Post on 12-Sep-2018
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ERNWACA Research 2011 Small Grants
Program
Report of the research
Psychosocial Analysis of Entrepreneurial Intention among Scholars of Cameroonian Capital Cities. A
Comparative Study
Members: NJENGOUE NGAMALEU HENRI RODRIGUE (Team leader)
DOUANLA DJIALA ADELINE MERLYNE
SIEWE FELIX DUCLOS
DJUINE NOUBOSSE DORIMAINE
SCIENTIFIC GODFATHER : NJIALE PIERRE MARIE, Ph.D
January 2012
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TABLE OF CONTENT
ACKNOWLEDGMENT ...............................................................................................................................iii
LIST OF TABLES..................................................................................................................................iv
ABSTRACT.............................................................................................................................................v
RESUME.................................................................................................................................................vi
INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................................... - 1 -
CHAPTER I: PROBLEMATIC................................................................................................................ - 3 -
1.1. CONTEXTUAL BACKGROUND............................................................................................... - 3 -
1.2. STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM ........................................................................................... - 4 -
1.3. OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY....................................................................................................... - 7 -
1.4. RESEARCH INTEREST............................................................................................................ - 7 -
CHAPTER II: REVIEW OF LITERATURE .............................................................................................. - 9 -
2.1. CONCEPT OF ENTREPRENEURSHIP........................................................................................... - 9 -
2.2. ENTREPRENEURSHIP EDUCATION, TRAINING AND SELF EMPLOYMENT ............................... - 10 -
2.3. THE REALITIES OF JOB MARKET IN CAMEROON..................................................................... - 13 -
2.4. THEORY OF PLANNED BEHAVIOR ........................................................................................... - 16 -
CHAPTER III: METHODOLOGY.......................................................................................................... - 20 -
3.1. POPULATION .......................................................................................................................... - 20 -
3.2. SAMPLING TECHNIQUES......................................................................................................... - 20 -
3.3. THE EXPLANATORY SURVEY: FOCUS GROUP DISCUSSION..................................................... - 22 -
3.4. OPERATIONALISATION OF ENTREPRENEURIAL INTENTION ................................................... - 23 -
3.5. THE URBAN ENVIRONMENTS OF THE STUDY: YAOUNDE AND DOUALA ............................... - 26 -
3.6. THE PRE-TEST: RELIABILITY AND VALIDITY ............................................................................. - 26 -
3.7. THE QUANTITATIVE DATA COLLECTION ................................................................................. - 27 -
CHAPTER IV: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION ......................................................................................... - 28 -
4.1 ATTITUDE TOWARD ENTREPRENEURSHIP IN CAMEROON...................................................... - 28 -
4.2. ENTREPRENEURIAL SUBJECTIVE NORMS................................................................... - 30 -
4.3. PERCEIVED ENTREPRENEURIAL BEHAVIORAL CONTROL..................................... - 32 -
4.4. ENTREPRENEURIAL INTENTION RESULTS.................................................................. - 34 -
4.5. RESULTS DISCUSSION....................................................................................................... - 36 -
CONCLUSION................................................................................................................................. - 39 -
REFERENCES.................................................................................................................................. - 41 -
ANNEXE .......................................................................................................................................... - 46 -
FOCUS GROUP DISCUSSION GUIDE.................................................................................................. - 47 -
QUESTIONNAIRE DE L’INTENTION ENTREPRENEURIALE ESTIDUANTINE ................... - 48 -
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ACKNOWLEDGMENT
This research has been carried out thanks to the Educational and Research Network of West
and Central Africa (ERNWACA), which provides us with methodological support and
subvention for its realization.
We thank the resource person of our work, Prof. Bababar Thiaw from Senegal, for the
guidance given to us from Bamako via internet.
Our gratitude goes also to Prof. Pierre Marie Njialé, the scientific godfather of the work, who
involves himself in the supervision of this work starting from the project writing till the final
report writing.
We cannot forget the congratulation and encouragement of Professors André Emtcheu and
Georges Epah Fonkeng who paid attention to our scientific research learning process for
many years now. May they find in this report an aspect of the result of their coaching.
We finally thank Mr Fomba Emmanuel Mbebed, Miss Bongka Julienne and Nguemgaing
Helen, who read and criticize the first draft, lecturers and class delegates who help us to pass
the questionnaire to scholars on campuses, and all the respondents who voluntarily participate
to the survey. We greatly recognize your memorable contributions. May your availability
remain entirely to serve the quest for knowledge.
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LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: Sample representation of higher education institutions .........................................- 21 -
Table 2: Focus group discussions.........................................................................................- 23 -
Table 3: Operationalization of variables ..............................................................................- 25 -
Table 4: Comparison of attitudes toward entrepreneurship in Cameroon ...........................- 28 -
Table 5: Significance of the difference about attitude toward entrepreneurship .................- 29 -
Table 6: Comparison of entrepreneurial subjective norms .................................................- 30 -
Table 7: Significance of the difference about entrepreneurial subjective norms.................- 32 -
Table 8: Comparison of perceived entrepreneurial behavioral control................................- 33 -
Table 9: Significance of the difference about perceived entrepreneurial behavioral control - 34 -
Table 10: Comparison of entrepreneurial intention .............................................................- 35 -
Table 11: Significance of the difference about entrepreneurial intention............................- 35 -
Table 13: Familiarity with occasional small business..........................................................- 38 -
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ABSTRACT
The objective of this study is to compare entrepreneurial intention of scholars of
Douala and Yaoundé higher education institutions by measuring three components which are
the attitude towards entrepreneurship, entrepreneurial subjective norms and perceived
entrepreneurial behavioral control. The theory of planed behavior of Ajzen (1991) is the
psychosocial model mostly used to analyze entrepreneurial intention. The data collection has
been done in two steps: focus group discussions and a survey using a questionnaire. Results
indicate that generally, entrepreneurial intention is just average among scholars of
Cameroonian capital cities. Anyway, Douala scholars realize better scores than those of
Yaoundé ( t = ,031; p < ,05). The status of economic capital seems to explain why Douala
respondents are slightly better in regards to entrepreneurial aspiration (t = - 3,876; p < 0,01).
And mastery experiences (t = - 3,588; p < 0,01). Nevertheless, some moderator variables like
the fascinating perception of public service, the low self-evaluation of entrepreneurial skill,
absence of a national entrepreneurial culture, financial dependency to the family have a
negative impact on their entrepreneurial intention. Cameroonian higher education institutions
are still far to be qualified entrepreneurial since they do not equip scholars to face challenges
and uncertainty of modern labour market.
Key words: Entrepreneurial intention, scholars, higher education institutions, Douala, Yaoundé,
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RESUME
L’objectif de cette étude est de comparer l’intention entrepreneuriale des étudiants des
établissements de l’enseignement supérieur des villes de Douala et Yaoundé à travers
l’évaluation des trois composantes que sont l’attitude vis-à-vis de l’entrepreneuriat, les
normes entrepreneuriales subjectives et la perception de control de l’action entrepreneuriale.
La théorie de l’action planifiée d’Ajzen (1991) est le modèle psychosocial exploitée ainsi que
c’est le cas dans plusieurs études portant sur l’analyse de l’intention entrepreneuriale. La
collecte des données s’est déroulée en deux phases : la première a consisté en des discussions
de groupe et la seconde à une enquête quantitative à l’aide d’un questionnaire. Il ressort des
résultats de l’étude que l’intention entrepreneuriale des étudiants des deux villes est
généralement moyenne. Toutefois, les sujets de Douala obtiennent des scores meilleurs que
ceux de Yaoundé (t = 0,031; p < ,05). Le statut de capital économique de la ville de Douala
semble expliquer les scores légèrement supérieurs des étudiants de cette capitale en ce qui
concerne les aspirations entrepreneuriales (t = - 3,876; p < 0,01) et les expériences actives et
de maîtrise entrepreneuriale (t = - 3,588; p < 0,01). On relèvera tout de même que des facteurs
tels que la fascination que suscitée par la fonction publique, la faible auto-évaluation des
aptitudes entrepreneuriales, l’absence de culture entrepreneuriale d’envergure nationale, la
dépendance financière de la famille sont autant de variables modératrices qui ont une
incidence négative sur l’intention entrepreneuriale des étudiants des deux citées urbaines.
Tout compte fait, le système de l’enseignement supérieur camerounais est encore loin d’être
véritablement entrepreneurial eu-égard à ce qu’il ne peut encore doter l’étudiant de
compétences lui permettant de faire face aux défis et à l’incertitude du marché de l’emploi
moderne, dont une composante majeure au plan local est informelle.
Mots- clés : intention entrepreneuriale, étudiants, institutions de l’enseignement supérieur,
Douala, Yaoundé
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INTRODUCTION
It is now obvious worldwide that, public and private formal sectors are become unable
to employ the total number of graduates who have completed their studies and thereby are
ready to offer their competences in the work market. The rising unemployment rate is a
challenge that universities, high schools, societies and governments are facing. However,
Harada (2005) think that the increased unemployment creates positive effect on potential
entrepreneurship which “has emerged as the engine of economic and social development
throughout the world” (Audretsch and Thurik, 2004, p.144). It is assumed that if the
number of entrepreneurs rises in a country, there are lots of employment/job
opportunities because a country whose economy sees new companies created benefits
considerable opportunities for new jobs.
Ibicioglu, Baysal and Ozkul (n.d.) perceived the modern university as an organization
integrated with all walks of life. When the authors claim that the responsibility of modern
university towards society is inspected, its activities are directed by the society, all the
institutions, equipment, knowledge and man power that it has, are assessed with an
entrepreneur mentality and makes additional financial source, and it has transformed into
“Entrepreneur University” which is managed with modern management techniques, we ask
ourselves if it is the case of sub-Saharan universities in general and Cameroonian higher
educational system in particular.
“Entrepreneurship is the mindset and process to create and develop economic
activity by blending risk-taking, creativity and/or innovation with sound management,
within a new or an existing organization.” (Green Paper, 2003; 6) Nowadays, it is
argued that One of the important factors in growing of entrepreneur individuals is
“Educational Institutions” according to the fact that the kind of entrepreneurial culture
students will integrate in their school life can negatively affect their entrepreneur features
and lead them to choose less risky jobs which are far from innovation and creativity,
or contrary, it can encourage entrepreneurship and direct them to innovation and creativity.
For this author, an educational system which stimulates the individual skills and creativity
helps to form positive attitude towards entrepreneurship. A direct link between educational
programs, the social and economic environment and self-employment propensity can be
analyzed by assessing entrepreneurial intention of scholars. For instance, the change in
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educational perception had a great contribution to entrepreneurship in USA. The
responsibility here is not just the matter of educational system. A household research in UK
shows that people who had information about entrepreneurship through friends, families
or education seriously think about setting up a business. In a series of studies. Landes
(2003) demonstrates the importance of national cultural factors, values, and social attitudes in
explaining the development of entrepreneurial activity, and in turn the economic performance
of nations.
Entrepreneurial intention is a psychosocial concept involving the interactions between
psychological traits and reinforcements produced by the social, cultural, historical,
economical and political environment. At time of globalization characterized by the fast
changes and the liberalization of the economy, we are interested in how much significant is
the entrepreneurial intention of Cameroonian scholars. The contrasted capital cities which are
Douala and Yaoundé inspired us the will of comparison to comprehend more the mutual
influences between urban environments, higher educational training and individual attitude.
We title our study “Psychosocial analysis of entrepreneurial intention among scholars
of Cameroonian capital cities. A comparative study”
The present report is constituted of four chapters. The first is the problematic of the
study which is subdivided by the contextual background of the study, the statement of the
problem, the objectives and the interest of the study. The second chapter which is the review
of literature focuses on the entrepreneurship phenomenon, the role of entrepreneurial
education in the creation of wealth, the complexities of job market in Cameroon and finally
the theoretical foundation of the research. The third chapter concerns methodology and
presents the population of the study, the sampling techniques, the qualitative and quantitative
surveys, the data collection instruments and it elaboration. The fourth chapter is reserved for
the results and the discussion.
