigna sinensis Cowpea Drought- and heat-tolerant
Solanun melongena Eggplant Drought-tolerant
Manihot esculenta Cassava Drought-tolerant once established
Dolichos lablab Lablab bean Drought-tolerant once established
Phaseolus lunatus Lima bean Drought-tolerant once established
lpomoea batatas Sweet potato Fairly drought-tolerant
Amaranthus gracilis Amaranth Fairly drought-tolerant
Phaseolus aureus Mungbean Fairly drought-tolerant
Source: IIRR, 2001
a) Sources of planting materials
To make a final decision on what crop to plant, check if ample seed supply is made available to
the farming community (for free or at cost). This can be determined by checking with the local
seed suppliers or with MAF Seed Production Centre.
Determine the likely quantity of seeds that may be needed by the community. This is done by
estimating the quantity of seeds required by farmers, who will demonstrate the technologies.
Plan to procure the seeds ahead of the planting season so that they are readily available when
the farmer needs them.
One can obtain seeds from independent commercial producers or suppliers who get supplies
from neighboring countries. However, these are usually very expensive and not necessarily
adapted to local conditions. They are usually also Fi seeds (hybrids) that cannot be reproduced
with the same characteristics of the purchased seed.
One can also obtain seeds from government sources and their network of farmer co-operators,
who have been trained how to produce seeds. The NAFRI Horticulture Center, for instance, has
a network of 100+ farmers who can locally produce vegetable seeds. It can be contacted to help
produce the seeds through its farmer network. The Center will require at least one season to
produce the seeds. Seeds are produced during the drier months.
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Should there be farmers in the locality who want to learn how to produce their own seeds, they
can also produce most seeds on their own. Planting materials can be provided by NAFRI
Horticulture Center and its network of farmer co-operators who have been trained to produce
vegetable seeds. These farmer trainers are spread in different provinces. The Center has the
list of farmer seed suppliers in the different species.
b) Community production of vegetable seeds and planting materials
Once a starting stock of seeds is made available to the community, encourage interested
farmers to become local sources of good quality seeds and purchase the seeds from them. This
would be made possible by providing them training and skills in simple seed technology. One
on-going program of NAFRI together with SEARICE is helping farmer communities produce
their own vegetable seeds. There are farmer-trainers, Savanakhet while farmer trainers are
being developed in Sayaboury in collaboration with the PAFO.
5.3 BENEFITS AND COSTS
There are many benefits from crop diversification. It provides alternative and supplemental
source of income in case of failure of the main crop. Under good conditions (no disaster or
weather aberration), the overall farm income can increase due to harvests from 2 to 3
commodities. Multiple cropping covers the soil and prevents weeds. If legumes are used, they
improve soil conditions and soil fertility. Companion planting helps plants become stronger when
they support other crops against pests and diseases.
The key costs involve the additional time needed for careful planning. More time is needed for
planning. The farmer will have to shoulder the additional cost of planting materials including the
time for procuring planting materials. There are additional labour requirements for sowing and
cultivating and harvesting the intercrop. The yield of each intercrop would be slightly lesser than
when grown as single crop and at higher planting density.
5.4 APPLICABILITY IN IRAS PROJECT SITES
Crop diversification through multiple cropping methods is applicable in a wide range of upland
and lowland as well irrigated and rainfed conditions in IRAS project sites. Supplemental
irrigation would be helpful as it will reduce the risk of failure of the new crop.
In areas that do not have supplemental irrigation, sequential and relay cropping should be
planned carefully. Do only in farms with soils that have good organic matter content and
therefore, sufficient residual moisture after the first crop. Plant short duration crops to be sure.
Sites near markets can consider easily perishable vegetable crops, while those that are remote
from markets should consider planting crops that do not perish right away (e.g. grain legumes).
THE CLIMATE CHANGE TRAINING AND ADAPTATION MODULE FOR CROP PRODUCTION
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Farmers that practice soil management practices that enhance organic matter content of soils
can have better chance of introducing sequential or relay cropping.
Seeds for legumes and vegetables can be obtained from various sources: government seed
production centres, private companies and from efforts of farming communities themselves.
There is a village in Savanakhet where farmers have been trained on rice and vegetable seed
production. They can also share the knowledge with other communities. This is in Huahat
Village, Songkhon District, Savanakhet. Farmer trainers in Sayaboury are also being developed.
Dr. Chay of RCCR, NAFRI is the Project Coordinator. Other contacts are Mr. Bounsu Soudmaly
of Plant Protection Department of DOA, the Co-coordinator.
5.5 COMPANION EXTENSION MATERIALS (LOCALLY AVAILABLE) THAT COMES WITH
THIS CCTAM
Topic/List of Extension Material (Including NAFES Item Number) Source
1.NAFES PUBLICATIONS
LEGUMES
String Bean Planting - AI.21 NAFES
Long Bean Planting - AI.22 NAFES
Common Bean Planting - AI.11 NAFES
Planting Peanut Techniques - AV.3 NAFES
Planting Soy Bean - AV.4 NAFES
VEGETABLES
Garlic Planting - AI.1 NAFES
Multiple Onion Planting - AI.2 NAFES
Chinese Cabbage Planting - AI.3 NAFES
Onion Planting - AI.4 NAFES
Broccoli Planting - AI.5 NAFES
Cabbage Planting - AI.6 NAFES
Caulis leaf Planting - AI.7 NAFES
Chilli Planting - AI.8 NAFES
Chinese Kale Planting - AI.9 NAFES
Chinese Radish Planting - AI.10 NAFES
Coriander Planting - AI.12 NAFES
Cucumber Planting - AI.13 NAFES
Green Chilli Planting - AI.14 NAFES
Green Kuang leaf Planting - AI.15 NAFES
Hot Chilli Planting - AI.16 NAFES
Lettuce Planting - AI.17 NAFES
Long cayenne pepper Planting - AI.18 NAFES
Bell pepper Planting - AI.19 NAFES
Tomato Planting - AI.20 NAFES
Spring Onion Planting - AI.23 NAFES
CEREALS/GRASS/SHRUBS
Rice Planting - AV.1 NAFES
Cassava Planting - AV.2 NAFES
Maize Planting - AV.5 NAFES
Sugarcane Planting - AIV.1 NAFES
THE CLIMATE CHANGE TRAINING AND ADAPTATION MODULE FOR CROP PRODUCTION
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Topic/List of Extension Material (Including NAFES Item Number) Source
2. NAFRI – HORTICULTURE CENTER
Classification of Vegetables in Laos NAFRI
Vegetable Production NAFRI
Handbook on Cucumber Production NAFRI
Handbook on Cucumber Seed Production NAFRI
Handbook on Yard Bean Production NAFRI
Handbook on Yard Bean Seed Production NAFRI
Horticulture Training for Lao PDR NAFRI- DED
3. NAFRI – CROPS RESEARCH CENTER
Community based Rice seed production NAFRI
4.SUPPLEMNETAL GLOBAL INFORMATION
Bio- Intensive Approach To Small Scale Household Food Production (See Section on seed and seedling management)
http://www.greenstone.org/greenstone3/nzdl?a=d&d=HASH0130e52a04a35a3f1af40565.8.2&c=fnl&sib=1&ed=1&p.s=ClassifierBrowse&p.sa=&p.a=b&p.c=fnl
IIRR
Saving your own Vegetable Seeds http://www.avrdc.org/pdf/PROD6-saving_your_own_vegetable_seeds.pdf
AVRDC
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Figure 5. Crop diversification
Figure 5.1. Multiple Cropping
Figure 5.2. The Three Sisters. Demonstrating the principles of multiple cropping.
