ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE: A Global Concern, 5th edition

William P. Cunningham University of Minnesota

Barbara Woodworth Saigo

Saiwood Biology Resources

CHAPTER 1

ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND ECOLOGICAL

PRINCIPLES

What is Environmental Science?

• Environment• Environmental Science• History of Environmental Science

– utilitarian conservation– altruistic preservation

CURRENT CONDITIONS

• Planet Earth• Environmental Dilemmas

– population– food shortages– energy– pollution

A DIVIDED WORLD

• Rich vs. Poor• North vs. South• Developed countries vs. undeveloped

countries– First, Second, Third and Fourth World

Countries

HUMAN DEVELOPMENT• Human Development Index• Developmental Discrepancies

– basic social services• education• health care

– agrarian reform– employment– civil rights– sustainable resource use

• Sustainable Development

ENVIRONMENTAL PERSPECTIVES

• Neo-Malthusian• Technological optimists/Promethean

environmentalism• “Cornucopian Fallacy”• Lessons from the Past

CHAPTER 2

TOOLS FOR BUILDING A BETTER WORLD

Environmental Ethics and Philosophy

• Universal Ethical Principles– Relativists– Nihilists– Utilitarians

• Modernism & Postmodernism

Values, Rights & Obligations

• Morals• Animal Rights • Inherent Value• Instrumental Value

Worldviews and Ethical Perspectives

• Domination• Stewardship• Biocentrism• Ecofeminism

Environmental Justice

• Environmental racism• Toxic colonialism• Is Nature fragile or resilient?

Science as a Way of Knowing

• Scientific Method• Hypotheses Testing• Indirect Scientific Evidence• Technology and Progress• Appropriate Technology

CHAPTER 3

MATTER, ENERGY, AND LIFE

From Atoms to Cells

• Atoms– ions– atomic number

• Molecules– compound

• Organic Compounds– carbon

• Cells

Energy Types and Qualities

• Kinetic Energy– heat– temperature

• Potential Energy• Chemical Energy• Conservation of Matter• Thermodynamics

– 1st law– 2nd law

Energy for Life

• Solar Energy

• Photosynthesis– Chlorophyll– cellular respiration

From Species to Ecosystems

• Population• Communities

– biological community

• Ecosystems

Food Chains• Productivity/biomass• Food chain/food web• Trophic level

– producers– consumers

• Organisms– herbivores– carnivores– omnivores

Material Cycles and Life Processes

• Carbon Cycle• Nitrogen Cycle• Phosphorus Cycle• Sulfur Cycle

CHAPTER 4

BIOLOGICAL COMMUNITIES AND SPECIES INTERACTION

Critical Factors, Who Lives Where?

• Temperature• Moisture levels• Nutrient supply• Soil chemistry• Water chemistry

• Natural Selection

• Adaptation

• Evolution

• HABITAT

SPECIES INTERACTIONS AND

COMMUNITY DYNAMICS

Predation

• Predators– parasites– Pathogens

• Prey

Competition

• Intraspecific competition• Interspecific competition

• Territoriality

Symbiosis

• Commensalism• Mutualism

Community Properties• Productivity• Abundance and Diversity• Complexity and Connectedness• Resilience and Stability• Structure• Edges and Boundaries

Ecological Succession

• Primary Succession• Secondary Succession• Pioneer Species• Ecological Development• Climax Community

• Introduced Species and Community Change

CHAPTER 5

BIOMES, LANDSCAPES, RESOTRATION AND

MANAGEMENT

Terrestrial Biomes• Deserts• Grasslands

– Prairies– Savannas

• Tundra• Conifer Forests• Evergreen Forests• Tropical Forests• Tropical Seasonal Forests

Aquatic Ecosystems

• Freshwater and Saline Ecosystems• Estuaries and Wetlands• Shorelines and Barrier Islands

– Coral reefs

Landscape Ecology

• Patchiness & Heterogeneity• Landscape Dynamics

Restoration Ecology

• Rehabilitation• Remediation• Reclamation• Re-creation• Nature, self-healing

CHAPTER 6

POPULATION DYNAMICS

Population Growth

• Exponential Growth• Geometric Growth• Arithmetic Growth• J Curve

Population Oscillations and Irruptive Growth

• Dieback• Overshoot• Irruptive or Malthusian growth

Growth to a Stable Population

• Logistic growth• Environmental resistance

Strategies of Population Growth

• Malthusian Strategies• Logistic Strategies

Factors affecting Population

• Natality, Fecundity, and Fertility• Immigration• Mortality and survivorship• Age Structure• Emigration• Education

Factors Affecting Birth and Fertility Rates

• Education/affluence• Importance of children to family labor force• Urbanization• Cost - raising and educating children• Education & Employment opportunity - women• Infant mortality rate• Average marriage age• Availability - pension• Birth control• Religious beliefs, tradition and culture

Factors Affecting Death Rate

• Nutrition• Fewer infant deaths and increased longevity• Health and technology

• Teen Pregnancy in the USA• Migration• Immigration

Population Age Structure

–Ways of classifying• Pre-reproductive age• Reproductive age• Post-reproductive age

Solutions Influencing Population

– Controlling Migration– Reducing Birth Rates

• Economic development• Family planning• Economic rewards• Empowering women

– Population Control Studies• India• China

Population Distribution

– Urbanization and Growth• The future is urban• Hyper-urbanization - LDCs• The United States and other MDC’s• Spatial patterns of development

CHAPTER 7

HUMAN POPULATIONS

Population Growth

• Birth Rates• Over-population• Technology and Ingenuity

Limits to Population Growth

• Malthusian checks• Karl Marx• Neo-Malthusian

– Technology solutions?– Can More people be Beneficial?