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CHAPTER I: PROBLEMATIC
This general introduction is made up of the historical background of the study, the
contextual background and the theoretical background. After these preview aspects, the
statement of the problem follows and leads to the research questions, the objectives of the
study, the research interest. The general introduction ends-up with the delimitation of the
subject and the plan of the report.
1.1. CONTEXTUAL BACKGROUND
The persistent patterns of wealth and poverty in the world has in recent years led to a
renewed interest in identifying variations in entrepreneurial performance caused by culture.
Countries vary in their entrepreneurial cultures. It is proved for example that the negative
influence of colonialism explained the slow growth of Latin America, Africa and Asia and has
direct relevance to the relationship between political institution, development and
entrepreneurship (Engerman and Sokoloff, 2005).
In several European Union Member States, the social security system biased towards
insuring the wage-employed in comparison with the self-employed can explain the fact that
unemployment ‘push’ effect toward self-employment seems rather weak (Jones and
Wadhwani, 2006). Some studies which compare traits and motives of self-employed with
those of wage-employed individuals suggest that self-employed are more focused on
individual responsibility and effort, and more attached to an ethic of ‘working hard’
(Beugelsdijk and Noorderhaven, 2005). Even if it is obvious that some individuals have a
high propensity to create their own business, the contribution of the educational system to the
development of entrepreneurial abilities and skills among the population is considerable (Van
der Kuip and Verheul, 2004).
Competitiveness in the labour market is created by graduates massively produced by
the increasing universities. Globalization has open up labour market outside national
boundaries, and graduates have to compete, not only to the few employment opportunities,
but also to global entrepreneurial standards (Kilasi, 2011). Since there is a need for
entrepreneurial response from higher education institutions throw entrepreneurship education.
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Entrepreneurship education is diversely achieved in higher education institutions in different
parts of the world. There are countries like United Kingdom, United States of America, and
some others which are somehow ahead in its public response. There is no general agreement
with regards to what constitutes entrepreneurship education.
In its broader terms, entrepreneurship education is focused on business and production
of entrepreneurs and self-employed people and contributes to the development of positive
attitudes and those skills, such as creativity and flexibility, which will enable graduates to
cope with uncertainties in the labour market (Volkmann, Wilson, Mariotti, Rabuzzi,
Vyakarnam, Sepulveda, 2009). The expected outcome of entrepreneurship education is
entrepreneurship capacities to practice entrepreneurial behaviour in response to socio-
economic challenges but there is less knowledge on how these courses and programs should
be taught and how interdisciplinary approaches could be built (European Commission, 2008).
African countries are also concerned with the increasing number of graduates which has gone
beyond the available job opportunities and the informal sector has been the leading employer.
Clearly, there is a need to design new strategies to prepare young people for the fast changing
and competitive world of work (Kilasi, 2011).
The pressures within the higher education sector has increased interest of researchers
about the connection between entrepreneurship and education in general and various
entrepreneurship education in specific (Fayolle et al, 2006). Higher education institutions
need to reflect and structure their curricula to meet the variations of the labour market.
Currently, the capacity of the national labour market to absorb new entrants is “far from
sufficient” (ILO, 2009, p.5). Even when they are found, there is little guarantee that they will
last for a long time. Consequently, entrepreneurship education have gain relevance today than
ever before and there is a need to train graduates to be able to cope with development
challenges through exploring opportunities around them.
1.2. STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
Environment has an impact on entrepreneurship in a given society. It is well known that
new businesses in the EU grow significantly slower than those in the US. The Global
Entrepreneurship Monitor experts (GEM, who identifies entrepreneurship needs of countries
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across the world) reports that better education and training are important tools that can
strongly motivate entrepreneurial activity. There is a strong need for increasing the quality of
entrepreneurship education and training in different countries. EU final report Education for
Entrepreneurship (2004) states it clearly for EU countries.
The situation in Cameroon is somehow critical according to Fomba (2009 p.2) who says
that “Education offerings have instead been perceived as reinforcing white-collar mentality,
dormant entrepreneurial culture and endemic psychological dependence.” The author argues
by emphasizing on the fact that “while majority of graduates suffer from job-seeking
syndrome, non-graduates and apprentices skilled in the informal sector dominate
entrepreneurial ventures”.
After the economic crisis of the late 80s in Cameroon the University Reforms of 1993 was
designed to decentralize State universities, enhance professional training and ensure
sustainable development of the private sector. In that vein, the decree on the Orientation of
Higher Education (2001) focused on professional orientations and increased the role of
private sector in University Governance and workforce preparation. The introduction of the
Bachelors, Masters and Doctorate (BMD) program has been done in order to diversify
professional training according to labour market needs (MINESUP, 2007). Fomba (2009)
notices that despite the spirit of the 1993 Reforms and 2001 decree, graduate unemployment
still ranked highest.
The BMD is unable to address properly the informal sector which offers more employs in
sub-Saharan countries. It seems to still train scholars for civil service needs and does not
appear as a measure of sustainable education for the informal sector. This situation leads
Fomba (2009) to conclude that entrepreneurship education in Cameroon is truncated. Serpell
(2007) defends the idea of the damages of the orthodox western higher education which tends
to decontextualize the learning process by extracting learners from everyday life into a
detached mode of full-time reflection, with emphasis on structured exercises and analytical
review of authoritative disciplinary texts.
Only few institutions offer appropriate training on entrepreneurship as a measure of
sustainable education in the Faculties of management, like ESSEC at the University of
Douala. Fomba (2009) observed that the entrepreneurship education in Cameroon is offered
by families, the traditional sector, Civil Society Organizations (CSOs) and some government
departments and structures. This reality draws our attention on the role played by the
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environment on the promotion of the entrepreneurial culture among Cameroonian scholars.
The contrast between our two main towns, political and economical capital cities which are
Yaoundé and Douala could help to illustrate this. If the higher education institutions of the
two towns belong to the same general policies and organizational functioning, they are quiet
different referring to their economical potentialities. Douala is viewed as the city of business
in opposition to Yaoundé, perceived as the administrative and political center point of the
country. Researchers have long realized that societies vary in their ability to create and sustain
entrepreneurial activity. Cameroon is usually called a miniaturized Africa due to the
remarkable diversity it displays about climate, ethnicity, native languages and religions for
example. Cultures and mentalities vary from one region to another.
It is possible to investigate the interaction between the educational background of scholars
of Douala or Yaoundé and their environment when they are already involved in the
entrepreneurial activities. This methodological approach could help to analyze how both local
realities influence the launching of new ventures after the completion of the studies.
Unfortunately, this approach will not permit us to know more about entrepreneurial intention
of those who are not capable or do not embrace an entrepreneurship career. In 2005, a
Household survey brought statistics about job seeking dispositions and preferences which
indicated that only 18% of people aspired to the independent preference. According to Fomba
(2009) the Independent preference ranked lowest is just the indication of an unfavourable
entrepreneurial attitudes, low drive and difficulties entering the informal sector in Cameroon.
What about the reality in 2011? Does the negative attitude toward entrepreneurship previously
mentioned remain the same and what about it magnitude in the two capital cities of the
country.
The satisfactory model of analysis of the interaction between social and personal factors
underlining the entrepreneurial intention is served by the Social Psychology. The Theory of
Planned Behaviour (TPB) of (Ajzen, 1991) has become the most frequently used theoretical
framework in recent studies of entrepreneurial intention (Alexei and Kolvereid, 1999; Audet
2002; Autio et al. 2001; Krueger, Reilly and Carsrud, 2000; Van Gelderen et al., 2006). The
Theory of planned behaviour emphasis both on the social context and the person who carries
out the behaviour since the intention is perceived as a function of the attitude towards the
behavior, the subjective norm and the perceived control. Our research question is phrased as
followed: belonging to the same higher education system, do scholars of Yaoundé and Douala
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capital cities of Cameroon manifest the same entrepreneurial intention since they live in
contrasted economic, politic and social local environments?
1.3. OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY
The main objective of this study is to compare the entrepreneurial intention of scholars
of the high educational institutions of Cameroon political and capital cities, Yaoundé and
Douala respectively. The research is a comparative analysis based on the components of the
entrepreneurial intention as it can be operationnalized using the TPB of Ajzen (1991).
Consequently, specific objectives we state are the following:
1) Explore the attitude toward entrepreneurship among scholars of Yaoundé and
Douala higher education institutions;
2) Evaluate entrepreneurial subjective norms of Yaoundé and Douala scholars;
3) Measure entrepreneurial behavioural perceived control of scholars of Yaoundé and
Douala higher education institutions.
1.4. RESEARCH INTEREST
Recognizing the critical role that culture plays in determining entrepreneurial behaviour,
several well-known scholars have called for future research addressing the impact of national
culture on the rates and types of firm-level entrepreneurship. Education has an important role
to play in developing the skills that generate an entrepreneurial mindset and in preparing
future leaders for solving more complex, interlinked and fast-changing problems. For that
purpose, education must address the priorities of governments and the private sector. It must
be seen as the fundamental mechanism for attaining sustainable economic development and
societal progress. “More than ever, the world needs effective global leaders and stronger
educational systems that prepare the current and future generations of entrepreneurs,
workers, teachers, managers and individuals with the skills needed to succeed and help
others.” Schwab (2009, p. 6)11
1 Foreword of “Educating the Next Wave of Entrepreneurs. Unlocking entrepreneurial capabilities to meet the
global challenges of the 21st
Century. A Report of the Global Education Initiative”
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This work is a kind of evaluation of how much Cameroonian higher education promote
the entrepreneurial culture. The direct impact of the input of higher education in favor of
entrepreneurship can be measure in terms of scholars’ intention to create wealth throw
innovation, new ventures, self-employment and firm creations. The evaluation of student’s
attitude towards entrepreneurship in a context where wage-employment is still valorized, as
the recruitment of 25 000 youths in the public service has shown, can tell more about what is
still to be done for the establishment of the so called mindset which should be the
entrepreneurial culture.
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CHAPTER II: REVIEW OF LITERATURE
2.1. CONCEPT OF ENTREPRENEURSHIP
One widely accepted definition of the field by entrepreneurship suggests that it is “A
scholarly field that seeks to understand how opportunities to bring into existence “future”
goods and services are discovered, created, and exploited, by whom, and with what
consequences.” Venkataraman (1997, p. 6) Entrepreneurship is the dynamic process of
creating incremental wealth by individuals or groups through the use of resources. This
dynamism is an act of initiative, drive, commitment, diligence, perseverance, organized effort,
and achievement outlook, to undertake some specific functions of performing productive
activities and the capacity to bear and associate with the investment.
According to Thurik and Dejardin (2011) entrepreneurship is usually measured in
terms of firm creations or business ownership and self-employment rates. Entrepreneurship
nowadays is universally recognized as critical resource in the economic development process
of a country. The entrepreneurial activities create incremental wealth which is a precondition
to economic growth. Entrepreneurs recognize opportunities and then act to convert them into
tangible economic benefits (e.g. by creating new ventures). The existence of entrepreneurs
and its accelerated growth is a precondition to continuous and sustainable economic growth.
Entrepreneurs are the individual or groups who perform entrepreneurial activities. The
entrepreneurs played significant role in the economic development process during 19th & 20th
centuries in developing business successfully with continuity. It will continue to play
dominant role in economic growth particularly industrial during 21st century. The prime
functions of an entrepreneur in a formal work of market are Assessment of Market
opportunities, responding to competition, gaining command over scarce resources, identifying
sources of inputs, and marketing of products, dealing with public, bureaucracy, management
of human resources, technological innovation and improvements in production techniques.