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Figure 5.3. Community/Farmer Based Seed Production
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6.0 GROWING VEGETABLES UNDER HARSH CLIMATIC CONDITIONS
6.1 RATIONALE FOR THE ACTION
Climate change will influence the severity of environmental stress imposed on fruit and vegetable crops. Vegetable production is greatly influenced by water which is often limited during the rainy season due to excessive moisture brought about by rain. High temperatures can cause significant losses in productivity due to reduced fruit set, and smaller and lower quality fruits. Also, most vegetables are highly sensitive to flooding due to the reduction of oxygen in the root zone which inhibits aerobic processes
Vegetable production is an important livelihood strategy itself that is affected by climate change.
At the same time, it is an important climate change adaptation strategy for farmers who depend
largely on rice for livelihood. At the same time, those who have been growing vegetables will be
affected by the effects of climate change particularly in terms of erratic rainfall patterns and
temperature.
Vegetable production can provide an immediate source of vegetable protein and vitamins and
herbal medicine for primary health care. Near the house, it is easier to create a microclimate
that can preserve soil moisture and lower temperatures during extended drought periods. There
are also methods to maintain a garden during extended wet periods.
6.2 RECOMMENDED PRACTICES
Vegetables may be grown for market, home consumption or both. If grown in relatively large
quantities they would normally be planted along rows and receive fertilizer and pesticide inputs.
Lower volume vegetable production in home gardens would follow a less organized way of
planting and incorporate more trees (fruit trees) in the system.
6.2.1 PLANNING THE LOCATION AND ARCHITECTURE OF VEGETABLE PRODUCTION
a. Locate the garden so that it gets morning sun and afternoon shade.
b. Build a fence using sticks, thatching grass and other available materials.
c. Create a good microclimate by planting or maintaining the trees around the house.
Trees that have “open-shaped” and medium-sized (e.g. native guava) will regulate
heat but will not overly shade out vegetables. Avoid planting large “umbrella-shaped”
species (e.g. mango, tamarind) that may overly shade out vegetables.
d. If the backyard is big enough, plant a few medium-sized trees in the middle of the yard
to provide a gentle shade. Prune the trees regularly. Good examples would be trees
that provide vegetables such as Sesbania grandiflora or Moringa sp. (drumstick).
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e. Study the characteristics of the home garden area. Locate vegetables and fruit trees
according to their characteristics and varying characteristic of the land. Examples are
cited in Table 6a.
Table 6a. Crop locations and physical arrangements in the home garden (vegetables and selected important multi-functional trees).
Plants Wet Area (near water pump)
Plants for Dry Areas
Plants for Trellis
Plants that make good live Fences
Plants for under the Trellis
Plants that suppress Weed Growth
Taro Legumes Climbing legumes
Leucaena Taro Sweet Potato
Swamp Cabbage
Cassava String Beans Gliricidia Malabar spinach
Swamp Cabbage
Sugarcane Pineapple Lima Bean Drumstick Plant
Chinese Spinach or Swamp Cabbage Chinese Spinach or Swamp Cabbage
Malabar spinach
Banana Tamarind Yard long Beans
Casarina Sweet Potato Squash
Mango Wing Bean Bamboo Amaranth Yam
Sugar Apple Yarn Beans (Sincamas)
Hibiscus Mustard Bitter gourd
Jackfruit Climbing fruit vegetables
Pineapple
Grapes Squash Cassava
Cashew Gourd Cactus
Guava Soursop
Cucumber
Condol
Bitter gourd
Source: UNICEF, 1999 The UNICEF Home Gardeners Handbook
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6.2.2 PLANNING FOR COMPANION PLANTING
To minimize the use of pesticides, plant a variety of species, especially those that have beneficial effects to one another in terms of pest and disease prevention and control. Table 6b. Indicative list of companion crops and antagonistic crops.
Vegetable Companion Antagonist
Abelmoschus escolentus
(Ladyfinger)
Sweet potato, Swamp cabbage. Squash, Radish, Pechay
Allium cepa (Onion) Lettuce, Beets, Tomato Peas, Beans
Allium sativum (Garlic) Carrot, Lettuce, Beets, Tomato Peas, Beans
Apium graveolens (Celery) Cabbage family, Tomato, Bush bean
Asparagus officinale (Asparagus)
Tomato
Beta vulgaris Onion, Garlic Pole beans
Brassicas (Cabbage family) potato, celery, beet, onion, garlic Pole beans
Calocasia esculenta (Taro) Sweet potato, swamp cabbage
Cucumis sativus (Cucumber) Corn, Pole beans, Ladyfinger, Cowpea, Radish, Eggplant
Potatoes
Cucurbita maxima (Squash) Bottle gourd, Sponge gourd, Bitter guard, Cucumber
Ipomea aquatica (Swamp cabbage)
Cassava, Tomato, Ladyfinger, Corn, Eggplant, Amaranth
Ipomea batatas (Sweet potato) Corn, Cassava, Ladyfinger, Eggplant, Pigeon pea
Lactuca sativa (Lettuce) Carrots, Radish, Cucumber
Lagenaria siceraria (Bottle gourd)
Sponge gourd, Bitter gourd, Cucumber
Lycopersicum esculentum (Tomato)
Onion, Lettuce, Sweet potato, Radish, Swamp cabbage, Squash, Pechay, Garlic, Asparagus, Carrots
Potato
Mamordica charantia (Bitter gourd)
Lema bean, Hyacinth bean, Winged bean, Pole bean
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Phaseolus aureus (Mung bean) Corn, Sorghum
Phaseolus vulgaris (Snap bean) Corn, Carrot, Cucumber, Potato, Cabbage family
Onion, Garlic
Raphanus sativus (Radish) Beans, Cucumber, Lettuce
Solanum melongena (Eggplant) Beans, Lettuce, Sweet potato, Swamp cabbage, Squash, Pechay, Radish, Pepper
Solanum tuberosum (Potato) Garlic, Beans, Corn, Cabbage Cucumber, Tomato
Vigna sesquipedalis (Pole bean) Corn Onion, Beet
Vigna sinensis (Bush bean) Potato, Cucumber, Corn, Celery Onion
Source IIR. 2007 Bio Intensive Approach to Small Scale Household Food Production Table 6c. Additional information on companion planting.
Plant Companion Combination
Sweet Potato Corn, Pigeon Pea, Cassava, Gumbo, Eggplant, Tomato, Chilli, Pole Yard long Bean, Wing Bean, Lima Bean, Rice Bean, Jute, Amaranth
Cassava Sweet Potato, Chinese Spinach or Swamp Cabbage , Nightshade, Lettuce, Garlic, Vine Squash, Peanut
Taro Sweet Potato, Chinese Spinach or Swamp Cabbage , and underneath any crop grown on a trellis
Tomato} Eggplant} Gumbo}
Sweet Potato, Chinese Spinach or Swamp Cabbage , Vine Squash, Chinese Cabbage , Radish
Corn Gumbo, Tomato, Sweet Potato, Bush Beans, Pole Beans, Cabbage, Peanut, Vine Squash
Vine Squash} Bottle Gourd}
Sponge Gourd}
On trellis: Bottle Gourd, Sponge Gourd, Cucumber, Bitter melon
Bitter gourd On trellis: Legumes, Lima Bean, Yard long Bean, Hyacinth Bean, Wing Bean
Chinese Spinach or
Swamp Cabbage
Taro, Sweet Potato, Cassava, Tomatoes, Gumbo, Corn, Eggplant, any crop on trellis, Amaranth
Vine/ Legumes
On trellis, Bitter gourd on corn stalk, on banana stalk
Yam On fruit trees or trellis
Cucumber Corn, Pole Beans, Radishes, Gumbo, Eggplant
Tomatoes Sweet Potato, Radishes, Lettuce
(Drumstick Tree)
Sweet Potato, Chinese Spinach or Swamp Cabbage , Chinese Cabbage , Nightshade, Jute, Lettuce, Bush Squash, Yam, Amaranth
Source UNICEF 1999. The UNICEF Home Gardeners Handbook.