In addition to key business development skills, three sets of factors are related to the
formation of entrepreneurial organizations. Psychological factors, such as, an individual's
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need to achieve, contribute to the entrepreneurial urge. The most widely used traits are the
need for achievement (Langan-Fox & Roth, 1995; McClelland, 1965), the risk taking
propensity (Brockhaus, 1980; Miner & Raju, 2004), the internal locus of control (Furnham,
1986; Kaufmann & Welsh, 1995) and the general self–efficacy (Chen, Green, & Crick, 1998;
Markman, Balkin, & Baron, 2002). Nevertheless, the methodological as well as the theoretical
aspects of this personality perspective has been criticized (Gartner, 1988; Robinson,
Stimpson, Huefner, & Hunt, 1991; Shane & Venkataraman, 2000; Shaver & Scott, 1991).
Sociological factors, such as social status, like a child's position in the family, family
experience can affect the child's likelihood of becoming an entrepreneur. Environmental
factors also play a key role in business formation. To start, survive and progress continuously
and develop organization that outlive its creator, an entrepreneur must develop basic
management skill. These skills are more important than an entrepreneur's background or
environment. This can be developed regardless of background or skill through education and
training. As the organization grows and gets bigger its organizational structure, market area,
management style are also changed. Entrepreneurs have to cope with the changing conditions
of the business.
2.2. ENTREPRENEURSHIP EDUCATION, TRAINING AND SELF EMPLOYMENT
The origins of entrepreneurship education at universities and colleges lies in the US,
with the first MBA course introduced in 1947 at Harvard Business School under the title
“Management of New Enterprises” (Katz 2003). From the 1980s onwards, entrepreneurship
education spread first to northern Europe, then around the mid-1990s to Central and Southern
Europe and to the rest of the world (Volkmann et al., 2009).
The entrepreneurial education traces its origin from the growing ideas that
entrepreneurial qualities of man can be improved or new skill can be developed through
special type of training and education among the potential persons in a society (Volkmann et
al., 2009). The entrepreneurship education course includes the contents that help the students
to be aware of economic opportunities, business environment, identification of project,
preparation of business plan, improving motivation for achievement, techniques of enterprise
management, self-development techniques, improving precision skill, building self-
confidence, opportunity sense sensitivity, analytical skills, etc.
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Entrepreneurship education is now a vulgarized course in business education and
technical curriculum in many American and European countries. The courses are being
offered either in business school or at community colleges, colleges of engineering education.
Entrepreneurship is important as a diffusion mechanism to transform scientific inventions into
new product and service innovations. The distinction between institutions of higher education
from other institutions in society is their role in creating knowledge and producing high-
potential graduates and researchers.
For entrepreneurship education in institutions of higher education can offer the chance
to develop knowledge-intensive high-growth enterprises from all academic disciplines, not
just technical ones. Higher education institutions should create an environment that fosters
entrepreneurial mind-sets, skills and behaviours across their organizations. Universities can
teach students how to start and grow enterprises in ways that benefit society (Volkmann et al.,
2009). A shift from classical models of teaching to experiential learning approaches is
necessary if entrepreneurship education at universities is regarded as theoretically based real
life experience. High-growth entrepreneurship can be a consequence of an adequate form of
education for developing high potential students and graduates that can become future opinion
leaders and perhaps role models.
Research has demonstrated that high-growth entrepreneurs in Europe are better
educated than other entrepreneurs and the general population. Most founders of technology-
based enterprises have a university degree. High-growth enterprises frequently generate new
jobs and new products, services and markets. They are generally built on and related to
innovation since entrepreneurial activity is often based on fundamental technologies like
genetic engineering or, earlier, microprocessor technology. In Germany for example,
enterprises started by individuals with university degrees tend to grow faster than enterprises
founded by non-academics (Egeln, 2000). The strength of entrepreneurship education is to
influence people’s attitudes towards entrepreneurship and the prospects and feasibility of
becoming a growth entrepreneur.
Entrepreneurship education aims to develop students’ competences and
entrepreneurial intentions towards starting a business as a career option. Entrepreneurial
capacities and mindsets and the promotion of the social recognition for entrepreneurial
initiatives are the general goals of European universities and colleges (European Commission,
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2006, 2008). In the United States, an entrepreneurial culture is essential for encouraging and
supporting students and the faculty in launching high-growth ventures.
In the United States, Canada and Australia the economic significance of
entrepreneurial education is recognized in universities and colleges primarily finance
themselves privately and are therefore in a position to make investments in enterprises.
Otherwise, in countries where state universities and colleges predominate, entrepreneurial and
commercial university initiatives will also gain in importance when they are increasingly
forced to retrench their expenses, and under budget constraints have to look out for new ways
of financing.
North America is considered as a role model with regard to high-growth enterprises as
well as the leader in entrepreneurship education. The enormous economic contribution of
Microsoft, Amazon, Intel, Cisco or Google and many other innovative high-growth firms in
the United States are the proofs. “Compared with other countries, the United States has the
longest history in entrepreneurship education, and also one of the most entrepreneur-friendly
cultures and structural conditions in the world” (Volkmann et al., 2009, p. 53).
The personal entrepreneurial developments of students and staff is another element
arguing that universities are entrepreneurial because when they accept wider responsibility for
the personal development of members, particularly with respect to future social, career and
lifelong learning experiences (Gibb, 2008). In this sense it is an advantage for the university
to favor the development of student talents in the field of entrepreneurship. In this vein, the
university itself becomes a learning organization open to learn from all stakeholders at all
levels. By doing so, university initiates knowledge exchange and relations to external
stakeholders such as university-business links.
DiGregoria and Shane (2003) quoted by Volkmann et al. (2009, p. 58) reveal that “Other
factors such as an entrepreneurial culture within the university and its surroundings play an
important role. For example Stanford University, with research expenditure amounting to
US$ 391 million, supported by the government, produced 25 licensed start-ups in 1997,
whereas Duke University with sponsored research expenditure of US$ 361 million generated
none .”
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What is the case in Cameroon? After having evocated what Fomba (2009) said concerning
entrepreneurial issues in Cameroon, we want to go further by mentioning several others
aspects of the situation.
2.3. THE REALITIES OF JOB MARKET IN CAMEROON
Over and above numerous short-term explanations specific to each country, there are
serious deficiencies in the areas of entrepreneurship and management in Africa. African
economies are almost all considered to be among the least well managed in the world.
Africans are reputed to be the least inspired, the least trained and the least equipped
entrepreneurs (Kabeya Tshikuku, 2001).
The result that is generally observed in this depressing climate is fivefold: i) reconversion
of indigenous enterprises into precarious businesses operating in the underground of the
informal sector; ii) cautious and non dynamic behaviour of nationals considering the
establishment of enterprises; iii) an impressive number of bankrupt or abandoned indigenous
enterprises; iv) a disturbing number of indigenous enterprises that never survive their
founders; v) and scarcity of institutions for the supervision, financing and promotion of
enterprises- small and medium – established and owned by natives.
Economists observe that entrepreneurship in Africa is reduced by wealth creation throw
the Small size enterprise by entrepreneurs who have not generally benefited training in
entrepreneurship and management. Accounting is irregular and basic so that significant
information are not transmitted to financial institutions. Financing milieu and banks are
difficult to access since entrepreneurial projects suffer the lack of business plan. Mahamat-
Idriss (2010) notices three types of paradoxes which sustain the specificity and the complexity
of the African entrepreneurial context. There are the well-developed informal sector, cultural
and ethnic’s practices and the familial fundraising of entrepreneurs who rarely demand credit
to formal banks.
In black African countries in general and in the Economic and Monetary Community of
Central Africa (CEMAC) in particular, the Small and even the Too Small Size Enterprises are
better created and grow easily than Medium Size Enterprises. The informal sector is the
domain of expansion of the Too Small Size Enterprises. Growing and investments strategies
of Too Small Seize Enterprises by the transformation into Small and Medium Size enterprises
or industries face huge challenges since they are not part of the financial market. The
- 14 -
immediate consequence is the lack of financial resources for their development and
sustainability.
According to Mahamat-Idriss (2010), African entrepreneurship and its multiple obstacles
is not already the framework of an abundant literature review; nevertheless, the few studies on
the matter try to explain the entrepreneurial process in African context by focusing on the key
factors such as behaviours, attitudes, subjective norms, ethnocultural norms and
entrepreneurs’ perceptions. Many works explored the cultural specificities as stimuli of
entrepreneurship in researches on ethnic entrepreneurship. In this vein, it is obvious to say
that the promotion of an entrepreneurial culture is not a matter of higher education. Further
analyses of researchers like Bauer and Yamey (1957) lead to the conclusion that sociocultural
and psychological barriers against entrepreneurial attitudes could explain the incapacity of
developing countries to generate and spin-offs technological and organizational innovation.
Concerning precisely the creation of a Small Size Entreprise in Cameroon, Tsapi (2007)
argues that something have been done by the Government to promote the private sector. Since
1980, the sociopolitical environment seems to be more favourable to the creation and
development of private enterprises, precisely the Too Small Size Enterprises with a certain
withdrawal of the State, but there are still needs of improvement of the stimulation of
individual initiatives by the Government.
Some structures have been created in Cameroon in order to facilitate entrepreneurship
like the National Investement Society of (SNI - Société Nationale d’Investissement), the
Ministry of Industrial and Commercial development, (MINDIC -Ministère du développement
Industriel et Commercial), The National Fund for Rural Development (FONADER - Fonds
National de Développement Rural), the Support Center to Small and Medium Size Enterprises
( CAPME - Centre d’Appui aux Petites et Moyennes Entreprises) and the National Fund for
Employment (FNE -Fonds National de l’Emploi). The mission of FNE is to propose politics
of supervision of young enterprises creators by welcoming and listening to the potential
entrepreneurs, giving them training, education, technical assistance for creation, edition and
spread of notices and several guidelines. The new Government organization has ministries
that can help to foster entrepreneurial culture such as Ministries of Small and Medium Size
Industries and Social Economies, Employment and Vocational Training, Scientific Research
and Innovation, Arts and Culture, Higher Education, Secondary Education, Basic Education,
and Youth Affairs and Civic Education.
- 15 -
In spite of all the above listed measures, Tsapi (2007) notices that lot of efforts are still
to be done to promote the creation of Too Small, Small and Medium Size Enterprises since
the crucial question of access to financing remains, the administrative procedures of the
creation of an enterprise are always complex, access to the market and inputs is enough
difficult, and taxes’ regime is heavy. When young starter entrepreneurs overcome those
obstacles, they now face difficulties dealing with the start-up phase. The author reveals that
many of new enterprises fail within the five years following their creation like mentioned also
by the WLO (1992) reporting that relatively to countries and sectors, 35 to 70% of new
enterprises close within the three years following their creation. Suitable market studies, the
access to the bank funds, a significant financial and logistic support of the Government,
remain serious obstacles for the entrepreneurship in Cameroon.
The main source of funding of Too Small Business is the personal fund or saving of
social and cultural associations. Tsapi (2007) notices a remarkable development of
microfinance institutions with the aim of satisfying the need to fund all those facing
difficulties to get access to classical bank. Microfinance institutions serve micro-credits to the
little entrepreneurs without significant guaranties and with a smooth period of back payment.
The paradoxical thing is that the rate of interests is too high. Another weakness of young
entrepreneurs of informal sector is their lack of management skills for a good functioning of
the business, no matter the area: decision making concerning financing, marketing strategies,
the management of human resources, the production, the logistic, acquisitions, etc. Decision
taking is usually influenced by social factors, as family pressure, even when the entrepreneur
seems to be the only master at a strategic and operational level.
The functioning of the higher educational system in Cameroon faces a different social
and economic reality compared to what is fund in western countries. One of the crucial
challenges among others is to address the informal sector in order to promote an
entrepreneurial culture among scholars. There is nothing done in this perspective even with
the anchorage of LMD system. Kamdem (2002, p. 146) argues that the profile of a graduate or
post graduate degree holder turn into informal sector after failing to insert himself into the
formal work market is the managing entrepreneur (L’entrepreneur débrouillard) who is
somebody who start business with nothing significant and step by step grows, by doing pretty
jobs and using his intellectual background. If this seems to be the destiny of higher education
degree holders, what can be the entrepreneurial intention of those still completing their studies
and among whom an important percentage will not have the opportunity to have a job in the
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formal organization? This question lead to the interest on the theoretical framework on
intention, viewed as a psychosocial phenomenon.
2.4. THEORY OF PLANNED BEHAVIOR
In broad terms, the theory of planned behaviour is found to be well supported by
empirical evidence. Intentions to perform behaviours of different kinds can be predicted with
high accuracy from attitudes towards the behavior, subjective norms, and perceived
behavioural control; and these intentions, together with perceptions of behavioural control,
account for considerable variance in actual behaviour. Intentions are anticipated outcomes
that usually guide and play a role as a catalyst for planned actions (Fayolle et al 2006).
Among intention models is Shapero’s model (1982) of an entrepreneurial event for which
the intention to take up an entrepreneurial career is a result of the two perceptions:
‘’desirability’’ and ‘’feasibility‟. Perceptions of desirability refer to the individual’s attraction
to undertaking certain behaviour (such as entrepreneurial behaviour).
The theory of planned behaviour is also part of intentional models which has been
employed in explaining the gradual beginning of entrepreneurial behaviour (Fayolle et al,
2006). This theory has been designed to predict and explain human behaviour in specific
contexts. The main idea is that intentions may capture motivational factors that influence
behaviour, and that the “stronger the intention to engage in behaviour the more likely should
be its performance‟ (Ajzen, 1991:181). According to this theory, attitude towards behaviour,
subjective norms and perceived behavioural control are the antecedents of intentions that
influence behavior (Ajzen, 1991). The theory of planned behaviour is an extension of the
theory of reasoned action (Ajzen & Fishbein, 1980; Fishbein & Ajzen, 1975) made necessary
by the original model’s limitations in dealing with behaviours over which people have
incomplete volitional control.
As in the original theory of reasoned action, a central factor in the theory of planned
behaviour is the individual’s intention to perform a given behaviour. Intentions are assumed
to capture the motivational factors that influence a behaviour; they are indications of how
hard people are willing to try, of how much of an effort they are planning to exert, in order to
perform the behaviour. As a general rule, the stronger the intention to engage in a behaviour,
the more likely should be its performance (Ajzen, 1991, p. 181). The idea that behavioral
achievement depends jointly on motivation (intention) and ability (behavioural control) is by
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no means new. It constitutes the basis for theorizing on such diverse issues as animal learning
(Hull, 1943), level of aspiration (Lewin, Dembo, Festinger, & Sears, 1944), performance on
psychomotor and cognitive tasks (e.g., Pleishman, 1958; Locke, 1965; Vroom, 1964), and
person perception and attribution (e.g., Heider, 1944; Anderson, 1974). It has similarly been
suggested that some conception of behavioral control be included in our more general models
of human behaviour, conceptions in the form of “facilitating Factors” (Triandis, 1977), “the
context of opportunity” (Sarver, 1983), “resources” (Liska, 1984), or “action control” (KuhI,
1985). The assumption is usually made that motivation and ability interact in their effects on
behavioural achievement. Thus, intentions would be expected to influence performance to the
extent that the person has behavioural control, and performance should increase with
behavioral control to the extent that the person is motivated to try. Interestingly, despite its
intuitive plausibility, the interaction hypothesis has received only limited empirical support
(see Locke, Mento, & Katcher, 1978).
Perceived behavioural control plays an important part in the theory of planned
behaviour. In fact, the theory of planned behavior differs from the theory of reasoned action in
its addition of perceived behavioural control. Perceived behavioural control refers to people’s
perception of the ease or difficulty of performing the behaviour of interest. Perceived
behavioural control usually varies across situations and actions. The present view of perceived
behavioural control, however, is most compatible with Bandura’s (1977, 1982) concept of
perceived self-efficacy which “is concerned with judgments of how well one can execute
courses of action required to deal with prospective situations” (Bandura, 1982, p. 122).
Many investigations (e.g., Bandura, Adams, & Beyer, 1977; Bandura, Adams, Hardy,
& Howells, 1980) have shown that people’s behaviour is strongly influenced by their
confidence in their ability to perform it (i.e., by perceived behavioral control). Self-efficacy
beliefs can influence choice of activities, preparation for an activity, effort expended during
performance, as well as thought patterns and emotional reactions (see Bandura, 1982, 1991).
The theory of planned behaviour places the construction of self-efficacy belief or perceived
behavioural control within a more general framework of the relations among beliefs, attitudes,
intentions, and behaviour. According to the theory of planned behaviour, perceived behavioral
control, together with behavioral intention, can be used directly to predict behavioural
achievement.
- 18 -
A measure of perceived behavioural control can substitute for a measure of actual
control depends, of course, on the accuracy of the perceptions. Perceived behavioural control
may not be particularly realistic when a person has relatively little information about the
behaviour, when requirements or available resources have changed, or when new and
unfamiliar elements have entered into the situation. Under those conditions, a measure of
perceived behavioral control may add little to accuracy of behavioral prediction. However, to
the extent that perceived control is realistic, it can be used to predict the probability of a
successful behavioural attempt (Ajzen, 1985). According to the theory of planned behavior,
performance of a behaviour is a joint function of intentions and perceived behavioural control.
For accurate prediction, several conditions have to be met. First, the measures of intention and
of perceived behavioural control must correspond to (Ajzen & Fishbein, 1977) or be
compatible with (Ajzen, 1988) the behavior that is to be predicted. That is, intentions and
perceptions of control must be assessed in relation to the particular behaviour of interest, and
the specified context must be the same as that in which the behaviour is to occur.
The theory of planned behaviour postulates three conceptually independent
determinants of intention. The first is the attitude towards the behaviour and refers to the
degree to which a person has a favourable or unfavourable evaluation or appraisal of the
behaviour in question. The second predictor is a social factor termed subjective norm; it refers
to the perceived social pressure to perform or not to perform the behaviour. The third
antecedent of intention is the degree of perceived behavioural control which, as we saw
earlier, refers to the perceived ease or difficulty of performing the behavior and it is assumed
to reflect past experience as well as anticipated impediments and obstacles. As a general rule,
the more favorable the attitude and subjective norm with respect to a behaviour, and the
greater the perceived behavioral control, the stronger should be an individual’s intention to
perform the behavior under consideration.
The relative importance of attitude, subjective norm, and perceived behavioural
control in the prediction of intention is expected to vary across behaviours and situations.
Thus, in some applications it may be found that only attitudes have a significant impact on
intentions. Attitudes and perceived behavioural control are sufficient to account for intentions,
and it is still in others that all three predictors make independent contributions. In the
following chapter, we will go through methodology in order to explain how we proceed to
measure Cameroonians entrepreneurial intention.
- 19 -
- 20 -
CHAPTER III: METHODOLOGY
In this chapter, we present in details the population of the study, the sampling techniques
used to select participant of the survey, the way we operationalize our main variables in order
to measure its, the fields of the surveys, Douala and Yaoundé, the two biggest town of
Cameroon, the explanatory survey in terms of focus group discussion, the construction of the
questionnaire, the reliability and validity testing, the collection of quantitative data and finally
the techniques used to analyze data.
3.1. POPULATION
The target population concerned by the study is made-up of scholars still completing their
study in higher education system institutions of both Yaoundé and Douala capital cities. The
higher education system in Cameroon is constituted of eight states universities, privates
universities and professional training school, privates higher institutions. There are some
professional schools which give to their students direct access to public service as civil
servant. We excluded from our population students of previously mentioned school because
they already have a guarantee professional occupation a legitimate planned career.
Meanwhile, students of other professional school offering only training are concerned with
the study since they have to look by themselves for job opportunities after their graduation,
even an entrepreneurial career. It does not appear to us significant to evaluate their
entrepreneurial intention since the short term perspective of work is not for them an
entrepreneurial issue. We also excludes from our target population scholars of level I since
they are new comers to the high educational system and are not yet totally part of the
academic environment at the moment of the survey, it is just the beginning of the academic
year. Naturally, as indicated under the limitation title of our introduction, only scholars of
Cameroon’s capital cities are concerned with the study due to the contrast those cities offer.
3.2. SAMPLING TECHNIQUES
The sampling technique used for this research is called quota or proportionate sampling
which is often applied in a research “when it is not possible to list all members of the
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population of interest. When quota sampling is involved, those who gather data are given
exact characteristics and quotas of persons to be interviewed.[…]This technique of sampling
is used in large-scale surveys. When quota sampling is used, data is obtained from easily
accessible individuals.” (Amin, 2005, p. 243)
According to what Amin (2005) said, we used quota sampling just to make sure that every
categories of higher education institutions system were represented in our sample. At times to
collect data in a given institution and in a chosen discipline, convenience sampling rather than
quota sampling logic was now applied because “convenience samples include in the sample,
whoever happens to be available at a given moment for a researcher conducting the study.
[….]Those who answer may be more motivated or more interested in the particular study.
Subjects are chosen until the desired sample is obtained.” (p. 242)
Finally, our sample is constituted of 1231 subjects shared into two groups according to the
town where they are pursuing their study. 601 are scholars of Yaoundé higher education
institutions while 630 are scholars of Douala higher education institutions. Among the 1211
respondents who indicate their gender, 50.5% (exactly 622 subjects) are males while 47.8
(589 subjects) are females. The average age is 23.24 years old, with a standard deviation of
3,383. The youngest scholar is 17 while the oldest is 48 years. The level of study varies from
the first year to doctorate level but the best represented in the two samples are level 2 (46.0%)
and level 3 (32.7%). Respondents are divided into three mains categories according to the
type of higher education institution they belong to either at Yaoundé or Douala cities. The
following table depicts the representations in the sample of public and private universities,
higher education institutes and finally professional school.
Table 1: Sample representation of higher education institutions
Capital city * Type of institution Crosstabulation
116 80 95 310 601
19,3% 13,3% 15,8% 51,6% 100,0%
190 47 58 335 630
30,2% 7,5% 9,2% 53,2% 100,0%
306 127 153 645 1231
24,9% 10,3% 12,4% 52,4% 100,0%
Count
% within Capital city
Count
% within Capital city
Count
% within Capital city
Yaoundé
Douala
Capitalcity
Total
Highereducationinstitutes
Privatesuniversities
Professionalschools
Publicuniversities
Type of institution
Total
- 22 -
The most represented subjects of our population in the sample are scholars of public
universities (Universities of Yaoundé I, Universities of Yaoundé II and Universities of
Douala) with their several faculties and departments. They are 645 persons (52,4%). To
register to a public university, a student with a higher secondary degree certificate
(Baccalauréat or DCE Advanced level) need just to paid 50.000 francs CFA of scholarship
fee. The conditions to purchase studies in a public university can be fulfilled by many youths.
Since there are more higher education institutions than private universities and professional
training schools, the representations in the sample are respectively 24,9%, 10,3% and 12,4%.
It is actually easier to meet a public university scholar on the field than a respondent of other
institutions.
3.3. THE EXPLANATORY SURVEY: FOCUS GROUP DISCUSSION
The sampling techniques mentioned above serve for quantitative data collection of the
research. Before this step, a qualitative investigation was carried out by organizing seven focus
group discussions according to the logic of purposive or judgmental sampling. Amin (2005, p.
242) notices that
“in this type of sampling the researcher use his/her own judgment or common sense regarding the participant from whom information will be collected. The researcher usually selects a sample based on his or her experience of knowledge of the group to be sample and has in mind that these respondents have the information he/she requires. […] In this case the judgment of the researcher in selecting the respondents is more useful than the representativeness of the sample. […] Judgmental sampling is an attempt to include a range of people or a variety of different situations in the study sample. This type of sample is more appropriate for qualitative research than quantitative research.”