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6.2.3 PREPARING THE GARDEN PLOTS
a) Make the soil loose and friable. With more space in the soil, more water can be stored.
This will encourage the roots to grow well and fully utilize available soil nutrients. This will also allow more plants to be planted on the plot, thereby reducing open space and evapotranspiration.
b) Together with deep digging technology, apply compost and practice mulching.
c) In areas where raw material for compost is lacking, establish the rows on east- west direction. Then establish a row of fast growing, leguminous trees in the alley every two plots. Cut the trees regularly to avoid shading and use the leaves green mulch when preparing the soil for the next cropping.
6.2.4 RAISING ROBUST SEEDLINGS
a) If local materials are available, raise vegetable seeds (those that do not have sensitive
roots) in individual containers available in the farm such as small baskets, empty cans and plastic bottles. Containers need to be about 6 to 10 cm deep (about the length of the middle finger). Water the individual containers. Do not do this with crops that have sensitive roots as carrots, radish, cauliflower etc.
b) Practice hardening of vegetable seedling. Before transplanting seedlings in containers to the garden expose them to the sun and wind for a few hours each day for a week. Increase the exposure each day.
6.2.5 WATERING THE PLANTS PROPERLY
a) How to apply water to vegetables could affect the way plants develop resistance to water
stress. Poor watering practices can stunt plant growth and can even be fatal to plants.
As a rule, plants should be watered thoroughly but infrequently.
b) Thorough but infrequent watering allows the water to sink slowly and the soil surface to
dry up. This allows the water to move down through the soil by progressively satisfying
the water-holding capacity of every soil particle. These conditions encourage the
development of a deep root system. Plants are deep-rooted and can withstand drought
periods because they rely on subsoil water.
c) Plants that are watered frequently and in small amounts are shallow-rooted and often
get affected with even a slight reduction in moisture availability. In this case, the plants
become dependent on applied water. Note: This does not apply to young plants (i.e.,
less than 40 days old), which need daily watering in dry weather.
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d) Water the plants early in the morning. Do not water the plants at noon as roots will scald.
If watering in the late afternoon, make sure the plants dry out before nightfall to prevent
disease.
6.2.6 RAISING THE HOME GARDEN UNDER VERY WET CONDITIONS
a) Choose species that are tolerant to water-logged soils such as taro, yams, sesbanias,
etc. Choose plants that have multiple edible parts like the winged bean, sweet potato, cowpea, and amaranth.
b) Plant on raised beds to improve drainage. Use artificial sidings such as banana trunks, and wood planks.
c) Practice container gardening. Grow plant on used containers such as used plastic containers or bamboo culms. Then these containers are placed on raised platforms.Vegetables that is large-seeded, like beans, squash, etc., can be planted directly to the pots. Sow small-seeded varieties like tomatoes, etc., first in seedbeds for two to three weeks before transplanting them. Vine plants, like squash or ampalaya (bitter gourd), can climb the rooftops of the house or porch.
d) In areas subject to long-term floods, consider adopting the Sorjan methods. This involves high embankments where vegetables can be planted, side by side with ditches for fish (see also CCTAM #3 on on-farm and community level water management).
e) Also in long flooded periods, practice a system of floating garden. The Bangladesh system involves planting vegetables on garden soil carried by water hyacinth platform. (See also CCTAM #3 on on-farm and community level water management)
6.3 BENEFITS AND COSTS
Growing vegetables under harsh climatic conditions whether in backyard or entrepreneurial
scale is possible, if practical but environmentally sound practices are observed. In the case of
backyard production, the benefits are readily available supply of low cost supplemental food and
nutrition and home medical remedies especially when farmers lose income from failure of main
crops. In the case of market-oriented production, the main advantage is the added income
especially if the type of crops and timing are planned well so that they can be marketed at the
right time and at the right price.
The main costs involved are the cost of seeds and planting materials and labor requirements
and for the production of natural fertilizers and pesticides. Labor costs increase if more species
are planted. If farmers can produce and save their own seeds, this will lower the cost of
planting materials. The farmer can start by producing only a limited number of vegetable
species that are relatively easy to grow. As the farmer gains more experiences and confidence,
more vegetable species could be planted.
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6.4 APPLICABILITY IN IRAS PROJECT SITES
The various technologies aimed to ameliorate harsh climatic conditions are applicable in the
project sites. However, the type of species to plant would depend on the rainfall, soil and
temperature features of particular sites. The marketability of particular species will also have to
be considered.
6.5 COMPANION ESTENSION MATERIALS (LOCALLY AVAILABLE) TO COME WITH THIS
CCTAM
Topics/List of Extension Materials (Including item number of NAFES) Source
FROM NAFES
Publications on Bio-fertilizers (see also Section 2 above) SAEDA
Publications on Legumes (see also Section 6 above) NAFES
Publication on Vegetables (see also Section 6 above) NAFES
FROM NAFRI
Horticulture Manual for Lao PDR NAFRI -DED
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Figure 6. Growing vegetables under harsh climatic conditions
Figure 6.1. Preparing the Garden Plots
Figure 6.2. Integrated vegetable garden - alley cropping
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Figure 6.3. Raising robust seedlings for dry prone areas
Figure 6.4. Under very wet conditions
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Figure 6.5. During flooded conditions
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7.0 GROWING FRUIT TREES AND OTHER TYPES OF TREES IN THE
FARM
7.1 RATIONALE FOR THE ACTION
Perennial crops are generally more drought resistant than annual crops. However
environmental stresses brought about by climate change affect soil fertility and availability of
nutrients important for fruit set and overall production. Pollination processes are important for
fruit development and are also suspected to be affected by these environmental processes.
Fruit trees and other economic trees can help farmers adapt to climate change and earn
additional income as well. Apart from providing extra cash, it helps in soil fertility improvements.
With deep roots, trees help “pump up” soil nutrient from the deeper parts of the soil which are
not normally available to shallow rooted food crops. Through its biomass (i.e. leaves that fall on
the ground), trees regularly provide nutrients to the soil, mimicking the function of forests. Trees
help minimize surface runoff by promoting water infiltration into the soil.
7.2 RECOMMENDED PRACTICES
Fruit trees and industrial tree crops (e.g. coffee, cacao, and rubber) can be grown with annual
crops and livestock in various zones of the farm:
a) as farm border plants of live fence;
b) as part of home garden;
c) as alleys in the crop zone area;
d) as part of newly opened fallows; or
e) in specially designated areas not devoted to crops
To be able to obtain the benefits of trees in the farm without causing negative effects on annual
crops, the correct species and the proper planting scheme would be important.
7.2.1 CHOICE OF TREE SPECIES
Several criteria would be essential:
a) What species would meet a particular need preferred by the farmer? The farmer
may have a particular reason to want to plant trees (source of cash, food and nutrition,
medicine, fertilizer, etc.). Some trees possess many characteristics, others are few. For
instance, certain leguminous trees produce nitrogen rich biomass that easily decays.