According to the configuration of higher educational system in Cameroon, we wanted to
explore attitude of scholars towards entrepreneurship since they belong to different types of
institutions. By taking into consideration that the organizational culture and the interaction of
an institution with the environment, we worried about the similarities and contrasts of the
entrepreneurial culture views as a mindset among scholars of public universities, privates
universities, and professional training schools, the three mains categories of higher education
system in Cameroon.
- 23 -
Table 2: Focus group discussions
Place Category Number of subjects
Focus group public universities 8
Focus group private universities 10
Focus group institutes 6
Yaoundé
Focus group higher schools 6
Focus group public universities 11
Focus group institutes 10
Focus group higher schools 7
Douala
Total= 58
3.4. OPERATIONALISATION OF ENTREPRENEURIAL INTENTI ON
As seen at the theoretical background of our research, the best way to assess
entrepreneurial intention is to evaluate it in terms of planned behaviour as social psychologists
like Ajzen and Fishbein (1991) proposed it in their TPB. In this vein, attitude toward the
behaviour, subjective norms and perception of behavioural control are the main variables to
measure. By referring ourselves to INPERE (International Network for Psychology of
Entrepreneurship Research and Education) work, we noticed that an Entrepreneurial Intention
Questionnaire (EIQ) has been elaborated in order to assess entrepreneurial intention among
students. The characters measured by the various scales are Attraction, Social Norms, Self-
efficacy and Intention. The up to date version is the 3.0 one, a well-tested instrument with a
significant reliability. The EIQ 2.5, the wild used version has been passed successfully at
Andalusia, Portugal, Taiwan, Maastricht (Netherlands) and Bolivia (Liñán and Moriano,
2007). Rules and procedure to follow while translating EQI 3.0 to other languages than
Spanish and English are well established.
We intended initially to go through translation of EIQ as tool for data collection of our
research. Quickly, we found the content of EIP 3.0 irrelevant to the social and cultural context
of our research. Since the role played by governments, the proportion of the informal
economy, the unemployment rate, the perception of public services, the interaction between
ethnicity and entrepreneurship, the level of the entrepreneurial culture promotion, and policies
and institutions fostering entrepreneurship are not the same in African and Western countries,
rather well developed. It appears obvious that items content in EIQ 3.0 were to be revised
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before using the questionnaire in Cameroonian context. This constitutes the main reason for
the chosen option consisting in starting our data collection by an exploratory research, a
qualitative enquiry. The aim of focus group discussion was to gather fruitful information on
the attitude of Cameroonian scholars towards entrepreneurship, which exploited using content
analysis, could help to come out with significant modalities and indicators serving as elements
for an adapted questionnaire.
By inspiring ourselves from thematic content analysis and EIQ version 3.0, we elaborated
an adapted entrepreneurial intention questionnaire with an endeavor to address as well as
possible contextual factors. The questionnaire is structured in four main parts: attitude toward
entrepreneurship in Cameroon, subjective norms, perceived behavioural control (we can also
be considered to some extent as a kind of self-efficacy beliefs) and finally personal
information on the respondent. The following table depicts in details how we went through
measurement of our variables.
- 25 -
Table 3: Operationalization of variables
Independent
variable
IV
Modalities
Dependant
variable
DV Modalities DV indicators DV
items
Moderator
variables
Items
Perceived
valorization of
entrepreneurship
in Cameroon
1 to 6
Attitude toward
entrepreneurship
in Cameroon Entrepreneurial
aspiration
15 to
18
Perception of
of Wage-
employ
Advantages
6 and
8 to
14
Self-evaluation
of
entrepreneurial
knowledge
19 to
23
Yaoundé
Estimation of
success
percentage of
degree holders
entrepreneur
24 to
29
Entrepreneurial
subjective
norms
Opinions on
successful
degree holders
entrepreneurs
30 to
35
Compensatory
needs to wage-
employment
53 to
56
Mastery
experiences
36 to
43
plus
66
General
knowledge on
entrepreneurial-
based support
institutions and
trainings
57 to
61
Anticipation of
career
opportunities in
Cameroon
62 to
64
Financial
dependence
toward family
65
and
66
Cameroon’s
capital
cities
Douala
Entrepreneurial
intention
Perceived
entrepreneurial
behavioral
control
Vicarious
learning
44 to
52
Personal
information
67 to
74
NB: Items 2, 4, 6, 8, 18, 51 and 52 are reversed; at time to compute, they are recoded to
make sense while being added to others.
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3.5. THE URBAN ENVIRONMENTS OF THE STUDY: YAOUNDE A ND DOUALA
Cameroon is a bilingual country and many of the schools teach in French as a first language
and English as a second language. French speaking people are the majorities since they live in
seven over ten regions. English speaking citizens have North West and South West as native
regions. French is the dominant language in the educational system in spite of the increased
interest of French speaking for bilingual education. Yaoundé is the home of institutions, the
political capital of Cameroon and the second largest city in the country after the port city
Douala. It lies in the center of the nation at an elevation of about 750 metres (2,500 ft) above
sea level. Yaoundé is the site of several universities: the University of Yaoundé I, the
University of Yaoundé II (on a campus outside of town), the Protestant University of Central
Africa (UPAC) and the Catholic University for Central Africa (UCAC). Several of the
nation's professional schools are also located in Yaounde (Ecole Normal Superieur for
teachers, Ecole Militaire InterArmes du Cameroun) as well as various schools for engineers,
nurses and diplomats).
Douala is the largest city in Cameroon and the capital of Cameroon's Littoral region. The
Cameroon's largest port and its major international airport, Douala International Airport, are
in Douala. It is the commercial capital of the country and the richest city in the whole
CEMAC region of 11 countries. The city is located on the banks of the Wouri River, the two
sides linked by Bonaberi Bridge. Its population in 2008 was recorded at close to 3,000,000.
The climate is tropical. Douala is the 27th most expensive city in the world and the most
expensive in Africa, overtaking Lagos, Nigeria at 32nd. It is ranked 27th for 2009, up from
34th in 2008. In 2007 it was ranked 24th in the world and 1st in Africa. Douala has a State
university (University of Douala) and several private higher institutions.
3.6. THE PRE-TEST: RELIABILITY AND VALIDITY
The first draft of the questionnaire contented a total number of 95 items. It has been pre-tested on 30 subjects fulfilling the criteria of the population individuals (scholars of Faculty of Art, Letter, and Social Sciences of University of Yaoundé I). The duration of administration was between 30 to 45 minutes. The selection of the final items has been done using correlations analysis. Two techniques were applied: the score technique and the matrix of correlations between items. The first technique consists in the calculation of cumulative mark of each individual for every variables measured by a number of items. Only items with a
- 27 -
higher correlation (upper or equal to .70) with the total score were maintained. The second technique is complementary to the first. It just consists in the production of the matrix of correlations between items measuring the same variable. Items weakly link to others were simply deleted. Finally we came out with a total number of 74 items, including those measuring moderator variables. Some items were rephrased after requiring subjects’ opinion about the comprehension of items. The final version of our questionnaire was filled in about 20 minutes by the respondents.
3.7. THE QUANTITATIVE DATA COLLECTION
The quantitative data collection lasted for a period of one month (November to December
2011) in the two Cameroon’s capital cities Yaoundé and Douala. Once the institutions were
chosen, the main thing to do was just to meet scholars on different campus. Usually, for those
interested in the participation of the survey, the questionnaire was fulfilled with some
motivation. A total of 1500 printed questionnaires were used but just a number of 1231 really
exploitable were given back.
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CHAPTER IV: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
We took into consideration stated objectives of the study we presented at the first chapter
to display the results of the research. Since the type of approach chosen is the comparison, the
emphasis will be laid on how equal or different are Douala and Yaoundé according to specific
variables. The three main variables (attitude towards entrepreneurship, entrepreneurial
subjective norms and perceived entrepreneurial behavioural control) and their modalities
(Perception of entrepreneurship prestige in Cameroon, Entrepreneurial aspirations, Opinions
on successful degree holders entrepreneurs, Self-evaluation of entrepreneurial knowledge,
entrepreneurial mastery experiences and entrepreneurial vicarious learning) are result of
computation of items that measures them.
4.1 ATTITUDE TOWARD ENTREPRENEURSHIP IN CAMEROON
Score of “Perception of entrepreneurship prestige in Cameroon” is obtained by computing
the sixth first items of the questionnaire. “Entrepreneurial aspirations” is the computation of
items 15 to 19. Attitude towards entrepreneurship is the cumulative mark of the two
modalities. The table below presents the compared scores of Yaoundé and Douala scholars.
Table 4: Comparison of attitudes toward entrepreneurship in Cameroon
Group Statistics
571 13,70 2,654 ,111
565 13,70 2,617 ,110
577 12,31 2,311 ,096
596 12,80 2,061 ,084
553 25,99 3,402 ,145
540 26,46 3,190 ,137
Capital cityYaoundé
Douala
Yaoundé
Douala
Yaoundé
Douala
Perception ofentrepreneurshipprestige in Cameroon
Entrepreneurialaspirations
Attitude towardentrepreneurship inCameroon
N Mean Std. DeviationStd. Error
Mean
As depicted in the comparative table above, Yaoundé and Douala’s scholars of the samples
have the same perception of entrepreneurship in Cameroon ( . Generally, they
disagree with the statement that presents entrepreneurship in Cameroon more valorized than
other careers (58, 6%). Concerning taxation policy, 66,1% think that it does not foster new
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ventures among citizens. In the same vein, 72,8% estimate that administrative formalities. Just
20,1% agree with the fact that powerful businessmen are the most respectful personalities in
the country. For 79% of respondents, corruption is actually perceived in Cameroon as an
obstacle of wealth creation through entrepreneurship. In spite of the resemblance towards
perception of entrepreneurial prestige in Cameroon, entrepreneurial aspirations are not the
same among the two categories of scholars. Results indicate that Douala’s respondents show a
better level of entrepreneurial aspiration than those of Yaoundé (12,80 against 12,31). Before
verifying if the difference is statistically significant and do some comparisons, it is important
to reveal that 75,8% of respondents of both Yaoundé and Douala town seem to agree with the
fact that there is more advantages than disadvantages to become an entrepreneur. Exactly
88,1% of Douala respondents agree in that vein, against 72,9% of Yaoundé respondents. Since
the probability to earn money in the informal sector is not negligible in a non developed
country like Cameroon, an item invites subjects to react toward such an issue. 62,9% of all the
respondents belief that they will not feel ashamed if they can gain enough money in the
informal economy to live a comfortable live. Once more Douala has a better proportion than
Yaoundé in this matter (64,3% against 61,5%). Finally, after combining perception of the
prestige of entrepreneurship and the entrepreneurial aspirations, Douala’s scholars of the
sample realize better score than those of Yaoundé according to the average ( 26,46 against
25,99).
Table 5: Significance of the difference between attitude towards entrepreneurship
Independent Samples Test
,034 ,853 -,059 1134 ,953 -,009 ,156 -,316 ,298
-,059 1133,985 ,953 -,009 ,156 -,316 ,298
10,496 ,001 -3,876 1171 ,000 -,495 ,128 -,746 -,245
-3,869 1146,598 ,000 -,495 ,128 -,746 -,244
1,150 ,284 -2,401 1091 ,017 -,479 ,200 -,871 -,088
-2,403 1089,201 ,016 -,479 ,199 -,871 -,088
Equal variancesassumed
Equal variancesnot assumed
Equal variancesassumed
Equal variancesnot assumed
Equal variancesassumed
Equal variancesnot assumed
Perception ofentrepreneurshipprestige in Cameroon
Entrepreneurialaspirations
Attitude towardentrepreneurship inCameroon
F Sig.