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They also can be coppiced (cut) regularly without dying (e.g. Leucaena sp. and Gliricidia
sp.).
b) What species can fit into the climatic and soil conditions of the area? Trees have
different characteristics. Some trees prefer distinct wet and dry seasons to be able to
flower and fruit successfully. Some trees cannot tolerate acidic soils. Only certain
species can grow at certain altitudes. Access to knowledge and skills to propagate
and establish the species. Some species require specialized knowledge for its
production operations.
c) What species will negatively affect the growth of the annual food crops? Big wide
canopied trees will shade out plants and deprive them of sunlight. Trees that have
shallow rooting habits may compete with soil nutrients. The ideal trees to be planted are
those that are of medium size, which do not have wide-spreading canopies and are
deep-rooted.
Table 7a below is a list of fruit tree species that have been prioritized for Lao PDR by NAFRI,
NAFES and NUOL in 2005. Additional information from FAO and other sources have been
provided to describe the environmental requirements and other characteristics of these species.
Table 7b is an additional list containing potentially important species that may be considered by
Lao farmers who are interested in fruit tree production.
Table 7c is a list of varieties of fruits important for Lao PDR. These varieties have been studied
by the NAFRI Horticulture Research Center.
Table 7a. Characteristics of tropical fruit trees prioritized for Lao PDR.
Crop Scientific Name
Plant Heigh
t (metr
e)
Space betwe
en plants (metre
)
Climate Requireme
nt*
Altitude
(metre)
Soil pH
Maturity
(years)
Intercrop*
Seed Stora
ge
Rambutan
Nephelium lappaceum
13 130 W 1000 SA 10 1,10 Moist
Sapota (chico)
Manikara zapota
8 10 D/W 1500 SA 5 2,6,10 Dry
Lychee Litchi chinensis
12 D 500 A 12 Moist
Mango Mangifera indica
30 15 D 500 SA 6 Moist
Sweet Tamarind
Tamarindus indica
25 16 D 500 SA 16 Dry
Lime Citrus 5 D 1000 A Moist
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aurantifolia
Guava Psidium guajava
10 6 D 1500 SA 3 1,4,9,10 Dry
Pomelo Citrus grandis
5 8 W/D 1500 SA 5 1,10 Moist
Jujube Zizyphus abyssinica
12 D 2000 SA,A
Dry
Longan Dimocarpus longan
12 D 450 SA Moist
Jackfruit Artocarpus heterophyllus
10 8 W/D 1500 SA 4 1,2,4,9,10
Moist
Custard apple
Annona reticulata
10 W 1500 SA Dry
Papaya Carica papaya
4 2 W 900 SA,A
1,10 Dry
Cashew Anacardium occidentale
3 8 D 1000 SA 3 2,3,4,9,10
Dry
Source of list of species: NAFRI et al. 2005. Integrated Fruit Tree Systems in Improving Livelihoods in the Uplands of Lao PDR Source of information on environmental requirements: IIRR, 1993. 'Crops and Cropping Systems', Agroforestry Technology Information Kit (ATIK), Department of Environment and Natural Resources and International Institute of Rural Reconstruction. ICRAF, - Agroforestry Tree Database. http://www.worldagroforestrycentre.org/sea/products/afdbases/af/index.asp Legend: Climate Requirement: D=dry, W=wet Intercrops: (1) Pineapple (3) Banana (5) Leucaena (7) Lanzones (9) Cacao (2)Lemon (4) Coffee (6) Annona Species (8) Avocado (10) Coconut Soil pH: A-Acidic; SA-Slightly Acidic; AL-Alkaline
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Table 7b. Characteristics of tropical fruit trees potentially important for Lao PDR.
Crop Scientific name Plant Height (metre)
Space between plants (metre)
Climate Requirement*
Altitude (metre)
Soil pH
Maturity (years)
Intercrop* Seed Storage
Custard Apple Annona squamosa 5 5 D/W 1000 SA 3 1,2,10 Dry
Avocado Persea Americana 8 10 W 2000 SA 5 3,4,9,10 Moist
Banana Musa sp. 4 3 W 1000 SA 4 4,8,10 Moist
Breadfruit Artocarpus artilis 15 12 D/W 1500 SA 5 3,4,6,7,9 Moist
Star Fruit Chrysophyllym caimito
20 10 D/W 1500 SA 5 3,4,6,7,9 Dry
Lemon Citrus madurensis 5 5 D/W 1500 SA 4 1,10 Moist
Duhat Syzygium cumini 20 15 D/W 300 SA 7 3,4,7,9 Moist
Durian Durio zibethinus 30 15 W 2500 SA,A 5 4,7,9 Moist
Soursop Anona muricata 7 6 D 300 SA 3 1,4,9,10 Dry
Lanzones Lansium domesticum 15 8 W 200 SA 10 1,2,4,9,10 Moist
Orange Citrus sinensis 5 8 W/D 5000 SA 5 1,10 Moist
Papaya Garcinia mangostana 4 2 W 900 SA,A 1,10 Dry
Canarius sp. 20 14 W 1500 SA 14 1,3,7 Dry
Pineapple Anana sativa 1.5 1 W 1000 SA,A 1.5 3,4,5,9,10 Dry
Sandaricum koetjape 15 125 W/D 1500 SA 12 Moist
Source: DENR and IIRR,1993. Agroforestry Technology Information Kit (ATIK), Department of Environment and Natural Resources and International Institute of Rural Reconstruction. Legend: Climate Requirement: D=dry, W=wet Intercrops: (1) Pineapple (3) Banana (5) Leucaena (7) Lanzones (9) Cacao (2)Lemon (4) Coffee (6) Annona Species (8) Avocado (10) Coconut Soil pH: A-Acidic; SA-Slightly Acidic; AL-Alkaline
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Table 7c. Fruit varieties being studied by the NAFRI Horticulture Center.
1.Mango (Mangifera indica)
1.1 Falan
1.2 Nam Dokmai
1.3 Kiew Sweuy
1.4 Nang Kangvan
1.5 Slaya
1.6Chao Khounthip
1.7 Oak long
1.8 Nong zaeng
1.9 Sok Anan
1.10 Norhaed
1.11 Moungkaew No.1
1.12 Thongdam
1.13 Chozho
3.Longan (Dimocarpus longan)
3.1 E-dor
3.2 E-hiew
3.3 Biew Khiew
4.Litchi (Litchi chinensis)
4.1 Honghiuy
4.2 Kimcheng
5.Jujube (Ziziphus jujuba)
5.1 Vietnam
5.2 Lienthong (Golden coin)
5.3 Apple
5.4 Bombeh
2.Tamarind (Tamarindus indica)
2.1 Sythong
2.2 Somphoo
2.3 Nam Pheung
2.4 Muenjong
6.Rose apple (Syzygium jambos)
6.1 Zomphou
7.Pomelo or Pummelo (Citrus maxima or
Citrus grandis)
7.1 Paen Sythong
7.2 Khao paen
Source: NAFRI Horticulture Center
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7.2.2 WHERE AND HOW TO INCORPORATE FRUIT TREES
The following are the various ways to incorporate fruit trees in the farm
a) As Border Trees. This is the simplest form of agroforestry and the least intrusive to annual crop based farming (rice and other crops). Planting trees on the border contribute to biodiversity in the agricultural landscape.
b) As multi-storey system. This will involve planting shade tolerant annual and biennial crops together with perennial tree crops with different heights. Plants that are not shade tolerant can also be considered but this may only be possible while the trees are still young.
c) As part of a shorter duration fallow system. This is growing species to help improve
the fertility of a short fallow. An example is the growing of pigeon pea shortly after establishing upland rice in a newly opened fallow area.