Levene's Test forEquality of Variances
t df Sig. (2-tailed)Mean
DifferenceStd. ErrorDifference Lower Upper
95% ConfidenceInterval of the
Difference
t-test for Equality of Means
- 30 -
The table above is the result of independent sample test using Student t and generate by
SPSS version 14. We have enough elements to appreciate the significance of the differences
depicted in the table before this one. The two groups realize the same mean (13,70) in
perception of the prestige of entrepreneurship in Cameroon. There is no difference in their
agreement on the way entrepreneurship is valorized in Cameroon (t = - 0,59; p < 0,05).
Nevertheless, the entrepreneurial aspirations are not the same since Doula’s respondents
realize better score than Yaoundé’s subjects ( ). The difference
is significant at the level of the populations which are considered homogeneous due to the
equality of variance; therefore it can be assumed that scholars of Douala have higher
entrepreneurial aspirations than those of Yaoundé (t = - 3,876; p < 0,01). Finally, there is a
slight difference even concerning attitude towards entrepreneurship in Cameroon (t = - 2,403;
p < 0,05). The difference of mean related to attitude toward entrepreneurship is significant (
26,46 for Douala against 25,99 for Yaoundé).
4.2. ENTREPRENEURIAL SUBJECTIVE NORMS
Scores on entrepreneurial subjective norms is the cumulative scores of Self-evaluation of
entrepreneurship (Items 19 to 23) and Opinion of respondents on successful degree holders
entrepreneurs (Items 30 to 35). The comparison of scores can be read in the following table
Table 6: Comparison of entrepreneurial subjective norms
Group Statistics
593 11,62 3,823 ,157
613 11,28 3,739 ,151
583 16,98 3,180 ,132
598 17,32 3,094 ,127
578 28,70 5,179 ,215
582 28,63 5,084 ,211
Capital cityYaoundé
Douala
Yaoundé
Douala
Yaoundé
Douala
Self-evaluation ofentrepreneurialknowledge
Opinions onsuccessful degreeholders entrepreneurs
Entrepreneurialsubjective norms
N Mean Std. DeviationStd. Error
Mean
Scores of entrepreneurial knowledge self-evaluation (11,62 for Yaoundé against 11,28 for
Douala) and the ones of opinions on graduates involved in an entrepreneurial career (16,98 for
Yaoundé and 17,32 for Douala) are too tied, and give finally a slight advance to Yaoundé
- 31 -
scholars (28,70 against 28,63 for those of Douala). Anyway, it is clear that most respondents
rate poorly their entrepreneurial knowledge regarding to what is prior to lunch business in
modern economy. 71,0% declare that they know nothing about elaboration of a fundable
entrepreneurial project. 47,1% reveal that they are not able to carry out a suitable market for
an interesting entrepreneurial project. 64,2% (785 respondents over 1222 valid responses) rate
poorly their knowledge on project management while 51,8% declare that they are ignorant of
the administrative procedures in order to create an enterprise in Cameroon. A smaller
percentage (47,6%) than the previous declare the same thing concerning the procedure to
follow while creating an association.
All these scandalous statistics highlight the problem of addressing properly the
entrepreneurial needs of scholars in Cameroon higher education institutions. It can be noticed
also that Douala’s scholars seem to have a better opinion of successful entrepreneurs who are
degree holders, even if the general perception is not too much enthusiastic. A minority
(34,5%) denies the fact that they were students already dreaming of business when they were
still completing their studies. 79,4% perceived them also as people introduced in business
milieus by benefiting of good relationship. In contrast to the previous remarks, there are
62,1% who worthily think that successful entrepreneurs who are graduates were formerly
scholars without money to paid their school fee. A non negligible minority (36%) is
persuaded that those successful entrepreneurs are people well introduced in secret
associations.
Another revelation in term of statistical information is the percentage of 79,6 of our
respondents who agree with the statement that successful entrepreneurs who are degree
holders are also civil servants doing at the same time business. This belief forces to look at
what remains of the social perception of employment in public services. Is it an obstacle to the
building of an entrepreneurial culture among scholars in Cameroon? Finally, it is important to
notice that 71,7% of respondents consider successful businessmen who were scholars like
them as those financially supported by their families since they can easily obtain launching
fund or inherit family enterprise. In terms of entrepreneurial subjective norms, our two
compared groups realize approximately the same score (28,70 for Yaoundé against 28, 63 for
Douala).
- 32 -
Table 7: Significance of the difference in entrepreneurial subjective norms
Independent Samples Test
,197 ,658 1,584 1204 ,113 ,345 ,218 -,082 ,772
1,583 1200,315 ,114 ,345 ,218 -,082 ,772
,026 ,873 -1,852 1179 ,064 -,338 ,183 -,696 ,020
-1,852 1175,701 ,064 -,338 ,183 -,697 ,020
,356 ,551 ,233 1158 ,816 ,070 ,301 -,521 ,661
,233 1157,248 ,816 ,070 ,301 -,521 ,661
Equal variancesassumed
Equal variancesnot assumed
Equal variancesassumed
Equal variancesnot assumed
Equal variancesassumed
Equal variancesnot assumed
Self-evaluation ofentrepreneurialknowledge
Opinions onsuccessful degreeholders entrepreneurs
Entrepreneurialsubjective norms
F Sig.
Levene's Test forEquality of Variances
t df Sig. (2-tailed)Mean
DifferenceStd. ErrorDifference Lower Upper
95% ConfidenceInterval of the
Difference
t-test for Equality of Means
All the three tests of the table above lead to the rejection of the equality of variance
assumption. The status of scholar in either politic or economic capital is not a criteria of
differentiation of the entrepreneurial subjective norms of the two groups (t = 0,233; p= 0,816).
Neither the slight difference in favour of Yaoundé’s respondents about self-evaluation of
entrepreneurial knowledge (t = 1, 583; p = 0,113) nor the better opinion scholars of Douala
have on successful graduated entrepreneurs (t = -1,852; p = -0,064) are statistically significant.
4.3. PERCEIVED ENTREPRENEURIAL BEHAVIORAL CONTROL
As entrepreneurial subjective norms, perceived entrepreneurial behavioural control has
two modalities which are the entrepreneurial mastery experiences (Items 36 to 43 plus 66) and
Entrepreneurial vicarious learning (Items 34 to 52). Statistics depicted in the following table
show that Douala scholars have obtained better scores than those of Yaoundé (27, 17 against
26,25).
- 33 -
Table 8: Comparison of perceived entrepreneurial behavioral control
Group Statistics
572 26,25 4,596 ,192
570 27,17 4,051 ,170
568 21,00 4,679 ,196
581 21,45 4,798 ,199
550 47,2055 7,76543 ,33112
538 48,5855 7,43520 ,32055
Capital cityYaoundé
Douala
Yaoundé
Douala
Yaoundé
Douala
Entrepreneurial masteryexperiences
Entrepreneurial vicariouslearning
Perceived entrepreneurialbehavioral control
N Mean Std. DeviationStd. Error
Mean
Mastery experiences are the most important source of information of the self-efficacy belief
elaborated by Bandura (1986) and is generally compared to perceived behavioural control of
the TPB of Ajzen (1991). Mastery experiences is the sum of past experiences related to a
specific domain and to which an individual can refer to at times to anticipate performances
required to achieve a similar activity or a similar task. Our questionnaire measure under the
mastery experiences section the entrepreneurial skills developed during daily situations. Some
statistics are high and show informal entrepreneurial acquisitions. 86% declare that they are
able to work within a team in order to achieve a common objective. The same percentage
confirms also that they can analyze a favourable situation for business. 74,4% agree with the
fact that they know how to improvise when the initial plan fail. Just 56,4% find needed money
in informal saving associations in case of emergency. In reverse, 71,1% of respondents think
that they are capable of creating business relationship in order to multiply their chances.
83,3% claim that they have the knowhow to bring others to work together under their
supervision just by motivating them. Finally the real entrepreneurial weakness among the
above listed is the capacity to raise fund when there is a need.
The other component of entrepreneurial perceived behavioural control is the
entrepreneurial vicarious learning with is also one of the main sources of information for self-
efficacy belief building. Vicarious learning refers to observational or symbolic learning
consisting in the acquisition of some knowledge or skills just by observing an efficacy model
acting. The average mark of Douala’s respondents is greater than Yaoundé one (21, 45 against
21, 00). Just 47,3% of respondents are familiar to entrepreneurs, but it is an incontestable
thing only for 17%. A low percentage of 39,7% know the successful history of many
entrepreneurs starting from the beginning of their venture till the present. 37,8% only are
- 34 -
regularly call to work with or for entrepreneurs. In the same vein, just 37,4% benefit
confidence of entrepreneurs. Similarly, only 28,9% have entrepreneurs as business partners.
Family influence on an eventual choice of an entrepreneurial career is considerable if we take
into consideration the fact that 63,9% of respondents claim that the most influential members
of their family expect them to work in the public service. This can reflect to a certain extend
the negative impact of social valorization of public service on the promotion of a necessary
entrepreneurial culture in Cameroon.
Table 9: Significance of the difference in perceived entrepreneurial behavioral control
Independent Samples Test
8,464 ,004 -3,588 1140 ,000 -,920 ,256 -1,423 -,417
-3,589 1123,276 ,000 -,920 ,256 -1,423 -,417
1,581 ,209 -,364 1147 ,716 -,127 ,347 -,808 ,555
-,364 1143,111 ,716 -,127 ,348 -,808 ,555
1,609 ,205 -2,104 1086 ,036 -1,106 ,526 -2,138 -,075
-2,105 1084,906 ,036 -1,106 ,526 -2,138 -,075
Equal variancesassumed
Equal variancesnot assumed
Equal variancesassumed
Equal variancesnot assumed
Equal variancesassumed
Equal variancesnot assumed
Entrepreneurial masteryexperiences
Entrepreneurial vicariouslearning
Perceived entrepreneurialbehavioral control
F Sig.
Levene's Test forEquality of Variances
t df Sig. (2-tailed)Mean
DifferenceStd. ErrorDifference Lower Upper
95% ConfidenceInterval of the
Difference
t-test for Equality of Means
Student t test for independent groups indicates a significant better perception of
entrepreneurial behavioural control of Douala scholars (t = -2,104; p < 0,05). The relevant
difference is due to the dominance of Douala’s scholars who have more valuable
entrepreneurial mastery experiences than their homologues of Yaoundé (t = - 3,588; p < 0,01).
As far as it is concerned with entrepreneurial vicarious learning, the fractional difference in
favour of Douala respondents is not attested as significant by the student t test (t= - 0,364; p =
0,716).
4.4. ENTREPRENEURIAL INTENTION RESULTS
- 35 -
Entrepreneurial intention scores is the sum of the three main variables measured as its
modalities: attitude toward entrepreneurship in Cameroon, entrepreneurial subjective norms
and perceived entrepreneurial behavioural control. The table below shows the general means.
Table 10: Comparison of entrepreneurial intention
Group Statistics
503 101,77 12,674 ,565
445 103,54 12,459 ,591
Capital cityYaoundé
Douala
Entrepreneurial intentionN Mean Std. Deviation
Std. ErrorMean
948 questionnaires are considered as valid by SPSS independent t test and with a mean of 103,54,
Douala’s scholars obtain a better average than those of Yaoundé who realize 101,77. The final thing
to do is just to verify how much significant is that observed difference.
Table 11: Significance of the difference in entrepreneurial intention
Independent Samples Test
,009 ,923 -2,158 946 ,031 -1,766 ,818 -3,372 -,160
-2,160 935,557 ,031 -1,766 ,817 -3,370 -,162
Equal variancesassumed
Equal variancesnot assumed
Entrepreneurial intentionF Sig.