The pigeon pea remains in the field after the rice is harvested and serves as a host to high value insect called Stick Lac, which produces a chemical-like industrial compound with adhesive qualities. The pigeon pea serves to enrich the fallow until such time that a new rice crop is planted on the 3rd year, whereby it is cut and replanted again.
d) As alley crops in between rows of rice or corn. The leaves from the alley crops are then used as fertilizer. This system has not been adopted by Lao farmers because it competes with space. However with the climate change scenario, this practice may be considered in very drought situations that demand drastic solutions.
e) Along the contours in a hilly farm. The same principle as alley crop is used here. This
has not been adopted also due to competition to space. However, under climate change scenarios that involve very high runoff, this practice may again be considered to help offset huge farm losses from massive erosion.
7.2.3 PLANNING FOR TREE–CROP INTERACTION (DISTANCING, COPPICING ETC.)
In choosing what fruit tree and other tree species to grow in the farm in direct combination with crops under it, consider the following:
a) Determine the crops that can possibly grow under trees. Table 7d is an indicative list of the various crops (annual and perennial) that can slightly or moderately tolerate shade.
b) Establish a certain distance between the tree and annual crop so that the crop will not be overly shaded or to avoid too much competition in water and nutrients.
c) Implement practices to further prevent competition for light, nutrients and water.
For instance, remove “watersprouts” or shoots from trees, as well as pruning.
d) Some species need to be coppiced in order to use the biomass as feed or fertilizer and also to reduce the shade it brings.
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Table 7d. Planning for tree-crop interaction.
Crop type Slightly Shade tolerant Moderately Shade Tolerant
Fruits Bixa orellana (Achuete) Musa sp. (Banana) Anana sativa (Pineapple)
Annona muricata (Soursop ) Averrhoa bilimbi Lancium sp. (Lanzones) Pithecellobium dolce Psidium guajava (Guava) Theobroma cacao (Cacao) Amomum caradamomum (Indonesian cardamom)
Root crops Colocasia esculenta (Taro) Pachyrhizus erosus (Yam bean, singkamas)
Dioscorea alata (Purple Yam) Kaempferia rotunda
Vegetables and spices
Capsicum sp. (Chili) Ocimum basilicum (Basil) Coleus amboinicus (Oregano) Lablab purpureus (Bataw, hyacinth bean)
ZIngiber officinale (Ginger)
Legume Vigna unguiculata (Long bean) Arachis glabrata (Rhizoma peanut)
Acacia mearnsii (Black wattle) Centrosema pubescens (Centrosema) Calapogonium muconoides (Calapogonium)
Plantation crops Casuarina equisetifolia Vanilla fragrans (Vanilla)* Piper nigrum (Black Pepper) Coffea sp. (Coffee)
Ornamentals Calliandra calothyrsus (Calliandra) Flemingia macrophylla (Flemingia) Philodendron maximum (Philodendron)
Livistonia rotundifolia Boehmeria nivea (Ramie) Codiaeum variegatum (Croton) Anthurium sp.
*Highly tolerant Source: DENR and IIRR, 1993. Agroforestry Technology Information Kit (ATIK), Department of Environment and Natural Resources and International Institute of Rural Reconstruction. 7.2.4 PREPARING SEEDLINGS FOR HARSH ENVIRONMENTS IN THE FIELD
After choosing the species and determining the location in the farm, the next step is to raise the
seedlings. Information on raising seedlings is indicated in several materials.
A few points that need to be raised to produce seedlings that can withstand hostile field
conditions with insufficient moisture and high temperatures are listed below.
a) Start with disease-free materials. Obtain planting materials especially from the citrus
families from known sources.
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b) Practice hardening of seedlings. A few weeks before out planting, gradually expose the
seedlings to the sun few hours a day and increasing the number of hours as the out
planting time draws nearer.
c) Practice field grafting.
7.2.5 ENABLING YOUNG TREES TO WITHSTAND CONDITIONS OF WATER STRESS
Young seedlings in the field are vulnerable to moisture stress and intense heat. To deal with this
situation, consider the following:
a) Two months before planting, prepare a sufficient hole for the seedling (ideally 50 x 50).
Put the top soil aside. Fill it up with crop residues and compost. Upon planting return the
top soil on top of the crop residue.
b) Plant in the late afternoon.
c) Improvise shade for the young seedling.
d) Use mulch around the young seedling.
e) If planting in the grassland, ring weed around the seedling.
There is also a need for the community to agree on how to control the movement of animals in
the field to protect young seedlings from being eaten or destroyed. If this is not possible,
provide tree guards.
7.3 BENEFITS AND COSTS
Introduction of perennial tree crops such as fruit trees would be a low cost but very important
investment towards improving the resilience of the farm against climate change. This includes
improving the microclimate against harsh solar radiation, contribute to erosion control and soil
fertility improvement and provide supplemental food, nutrition and income.
The costs basically include planting material production and procurement and labor for plant
proportion, plant establishment and maintenance especially during the first 3 to 4 years.
7.4 APPLICABILITY IN IRAS PROJECT SITES
The above technologies for raising of seedlings, plant establishment and maintenance are
applicable in IRAS project sites. The choice of fruit tree species would, however, depend on the
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climatic and soil conditions of the project sites especially its altitude, rainfall distribution and soil
pH.
Planting materials can be provided by NAFRI Horticulture Centre and its network of farmer co-
operators who have been trained to produce vegetable seeds. The farmer trainers are spread in
different provinces. The horticulture Centre has the list of farmer seed suppliers of the different
species.
7.5 COMPANION EXTENSION MATERIALS (LOCALLY AVAILABLE) TO COME WITH THIS
CCTAM
Topic/Title of Publication Source
A. NAFES PUBLICATIONS ON FRUIT TREES
Jackfruit Planting - AIII.1 NAFES
Banana Planting - AIII.2 NAFES
Papaya Planting - AIII.3 NAFES
Mango Planting - AIII.4 NAFES
B.NAFRI
Fruit Trees in Lao NAFRI
Horticulture Training Manual for Lao PDR NAFRI & DED
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Figure 7. Growing fruit trees and other types of trees in the farm
7.1. How to incorporate fruit trees and other trees in the farm
7.2. How to incorporate trees in the farm (continued)
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8.0 INTEGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT
8.1 RATIONALE FOR THE ACTION
On the global level, climate change is expected to alter climatic conditions that would tend to
increase the incidence of pests and diseases. Based on the reported trends in other countries,
certain organisms such as pollinator bees may also be affected by changes in climatic
conditions. Solely relying on chemical pesticides brings immediate relief from pests but not
sustainable in the long run. They also threaten the health of the farm family. Any sick member of
the family could mean having to dispose of safety nets such as livestock. The farm family
cannot afford to carry this additional risk on top of the threats posed by land degradation and
climate change.
8.2 RECOMMENDED PRACTICES
In areas where pest incidence is a major concern on top of other concerns brought about by
climate change, two sets of actions are recommended. Where resources allow, the practice of
Integrated Pest Management (IPM) is strongly recommended. In areas where resources would
not immediately allow the implementation of Farmer field schools (FFS) and interim measures
should be encouraged such as helping farmers apply practical principles of IPM that emphasize
preventive measures.