Levene's Test forEquality of Variances
t df Sig. (2-tailed)Mean
DifferenceStd. ErrorDifference Lower Upper
95% ConfidenceInterval of the
Difference
t-test for Equality of Means
The main objective of our research is achieved at this level. It concerns the comparison of the
entrepreneurial intention of scholars of Douala and Yaoundé, the two capital cities of
Cameroon. The null hypothesis assuming the equality of variances is rejected (F = ,009; p =
,923). With the pooled variance option, the comparison can be done and the superiority of
entrepreneurial intention of Douala’s scholars is confirmed to be effective (t = ,031; p < ,05).
If someone is not fascinated by the comparison, then it will be easy to notice that the average
scores of entrepreneurial intention either for Douala or Yaoundé’s respondents are weak. With
a total number of 49 items measuring the entrepreneurial intention of scholars, if someone
choses four at each item, he will come out with the maximum score of 196. The worst score
corresponding to respondent choosing one each time is 49, but a theoretical mean for an
individual checking 2,5 forty nine number of time obtain 122,5, which is far higher than
- 36 -
103,54 the best group mean of our study. In conclusion, without any doubt, we can say that
entrepreneurial intention is very weak among Cameroonian scholars, no matter if they are
completing their studies either at Yaoundé or Douala. The next coming discussion of results
will try to emphasize on the slight difference notice between the two populations and
proposed an explanation of the general low entrepreneurial intention scores.
4.5. DISCUSSION OF RESULTS
Basing ourselves on the theory of planned behaviour (Ajzen, 1991) the first
determinants of entrepreneurial intention we measured was the attitude towards the
entrepreneurship in Cameroon. It can be consider as the degree to which a person has a
favourable or unfavourable evaluation or appraisal of the behaviour in question. The influence
of the urban environment can explain why at Douala, scholars aspire to an entrepreneurial
career more than those of Yaoundé. The density of enterprise and business in Douala can be
an entrepreneurial stimulus. But one should not forget that attitude toward entrepreneurial
behaviour is not too favourable. Among the moderator variables also measured by the
questionnaire, the still subliminal perception of the civil servant status seems to have a
reductive effect on the favourable attitude towards entrepreneurship. For instance, majority of
respondents consider among perceived advantages of public employment a likely job security
(77,3%), the guarantee of retirement (78,2%), the regularity of the salary (81,2%), the
freedom allowing to get involved in other private activities (68,6%), access possibilities to
important functions (65,2%), advantages due to appointments (86,9%), and the profit link to
the management of budgets (63,4%). The pathological perception of public propriety, the
influence and power attributed to high civil servants, the uncertainty of the economy and work
market are some of factors that weaken the anchorage of a cultural and entrepreneurial
mindset among Cameroonian scholars. The situation is reinforced by the lack of a generalized
educational program and training in entrepreneurship at the higher education system. In spite
of the fact that entrepreneurial aspirations are higher at Douala than at Yaoundé, they remain
low and affected by the previous listed perceptions. The following table illustrates the
perceptual evaluation of career chances by the respondents regardless to the capital city to
which belong their high school institution.
- 37 -
Table 12: Perceptual evaluation of career chances
51,6% of Scholars estimate at more than 50% their chances to work in the public
service. 71,8% have the same estimation concerning private formal sector and 60% for the
entrepreneurial career. In spite of all the perceived advantages of the public service, it remains
true that scholars are actually aware of the fact that their chances to get access to an
employment as civil servant are reduced.
The second predictor of entrepreneurial intention is a social factor termed
entrepreneurial subjective norms in our research. It refers to the perceived social pressure to
perform or not to perform the entrepreneurial behaviour. There is no difference between the
two groups of the study. For both of them, scores of entrepreneurial subjective norms are
slightly greater than the theoretical mean of 27,5 obtained by an individual checking 2,5 at
each of the 11 items measuring the component of the entrepreneurial intention. It means that
the self-evaluation according to the training received in the higher education system does not
constitute a significant entrepreneurial motivational factor. We have seen that the respondents
generally agree with the weaknesses of their entrepreneurial knowledge and skill. The social
pressure exerted by the family is in favour of a public wage-employment since 84% of
respondents claim that influential members of their families like them to embrace a civil
servant career, probably for all the perceived advantages previously listed. It is well proved by
cross-cultural studies that in collectivistic cultural systems, the influential members of the
families are sometime those who provide material and financial support to the rest of the
family or are consulted for personal decision making. 86,3% of subjects declare their financial
dependence on their family at least at 50%; exactly 43,8% attest that they depend on their
family at least at 75%. In this condition, it is difficult to take the decision to free oneself and
[0 ; 25%] ]25%;50%] ]50%; 75%] ]75%;100%] total
Frequency Percent Frequency Percent Frequency Percent Frequency Percent Frequency Percent
Public service 246 20 342 28,1 411 33,8 216 17,8 1215 100
Private formal sector 73 6,0 270 22,2 501 41,2 372 30,6 1216 100
Entrepreneurial career 164 13,5 320 26,3 420 34,6 311 25,6 1215 100
- 38 -
start an entrepreneurial career without the consent of those who support your study and expect
a career in public administration or in big organizations of private formal sector.
The third antecedent of entrepreneurial intention is the degree of perceived
entrepreneurial behavioural control which refers to the perceived ease or difficulty of
performing the behaviour. It is assumed to reflect past entrepreneurial experiences as well as
anticipated impediments and obstacles. Even if Douala’s respondents realized a slight better
score than Yaoundé ones, we are not far from the hypothetical mean of 47,5 for a subject
checking 2,5 on the 49 concerned items. As a general rule, the TPB prediction states that the
more favourable the attitude and subjective norm with respect to a behaviour, and the greater
the perceived behavioural control, the stronger should be an individual’s intention to perform
the behaviour under consideration. We do not face spectacular perceived entrepreneurial
behavioural control among the scholars of the study just because attitude towards
entrepreneurship and entrepreneurial subjective norms are not also significantly important.
We can nevertheless notice that Douala mastery experiences are more intense than those of
Yaoundé subjects. Logically this can be attributed to business opportunities either in informal
or formal sector more frequent in the capital city than in the capital one. Douala environment
offers more chances to earn money through daily transactions. In spite of the financial
dependence to family, an item measures how much our respondents are involved in
occasional small business.
Table 13: Familiarity with occasional small business
Rarely Often Regularly Permanently
Yaoundé Count 242 185 114 54 595
% within Capital
city 40,7% 31,1% 19,2% 9,1% 100,0%
Douala Count 203 192 152 56 603
% within Capital
city 33,7% 31,8% 25,2% 9,3% 100,0%
Count 445 377 266 110 1198
% within Capital
city 37,1% 31,5% 22,2% 9,2% 100,0%
As a matter of comparison, the advantage is relatively in favour of Douala respondents. The
percentage of rare occasions is high at Yaoundé (40,7%) than at Douala (33,7%). Scores are
not too different concerning “Often” (31,1% against 31,8%). Once again, on “regularly”,
Douala is better with a percentage of 25,2% against 19,2% for Yaoundé. Those checking
- 39 -
“permanently” are too nearer in terms of proportion (9,1% against 9,3%). If the familial
dependency percentage is considerable it means that the above mentioned occasions of
making money do not concern huge amount of gain. Once more, entrepreneurial experiences
seem to deal with informal negotiations, trades, and others related small activities.
CONCLUSION
Among the challenges faced by African universities, one can cite the promotion of an
entrepreneurial culture with a related program and training. The modern market of work has
proved his limit to employ all the graduates educational system put at his disposal every year.
One way to solve the problem is the development of entrepreneurial careers. Entrepreneurship
has been proved to be an option to create wealth and achieve it in a satisfying manner the
need of self-actualization after the completion of the studies. Even for national economies, the
promotion of entrepreneurship is a factor of sustainable growth. Worldwide higher education
systems try to accommodate their training to the fast changes operating in the market of work.
Creating wealth is one of the main objectives of well-known universities in United States of
America, United Kingdom, Japan, China, and so on. Sub-Saharan universities and high school
do not already address the entrepreneurship matter with the same conscious an efficacy. The
case which has interested us is the one of Cameroon. An attempt is done these last years to
sensitize citizen on entrepreneurship either on various campuses or in the public live, but it
still remains a new concept. Another challenge is the unavoidable domain of economy which
is simply the informal sector. One of the simplest way to predict possible choices of
entrepreneurial career by scholars is by measuring their entrepreneurial intention. The
literature has shown the significant impact of the environment on entrepreneurial initiatives.
The contrast of the two capital cities of Cameroon offers a good opportunity of comparison.
The main objective is to compare by measuring it the entrepreneurial intention of
Yaoundé and Douala’s Scholars. Referring ourselves to the theory of planned behaviour of
Ajzen (….) three components of the entrepreneurial intention are taking into consideration:
attitude towards entrepreneurship in Cameroon, entrepreneurial subjective norms and
perceived entrepreneurial behavioural control. Numerous studies have measured
entrepreneurial intention and one of the standard instrument used in that purpose is the
- 40 -
Entrepreneurial Intention Questionnaire (EIQ). It has been used with a relative satisfaction in
western countries. We found in spite of all the content of the EIQ, version 3.0, partially
irrelevant to sub-Saharan social and economical context.
An explanatory study has been carried out by organizing seven focus group
discussions with scholars of different higher education institutions of Yaoundé and Douala. A
total number of 58 scholars participated to the four focus group discussions organized at
Yaoundé and the three which took place at Douala. The content analysis of the qualitative
data collected helps us to come out with suitable indicators on which we based ourselves to
elaborate the questionnaire used for quantitative data collection. A sample of 1231 scholars
participated in the survey. The first group, the one constituted of scholars from Yaoundé has
601 subjects, while the second is composed of 630 scholars of Douala.
The main results present a general weak entrepreneurial intention among the
respondents but scholars of Douala have the higher entrepreneurial intention. The perception
of the prestige of entrepreneurship in Cameroon is the same for both groups. Douala scholars
have a slight better entrepreneurial aspiration than those of Yaoundé. There is no significant
difference about entrepreneurial subjective norms no matter the capital city where the scholar
is completing his study. In the two groups, the self-evaluation of entrepreneurial knowledge
and skills is poor. Concerning the third component, Douala’s scholars once more have a better
perceived entrepreneurial behavioral control. They have benefited more entrepreneurial
mastery experiences due to their milieu whose vocation is by definition mainly economic.
Some moderator variables may help to have a deeper understanding of the
entrepreneurial intention phenomenon. Attitude towards entrepreneurship is influenced by the
fascination by public service and the status of civil servant. Employment in public sector is
perceived as a secured job and retirement, a regular and guarantee salary, access possibilities
to important responsibilities and so on. Data collected are rich and can open perspectives to
more analysis for example by exploring gender issue and the type of higher education
institution.
- 41 -
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ANNEXE
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GUIDE FOCUS GROUP DISCUSSION
1) La première enquête sur l’emploi en 2005 révèle que 90% des
travailleurs camerounais sont occupés dans le secteur informel, diplômés
ou non, comment évaluez-vous chances d’insertion socioprofessionnelle
au Cameroun, notamment en ce qui concerne la fonction publique, le
secteur privé et l’auto-emploi ?
2) Pensez-vous au concours d’entrée dans les grandes écoles ?
3) Vous semble-t-il réaliste de parler de l’entrepreneuriat des diplômés au
Cameroun ?
4) Quels risques coure le jeune diplômé camerounais qui renonce à la
fonction public et à tout autre emploi salarié pour créer sa propre
entreprise ?
5) Quels avantages peut avoir un jeune diplômé camerounais qui renonce à
la fonction public et à tout autre emploi salarié pour créer sa propre
entreprise ?
6) Quelles précautions le jeune diplômé peut-il prendre pour s’assurer de
ne pas regretter d’avoir essayé de se lancer dans les affaires ou de créer
sa propre entreprise ?
7) Quelles sont les facilités que présentent Yaoundé (Douala) en matière
d’auto-emploi des jeunes ?