8.2.1 INTEGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT (IPM)
a) With proper planning, IPM can provide immediate and effective solutions on famer
problems with pests without jeopardizing the resilience of the farm to the effects of
climate change. IPM is an ecosystem approach to crop production and protection that
combines different management strategies and practices to grow healthy crops and
minimizes the use of pesticides.
b) IPM involves several steps that enable farmers to understand the ecosystem
(relationship between organisms and the environment) of a crop production enterprise.
They study the environmental factors that cause pest situation and on this basis, they
can plan ways to manage pest population to avoid damage that could cause yield loss.
Specific management measures include a combination of preventive methods,
application of carefully calibrated chemical pesticides or use of botanical control
methods.
c) Farmers go through a systematic learning process referred to as farmer field school or
FFS that lasts for one season. Under FFS, the field is used as the primary resource for
discovery-based learning. Farmers acquire management skills, generate knowledge,
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carry out experiments, and learn how to make better informed decisions to protect their
crops from pests.
8.2.2 PRACTICAL PREVENTIVE MEASURES
While waiting for the conduct of FFS for IPM in their areas, farmers can immediately apply
practical measures for crop protection. These revolve around the preventive measures such as
the following:
a) To the extent possible, keep the soil very healthy so that plants are well-nourished with
high resistance against pest and diseases. Specific methods are described in Section 2.
b) Practice multiple cropping especially crop protection. Avoid planting the same crop
continuously in the same piece of land to cut the life cycle of pests.
c) In growing vegetables, practice companion planting. Section 6 describes the various
crops that can be planted together for crop protection purposes.
d) Know the natural predators of harmful insects on your major crops. Provide a sanctuary
for beneficial microorganisms that prey on harmful vectors and pathogens. Having tree
fences is one way of providing sanctuary for beneficial organisms.
e) Practice overall hygiene in the farm. Prune trees regularly. Burn or burry diseased parts
of plants to minimize spread.
f) Use homemade botanical pesticides as needed.
g) If chemicals have to be used, use the correct pesticide to the problem at hand. Observe
extreme caution in the use and disposal of pesticides.
8.3 BENEFITS AND COSTS
Farmers who practice IPM are able to effectively manage pest and protect crop yields without
incurring huge production costs due to chemicals. At the same time, the long term resiliency of
the farm against other causes of stress or shocks is maintained. Farmers who go through FFS
become empowered to make informed decisions on concerns that affect the farm. The minimal
and careful use of pesticides will also mean avoiding the high cost of accidents or deterioration
of health due to pesticide pollution.
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The main cost of IPM involves time and effort among farmers to go through farmers classes
over at least one season. Implementing the practices every season will also require additional
effort to regularly monitor the presence of pest populations as well as their natural enemies.
8.4 APPLICABILITY IN IRAS PROJECT SITES
IPM methods can be introduced in IRAS project sites if farming communities express the desire
to undergo FFS. Farmers may prioritize the topic they would like to address i.e. rice, corn and
particular vegetable species.
IPM though FFS has been implemented in several provinces with rice and vegetables, among
others. If farmers are interested to go through FFS, they can request assistance from the MAFF
IPM program. A trainer/facilitator can be deployed to train a group of representative farmers
(between 20 to 30) though FFS methods.
8.5 COMPANION MATERIALS (LOCAL EXTENSION MATERIALS) THAT COME
TOGETHER WITH THIS CCTAM
Topic/Title (Including Code # for NAFES Publications) Source
FROM NGO PARTNERS
Natural methods for Pest Control MAF – DOA and HELVETAS
Natural methods for Pest Control SAEDA
SUPPLEMENTAL GLOBAL REFERENCE
Field Ecological Guide for Rice MAF IPM Program/FAO
Field Guide - Root crops : sweet potato MAF IPM Program/FAO
Field Guide for Vegetables: tomato cabbage, cucumber eggplant
MAF IPM Program/FAO
Field Guide for Legumes: Peanut, green beans, French beans
MAF IPM Program/FAO
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Figure 8. Integrated pest management and preventive methods
Figure 8.1. Integrated Pest Management involves studying the ecology of a particular cropping
system so that effective village strategies can be implemented to address the pest problem in
the most eologically sound and economically viable way. Farmers attend a farmer field school
(FFS) to learn, in a hands on way, the nature of the pest and the damage it inflicts. It also
identified natural enemies and other ways to manage the pest population.
Figure 8.2. IPM methods include cultural practices such as companion planting (left) mechanical
methods such as wrapping fruits (center) and strict farm sanitation (right).
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Figure 8.3. IPM does not ban the use of pesticides, Rather it aims to help farmers become safe
and to use pesticides wisely (right). Botanical pesticides may also be tried out (left).
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9.0 POST HARVEST HANDLING
9.1 RATIONALE FOR THE ACTION
Farmers have traditionally suffered post-harvest loses even before the problems associated with
climate change have become more pronounced. Such loses are generally attributed to poor
harvesting practices and post-harvest handling practices. Recent changes with the rainfall
patterns mean that unexpected rainfall coincides with traditional harvesting periods. This
predisposes harvested crops from post-harvest infections and other conditions to early decay.
Absence of storage facilities, poor transport conditions also lead further to post harvest loses.
In rice, loses are experienced in each of the important stages of harvesting, threshing, cleaning,
drying storage and milling. In fruits and vegetables, farmers lose part of their production due to
poor harvesting, practices and post-harvest handling such as cleaning, sorting, packaging and
transport. Between 15 to 30% of production is lost from inappropriate practices.
Investing in raising more vegetables and fruits in the farm as an adaptation strategy, would
mean a need to ensure that farmers can fully benefit from that investment. One way to do this
would be to minimize losses from harvest and post-harvest handling. The major problems
include poor quality at harvest, careless harvesting and handling and improper processing
methods.
9.2 RECOMMENDED PRACTICES
9.2.1 RICE
Various innovations have been tested and recommended to improve harvesting and post-
harvest handling. These innovations involve both simple farmer level measures that involve
machinery with the assistance of local business (e.g. mechanized harvesting, threshing and
improved milling practices) under the coordination of the respective PAFOS and DAFOs. At this
stage, there is a very limited official recommendation for rice post-harvest at the farm level.
However, more information may be obtained from the MAF Department of Agriculture.
9.2.2 FRUITS AND VEGETABLES
There are existing global recommendations for each major vegetable and fruit crop. However,
only few have been actually tested in Lao PDR. The following are a combination of practical
global recommendations for vegetables and fruits in general, as well as local recommendations
for two species in particular (tomato and chilli).
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a) Pre-harvesting operations
Unhealthy soils make plants vulnerable to various infections that are carried by the final
product at harvest time. Thus, make sure that plants are healthy especially during the
reproductive stage. Fertile soils and careful pest management will help ensure that
harvested products are free from infections at harvest time.
b) Harvesting
b.1. Quality cannot be improved after harvest, only maintained; therefore, it is important
to harvest during the proper maturity stage and at peak quality. Harvest the
vegetable and fruit at the right stage; not too late and not too early. Table 9a
provides examples of the right stage of harvesting.
b.2. Harvest during the cool periods of the day. If harvesting during the hotter part of the
day cannot be avoided, the produce should be kept shaded in the field to minimize
weight loss, and wilting.
b.3. Harvest maturity of other vegetables such as leafy mustards and amaranth is based
on the plant size, number of days after planting (usually 25-30 days) and/or
tenderness of leaves. Harvest when they have developed to the fullest size.
b.4. Harvest the fruit type of vegetable (e.g. tomato) or the fruit carefully to avoid cuts
and bruises that will allow pathogens to enter the product. Use knives, cutters or
pruning shears to cut the fruit from the stem.
b.5. Throwing harvested produce into the collection container should be avoided to
prevent physical injuries. Avoid stacking the cut crop in the field.
c) Cleaning, Sorting and Packaging
c.1. Most leafy vegetables are washed in clean water to remove dirt and other debris
and surface contaminants. This is especially important during rainy weather to
prevent contamination.
c.2. For root crop vegetables (carrots, sweet potatoes, potatoes) remove soil by
washing. Wash water should be changed at regular intervals before it becomes
heavily contaminated with fungi and bacteria and spreads infection. Cleaning should
be done before cooling and packing.
c.3. Do not wash most leafy vegetables and beans.
c.4. Immediately remove latex from certain fruits (mango, banana) to avoid discoloration
(causes brown mango and banana).