8) Quelles sont les difficultés que présentent Yaoundé (Douala) en matière
d’auto-emploi des jeunes ?
9) Que peuvent faire les pouvoirs publics pour motiver les diplômés de
l’enseignement supérieur à créer leurs propres entreprises après les
études ?
10) Quels avantages votre formation offre en matière d’opportunités
entrepreneuriales ?
11) Quels inconvénients votre formation comporte en matière
d’opportunités entrepreneuriale ?
12) De quoi avez-vous besoin concrètement pour renoncer aux
meilleures offres d’emploi salarié pour créer votre propre entreprise ?
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QUESTIONNAIRE DE L’INTENTION ENTREPRENEURIALE ESTIDUANTINE
Ce questionnaire est passé afin de collecter les données sur l’intention entrepreneuriale des étudiants des villes de Douala et Yaoundé. La recherche est menée dans le cadre des activités du Réseau Ouest et Centre Africain de Recherche en Education (ROCARE). A propos des questions posées, il n’y a pas de réponse juste ou fausse. Votre opinion est l’utile information recherchée. Lisez attentivement les consignes et cochez ou encerclez, selon votre convenance, la réponse qui correspond le mieux à votre point de vue. Vos réponses sont anonymes et ne seront exploitées que dans le seul cadre de cette étude scientifique.
NB : le questionnaire s’adresse aux étudiants des universités d’Etat, des instituts de
l’enseignement supérieur, des grandes écoles ne donnant pas directement accès à la fonction publique, des universités privées. Les fonctionnaires et salariés du secteur privé formel qui sont en formation dans ces établissements ne sont pas concernés par l’enquête parce qu’ils ont déjà entamés une carrière professionnelle.
I- Pour chacune des sept affirmations suivantes, choisissez le chiffre qui correspond le mieux à votre point de vue sachant que : 1= Pas du tout vrai; 2= A peine vrai; 3= Moyennement vrai; 4= Totalement
vrai
1) Au Cameroun, on valorise plus l’entrepreneuriat que d'autres professions et carrières. 1 2 3 4
2) Les politiques en faveur de l’emploi au Cameroun compromettent la création des entreprises.
1 2 3 4
3) La fiscalité camerounaise incite les porteurs de projet à créer les entreprises. 1 2 3 4
4) Les formalités administratives freinent le processus de création des entreprises. 1 2 3 4
5) Les hommes d’affaires puissants sont les personnalités les plus respectées du Cameroun. 1 2 3 4
6) La corruption est de nature à décourager les initiatives entrepreneuriales au Cameroun. 1 2 3 4
7) L’accès à des postes de responsabilité au sein de la fonction publique offre plus de facilité à
faire les affaires.
1 2 3 4
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II- Les sept valeurs suivantes sont souvent citées au Cameroun comme les avantages de la fonction publique. Pour chacune d’elle, choisissez le chiffre qui correspond le mieux à votre point de vue sachant que : 1= Pas du tout vrai; 2= A peine vrai; 3= Moyennement vrai; 4= Totalement vrai
8) La sécurisation de la retraite 1 2 3 4
9) La liberté 1 2 3 4
10) La régularité du salaire 1 2 3 4
11) Les avantages de service en cas de nomination 1 2 3 4
12) La sécurité de l’emploi 1 2 3 4
13) Les chances réelles d’accès à des responsabilités importantes 1 2 3 4
14) La possibilité de gérer des budgets 1 2 3 4
III- Pour chacune des quatre affirmations suivantes, choisissez le chiffre qui correspond le mieux à vos aspirations entrepreneuriales, sachant que : 1= Pas du tout vrai; 2= A peine vrai; 3= Moyennement vrai; 4= Totalement vrai
15) Je suis déterminé(e) à créer une entreprise dans l'avenir. 1 2 3 4
16) Être entrepreneur comporte pour moi plus d'avantages que d'inconvénients. 1 2 3 4
17) Je trouve plus d’intérêts à travailler à mon propre compte que sous les ordres d’un patron.
1 2 3 4
18) J’éprouverais une grosse honte à gagner ma vie dans le secteur informel, même convenablement.
1 2 3 4
IV- Pour chacune des cinq affirmations suivantes, choisissez le chiffre qui correspond le mieux à vos convictions, sachant que :
1= Pas du tout vrai; 2= A peine vrai; 3= Moyennement vrai; 4= Totalement vrai
19) Je sais élaborer un projet entrepreneurial banquable. 1 2 3 4
20) Je suis capable de faire une étude de marché fiable pour un projet d’entreprise intéressant.
1 2 3 4
21) J’ai d’excellentes connaissances en management des projets. 1 2 3 4
22) Je connais les formalités administratives à suivre pour la création d’une entreprise au Cameroun.
1 2 3 4
23) Je connais la démarche à suivre pour créer une association, un GIC etc. 1 2 3 4
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V- En supposant cette fois que 1= Faibles; 2= Moyennes; 3= Élevées; 4=Très élevées, évaluez les chances de réussite en affaires d’un diplômé postsecondaire camerounais qui décide de :
24) Se lancer uniquement dans les affaires immédiatement après les études.
1 2 3 4 25) Décrocher d’abord un matricule à la fonction publique.
1 2 3 4 26) Travailler d’abord dans le secteur privé pour gagner en expérience.
1 2 3 4 27) Aller d’abord dans le secteur informel chercher le capital.
1 2 3 4 28) S’associer avec des camarades compétents et de confiance.
1 2 3 4 29) Elaborer un bon projet et chercher le financement auprès des banques, ONG,
programmes d’appui etc. 1 2 3 4
VI- Les six affirmations suivantes concernent les diplômés camerounais qui réussissent dans les affaires après les études supérieures. Pour chacune d’elles, choisissez le chiffre qui correspond le mieux à votre opinion, sachant que : 1= Pas du tout vrai; 2= A peine vrai; 3= Moyennement vrai; 4= Totalement vrai
30) Des gens qui ne rêvaient que de business, même étant étudiants. 1 2 3 4
31) Des gens qui ont été introduits dans les milieux d’affaires grâces aux bonnes relations. 1 2 3 4
32) Des gens qui n’ont pas pu financer leurs études. 1 2 3 4
33) Des gens introduits dans des réseaux sectaires 1 2 3 4
34) Des fonctionnaires ou des employés du secteur privé formel qui font en même temps des affaires.
1 2 3 4
35) Des gens qui trouvent facilement le capital d’investissement auprès des membres de la famille (des héritiers etc.).
1 2 3 4
VII- Compte tenu de vos expériences dans le domaine des affaires, choisissez le chiffre qui vous décrit le mieux sachant que : 1= Pas du tout vrai; 2= A peine vrai; 3= Moyennement vrai; 4= Totalement vrai.
36) Je sais travailler en équipe en vue d’un objectif commun. 1 2 3 4
37) Je sais analyser les situations favorables aux affaires. 1 2 3 4
38) Je me donne des méthodes de travail efficaces. 1 2 3 4
39) Je planifie les tâches et prévois le matériel nécessaire. 1 2 3 4
40) J’improvise lorsque le plan initial semble ne plus marcher. 1 2 3 4
41) Les tontines me permettent de trouver de l’argent en cas d’urgence. 1 2 3 4
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42) Je sais créer des relations d’affaires pour multiplier mes chances. 1 2 3 4
43) Je suis capable de motiver les autres à travailler avec moi. 1 2 3 4
44) Je côtoie régulièrement les entrepreneurs. 1 2 3 4
45) Je connais assez bien le parcours de beaucoup d’entrepreneurs, du début jusqu’à leur réussite actuelle.
1 2 3 4
46) A travers l’observation des entrepreneurs proches, j’ai une bonne connaissance du milieu des affaires.
1 2 3 4
47) Ayant vu des débrouillards à l’œuvre, je sais exactement comment débuter une affaire en prenant des précautions nécessaires.
1 2 3 4
48) Je suis régulièrement sollicité par les entrepreneurs pour des coups de main divers.
1 2 3 4
49) Je jouis de la confiance de plusieurs hommes d’affaires. 1 2 3 4
50) Beaucoup d’entrepreneurs sont mes partenaires d’affaires. 1 2 3 4
51) Les personnes avec qui je traite déplorent mon sens des affaires. 1 2 3 4
52) Les personnes influentes de ma famille ont à cœur que je travaille à la fonction publique.
1 2 3 4
VIII- Indiquer ce dont vous avez concrètement besoin pour renoncer à tout emploi salarié dans la fonction publique et dans le secteur privé formel afin de créer votre propre entreprise. 1= Pas du tout vrai; 2= A peine vrai; 3= Moyennement vrai; 4= Totalement vrai
53) Des années d’expérience professionnelle (stage, emploi) auprès d’un employeur de renom
1 2 3 4
54) Une (des) formation (s) davantage pointue (s) et professionnelle (s) 1 2 3 4
55) Du financement en guise de capital de lacement 1 2 3 4
56) Etre suivi par des conseillers et/ou des structures d’accompagnement de jeunes entrepreneurs
1 2 3 4
IX- Les cinq affirmations suivantes portent sur les structures, organismes de soutien et autres sources d'aide pour les entrepreneurs. Indiquez pour chacune d’elles le chiffre correspondant le mieux à votre point de vue sachant que : 1= Pas du tout vrai; 2= A peine vrai; 3= Moyennement vrai; 4= Totalement vrai.
57) Je connais les associations privées (par exemple le Gicam, l’E-CAM, etc).
1 2 3 4
58) Je connais les programmes d’appui aux porteurs de projets entrepreneuriaux (PAJER-U ; PIAASI ; FNE etc.).
1
2
3
4
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59) Je suis au courant de la formation à l’entrepreneuriat à l’ESSEC.
1 2 3 4
60) Je maîtrise les mécanismes de prêts dans les tontines.
1 2 3 4
61) Je connais les missions de l’incubateur d’entreprises (TechniPole) sis à l’Ecole Supérieure Polytechnique de Yaoundé.
1 2 3 4
X- Pour chacun des quatre items suivants, choisissez le chiffre qui correspond le mieux à votre estimation sachant que : 1=De 0 à 25% ; 2 = De plus de 25 à 50% ; 3=De plus de 50 à 75% ; 4=De plus de 75 à 100%
62) J’estime mes chances d’insertion à la fonction publique après mes études à: 1
2
3
4
63) J’estime mes chances d’insertion dans le secteur privé formel (PME, PMI, ONG, Multinationales etc.) à:
1 2 3 4
64) J’estime mes chances d’insertion socioprofessionnelle en matière d’entrepreneuriat (auto-emploi, les affaires, création d’entreprise, secteur informel, etc.) à:
1
2
3
4
65) A quel pourcentage estimez-vous avoir dépendu financièrement de votre famille durant les douze derniers mois?
1
2
3
4
66) A quelle fréquence menez-vous des activités de débrouillardise génératrices de revenues
(répétition, call box, petit commerce, etc)? 1) Rarement /__/ 2) Souvent /__/ 3)
Régulièrement /__/ 4) En permanence /__ /
XI- INFORMATIONS PERSONNELLES
67) Ville de résidence : 1) Yaoundé /__/ 2) Douala /__/
68) Âge: __________ans
69) Genre: 1) Masculin /__/ 2) Féminin /__/
70) Université/Institut/Ecole : __________________________________________________
71) Filière : _________________________________________________________________
72)
Niveau d’étude:______________________________________________________________
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73) Combien d’années avez-vous passé à Yaoundé/Douala (selon la ville de résidence
actuelle) en tant qu’étudiant(e) ?_______ans
74) Région d’origine :
1) Adamaoua /__/ 2) Centre/__/ 3) Est/__/ 4) Extrême-nord/__/ 5) Littoral/__/
6) Nord/__/ 7) Nord-Ouest/__/ 8) Ouest/__/ 9) Sud/__/ 10) Sud-ouest /__/