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c.5. Immediately cull diseased or injured plants to avoid contamination.
d) Cooling, packaging and storage
d.1. Line existing containers (bamboo, wood) with banana leaves or other clean material
that will cushion the product from injury.
d.2. An alternative is to wrap the produce individually. Wrapping produce reduces
vibration and impact damage. Old newsprint and brown paper can be used as
wrapping materials. Some vegetables such as mustard greens and kale may be
bundled before wrapping.
d.3. Provide some ventilation for the packaging materials. A good rule of thumb is to
have 5% of the container sides and/or ends vented. A few large vertical vents are
better than many small round ones.
d.4. Do not store fruits and vegetables together. Fruits produce ethylene that causes
rapid ripening of vegetables. If clay jars are available, store vegetables in clay jar
with water at the bottom of jar.
d.5. Practice evaporative cooling. In the absence of refrigeration, a very simple way of
doing this is covering a bunch of vegetables with cloth and sprinkling water over the
cloth from time to time. In other instances, jars are used with wet cloth placed over
them.
d.6. Provide preventive treatment such as alum. For instance, to prevent soft rot in
cabbage, expose the butt end of the head of the cabbage to the sun or apply alum
on the same part. The use of saturated alum solution and lime paste has been
found very effective in controlling soft rot in common cabbage.
Table 9a. Some examples of maturity indices of vegetable crops.
Crop Index
Root, bulb and tuber crops
Radish and carrot Large enough and crispy (over-mature if pithy)
Potato, onion, and garlic Tops beginning to dry out and topple down
Yam bean and ginger Large enough (over-mature if tough and fibrous)
Green onion Leaves at their broadest and longest
Fruit Vegetables
Cowpea, yard-long bean, snap bean, hyacinth bean, sweet pea, and winged bean
Well-filled pods that snap readily
Lima bean and pigeon pea Well-filled pods that are beginning to lose their greenness
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Crop Index
Lady finger Desirable size reached and the tips of which can be snapped readily
Bottle gourd, snake gourd, and dishrag gourd
Desirable size reached and thumbnail can still penetrate flesh readily (over-mature if thumbnail cannot penetrate flesh readily)
Eggplant, bitter gourd, chayote or slicing cucumber
Desirable size reached but still tender (over-mature if color dulls or changes and seeds are tough)
Sweet corn Exudes milky sap from kernel if cut
Tomato Seeds slipping when fruit is cut, or green color turning pink
Sweet pepper Deep green color turning dull or red
Muskmelon Easily separated from vine with a slight twist leaving clean cavity
Honeydew melon Change in fruit color from a slight greenish white to cream; aroma noticeable
Watermelon Color of lower part turning creamy yellow, dull hollow sound when thumped
Flower vegetables
Cauliflower Curd compact (over-mature if flower cluster elongates and become loose)
Broccoli Bud cluster compact (over-mature if loose)
Leafy vegetables
Lettuce Big enough before flowering
Cabbage Head compact (over-mature if head cracks)
Celery Big enough before it becomes pithy
Source: Bautista, O.K. and Mabesa, R.C. (eds). 1977. Vegetable Production. University of the
Philippines at Los Baños. Additional detailed maturity indices for fruits, vegetables and cut
flowers can be found online at http://postharvest.ucdavis.edu on a wide range of Produce Fact
Sheets.
9.3 BENEFITS AND COSTS
Applying proper harvesting and post-harvest handling can help the farmer minimize loses which
could normally constitute up 30% of the produce.
In the case of rice, costs would involve rental fees for machinery. Arrangements need to be
made between farmer groups, the private firm who provides the machinery and the PAFO and
DAFO.
In the case fruits and vegetables, the costs will involve additional labor for practicing more
careful harvesting techniques, and the use of practical methods for cooling the products.
Additional materials for packaging (banana leaves) or storing (clay jars) may be incurred.
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9.4 APPLICABILITY IN IRAS SITES
The various methods are generally applicable in IRAS project sites. In the case of fruits and
vegetables, one will have to check if the prices in the local market would justify the costs for
extra effort for harvesting and post-harvest handling.
9.5 COMPANION EXTENSION MATERIALS (LOCALLY AVAILABLE) THAT COME WITH
THIS CTTAM
Topic Source
FROM NAFES
None documented so far NA
FROM DOA (POST HARVEST UNIT)
Evaporative cooling DOA (forthcoming)
Treating soft rot of cabbage through application of alum or guava leaf extract
DOA (forthcoming )
SUPPLEMENTAL GLOBAL REFERENCES
Evaporative cooling http://www.fao.org/climatechange/17850-0c63507f250b5a65147b7364492c4144d.pdf
FAO
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Figure 9. Post-harvest handling
Figure 9.1. Pre-harvesting and harvesting
Figure 9.2. Cleaning Sorting Packing
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Figure 9.4. Cooling, Packing Storage
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10.0 ADJUSTING THE PLANTING PERIOD (FYI ONLY)
10.1 RATIONALE FOR THE ACTION
Late rains, long dry spells during the growing season and abrupt endings of rainy season are
increasingly being felt by the farmers. One CCA approach is to adjust the timing of planting. The
objective is to plant at the right time (onset of the actual rainy season for a given year) and
harvest at the right time (end of that particular rainy season). Other farm operations will also be
adjusted.
10.2 RECOMMENDED PRACTICES
Farming communities have traditional ways of predicting the onset or cessation of rains by
observing animal behaviour (height of ants’ nests in the tree, color of appendages of frog and
lizards etc.).
By combining this local knowledge with science based predictions, farmers and local extension
teams would be able to avoid or minimize losses from unexpected rainfall aberrations by either
planting earlier or planting later than the usual planting period.
Two cases in Indonesia and the Philippines demonstrate this process. In the Philippines, the
Local authority and the Weather Bureau (with the assistance of the Asian Disaster
Preparedness Center), set up local agro-meteorological station, which would issue regular
advisories. Local authorities and local agriculture offices interpret results and provide advice to
the farmers on the timing of planting and farm operations.
The GoL is in the final stages of preparing the system for climate information service for
farmers. Once fully established, farming communities with the assistance of the PAFO and
DAFO would be able to receive seasonal climate forecast. On this basis, farmers and PAFO
/DAFO would be able to decide on when to adjust the planting period.
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11.0 PHASING THE IMPLEMENTATION OF TECHNOLOGIES
The ten (10) sets of practices and technologies for climate change adaptation cited above are
applicable in varying degrees in the IRAS project sites. However, location specific conditions at
the district level may require that some technologies be immediately implemented, while others
may be implemented at a later time. Such conditions would include the following:
- Relative exposure of communities to certain technologies; - Level of skills, level of risk taking; - Availability of planting materials and markets; and - Some financial resources for procurement of materials or hiring supplemental labour.
The following criteria may be used to identify those technologies that can be done immediately
(Year 1).
Local communities already have some exposure to the technology;
Do not require major changes in growing practices requiring new and relatively complex skills;
Those that do not involve crop competition (intercropping, multi-storey cropping, etc.);
Do not require a lot of time and money to acquire planting materials or equipment;
Can provide immediate protection or adaptation to physical hazards e.g. surface runoff.
Based on these criteria, the following technologies can be implemented immediately while
others can be done in succeeding years. However, for technologies falling under the second
category, certain preparatory work needs to be done immediately.
Table 11. Proposed phasing of application of technologies.
ACTIONS IN YEAR 1 ACTIONS IN SUCCEEDING YEARS
Water management ( See also CCTAM #3 )
Contour plowing
Natural vegetative strips (NVS)
Diversion canals in the upper portion of the farm
Gully checks and soil traps
Community level watershed and aquifer protection
Soil fertility improvement
Introduce more legumes through simple sequential cropping after the main crop of rice
Simple composting with application of bio extracts
Learn different sources of mulch to match farm nutrient needs ; and
Raising of forage on farm to support the full or partial housing of animals that allow collection and use of animal waste
Preparation and application of bio extracts
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proper application
Innovative Nature based production systems
Practice some of the component techniques of the production system such as mulching
Systems for Rice Intensification (SRI)
Direct Seeded Mulch based cropping System (SCV )
Organic agriculture
Climate smart varieties
Small plot trials of drought tolerant varieties
Small plot trials of flood tolerant varieties (for floods 21 days and below)
Based on results of trials , disseminate use of varieties to the community
Try varieties with resistance to certain pest and disease
Crop diversification
Introduction of short duration, grain legumes that have proven tolerance to moisture stress such as mungbean, cowpea and pigeon pea.
They can be introduced as sequential or relay crops in soils with some amount organic matter.
Introduction of hard to grow vegetables as intercrop and sequential crop.
Practice of intercropping which involves altering the spacing of plants Train interested farmers to locally produce seeds.
Vegetable production
Practices that increase tolerance to water stress
Companion planting ( involves planning plant combinations
Fruit tree and other fruit trees
Use of trees for fencing ,
Raising of seedlings to deal with water stress
Planting of trees along the contours of a Natural Vegetative Strip (NVS)
Practice of multi story cropping (growing crops, short trees, tall trees at the same time in the same area)
IPM and preventive systems
Preventive measures through basic farm sanitation
Practice IPM in rice, vegetables etc
Post harvest handling
Practice proper harvesting (right maturity) and post harvest handing of vegetables and fruits
Change timing of planting
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Change in timing of planting of the main crop (dependent on establishment of early advisory system)
Technologies that are recommended for implementation in succeeding years still require
preparatory work on Year 1. These preparatory works include the following:
- For changes in varieties - try out first in small plots (100 m2 to 1,000m2).
- For introduction of new species, try out in small plots first. Make arrangements for sustainable sources of plant materials. This may involve contacting seed centers or farmer seed networks to produce seeds,
- For new and complex technologies (SRI, SCV), learn the technology well, visit and interact with other farmers who have done it. Make arrangements for farmer trainers.
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Key References
ACIAR. 2012. Online report on Lao PDR projects in Agriculture.
AVRDC. Project report, Post-harvest Technology for Leafy Vegetables.
AVRDC. 2005. Saving your own seeds. Taiwan.
Bioversity. 2007. Bioversity Annual Report.
http://www.bioversityinternational.org/fileadmin/bioversity/publications/pdfs/1284_Biovers
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Bautista, O. 1994. Introduction to Horticulture. 2nd edition, Los Banos, Philippines.
Bautista, O.K. and Mabesa, R.C. (eds). 1977. Vegetable Production. University of the
Philippines at Los Banos. Additional detailed maturity indices for fruits, vegetables and
cut flowers can be found online at http://postharvest.ucdavis.edu on a wide range of
Produce Fact Sheets
CIAT, GTZ, LMRP. 2010. Study on Potential Impacts of Climate Change on Land Use in the
Lao PDR Department of Agriculture, Post Harvest Office, Lao PDR. 2012. Overview of
Post Harvest Handling Project in Lao PDR.
DENR and IIRR, ----. Agroforestry Technology Information Kit (ATIK), Department of
Environment and Natural Resources and International Institute of Rural Reconstruction
DOI. Systems for Rice Intensification – DOI guidelines
FAO-EcoCrop. http://ecocrop.fao.org/ecocrop/srv/en/cropFindForm
FAO. Soil and Water Conservation: A Study Guide for Farmer Field Schools and Community-
based Study Groups
FAO. 2006. Home Gardens Key to Improved Nutritional Well-being.
FAO 2010. Rice and food security in a changing climate.
http://www.fao.org/fileadmin/templates/agphome/documents/Rice/rice_fact_sheet.pdf
FAO 2011. http://www.fao.org/forestry/15526-03ecb62366f779d1ed45287e698a44d2e.pdf
FAO. 2012. Vegetable IPM Asia. Bangkok. http://www.vegetableipmasia.org/
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Foley-NCA, 2009. Growing Resilience Adapting for Climate Change in Upland Laos Main
Report
Gummert, M. ____. Improved Post Harvest Technologies for Reducing Postharvest Losses and
Increasing of Farmers Incomes from their Rice Harvests.
ICRISAT, 2007. http://ejournal.icrisat.org/SpecialProject/sp1.pdf
IIRR. 1993. Bio Intensive Approach to Small Scale Household Food Production, Silang, Cavite,
Philippines.
IIRR and MYRADA. 1997. Resource Management in Rainfed Drylands, Cavite, Philippines.
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IRRI Knowledge Bank. http://www.knowledgebank.irri.org/
IWMI. 2010. Johnston, R.; Lacombe, G.; Hoanh, C. T.; Noble, A.; Pavelic, P.; Smakhtin, V.;
Suhardiman, D.; Kam, S. P.; Choo, P. S. 2010. Climate change, water and agriculture in
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sustainably meet food needs, enhance ecosystem services and cope with climate
change.
MAF. IPM Program Field Guides.
MAF and UNDP. 2012. CCTAM for On Farm and Community Level Water Management. Draft
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NAFES. 200_. Various Extension Publications on Legumes, Vegetables and Fruits.
NAFES. -----. Organic Agriculture Manual
NAFES. ----. Organic Agriculture Pamphlets
NAFRI. -----. Direct Seeded, mulch based cropping systems (SCV)
NAFRI. 1998. Vegetable Production Manual.
NAFRI. 200_. Fruit Crop Production Manual.
NAFRI. 2001. Nutrient management in rainfed lowland rice in the Lao PDR
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NAFRI. 2002. System of rice intensification (SRI)
NAFRI. 2004. Lao Uplands Sourcebook. Volume 1 and 2.
http://www.nafri.org.la/03_information/sourcebook.htm
NAFRI. 2004. Varietal screening for drought resistance in rain-fed lowland rice in the Lao PDR
NAFRI. 2005. Effective Community-Based Irrigation systems Development in The Lao PDR
NAFRI. 2006. Rice in Laos (Chapters 1-4) Lao-IRRI Project
NAFRI. 2008. Recommended rice varieties for the dry-season irrigated environment of the Lao
NAFRI. 2011. Recommended Rice Varieties for Lao PDR (unpublished)
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