Human Demography

• Fertility• Birthrate• Zero population growth• Mortality and death rates• Population growth rates• Life span and life expectancy

– dependency ratio

• Emigration and Immigration

Population Growth: Opposition

• Pronatalist/Social Pressures• Birth Reduction Pressures

– Education– Birth control– Economics

Demographic Transition

• Improved living conditions• Development and Population• Optimistic View• Pessimistic View• Social Justice View• Ecojustice View• Infant Mortality• Women’s Rights

Family Planning & Fertility Control

• Birth Control– Celibacy– Mechanical barriers– Surgery– Chemicals– Implantation of physical controls– Abortion

CHAPTER 8

ECOLOGICAL ECONOMICS

Classical Economics

• Diminished Returns• Demand• Supply• Market Equilibrium• Marginal Costs• Price Elasticity

• Neoclassical Economics– Karl Marx– E. F. Schumacher

• Ecological Economics– steady-state economy

Resources, Capital and Reserves

• Resource Types– Capital– Resource– Nonrenewable resources– Renewable resources– Intangible resources

Economic Resource Categories

• Proven resources• Known resources• Undiscovered resources• Recoverable resources

Population, Technology, and Scarcity

• Market Efficiencies• Increasing Environmental Carrying

Capacity• Economic Models• Why Not Conserve Resources?

Natural Resource Accounting

• Gross National Product (GNP)• Human Development Index (HDI)• Non-market Values• Cost/Benefit Ratios• Green Business• Jobs and the Environment

Sustainability

Sustainable Development

CHAPTER 9

ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH AND TOXICOLOGY

Health Hazards

• Infectious Diseases• Respiratory diseases

– pneumonia– tuberculosis– influenza– whooping cough

•Malaria•Parasitic Mematodes•Schistosomiasis•Onchocerciasis (river blindness)•Trachoma•STD’s

Toxic Chemicals• Irritants• Respiratory fibrotic agents• Asphyxiants• Allergens• Neurotoxins• Mutagens• Teratogens• Carcinogens

• Natural and Synthetic Toxin• Physical Agents

– radiation

• Trauma– stress

• Diet

Chemical Hazards and Toxicology

• Dose and response– LD5O factor

• Acute effect• Chronic effect• Types

– toxic substances– hazardous– carcinogens– mutagens– teratogens

Movement, Distribution and Fate of Toxins

• Solubility• Bioaccumulation• Biomagnification• Persistence• Chemical Interactions

Minimizing Toxic Effects

• Metabolic Degradation• Excretion• Repair Mechanisms

Measuring Toxicity

• Animal Testing• Toxicity Ratings• Acute vs. Chronic Doses and Effects• Detection Limits

Assessment

• Risks

• Acceptable risks??

Risk Analysis

– Identifying Risks– The Greatest Risks– Problems - Risk Assessment– Risk-Benefit Analysis– Managing Risks

CHAPTER 10

FOOD, HUNGER AND NUTRITION

Human Nutrition

• Energy Needs– undernourishment– over-nourishment

• Nutritional Needs– proteins– carbohydrates– lipids and oils– minerals– vitamins

World Food Resoureces

• Major Crops– wheat– rice– corn– potatoes

• Meat and Milk• Croplands

Increasing Food Production

• Green Revolution– Technology– Genetic Engineering– Increased Farm Output

• New Food Sources• Blue Revolution

– Aqua-culture

Agricultural Economics

• Food Supplies• Food Subsidies• Agricultural Aid• International Food Trade• Cash Crops

• World Hunger– Famines– Food Shortages

CHAPTER 11

SOIL RESOURECES AND SUSTAINABLE

AGRICULTURE

What is soil?• Soil, a renewable resource• Soil composition

– humus

• Soil organisms• Soil profiles

– top soil– sub-soil– parent material– bedrock

Use and Abuse of Soil

• Land Resources

• Land Degradation

Erosion

• Types of erosion– sheet erosion– rill erosion– gully erosion– streambank erosion

• Erosion in the United States• Erosion in other countries

Agricultural Resources

• Water• Fertilizer• Climate• Energy• Crop Diversity

Soil Conservation

• Managing Topography– contour plowing– strip-farming– tied ridges– terracing

• Providing Ground Cover– cover crops– mulch

• Reduced Tillage Systems

CHAPTER 12

PEST CONTROL

What are Pest and Pesticides?• Biological Pests

– Insects– Large animals

• Botanical Pests– Weeds

• Pesticides– Insecticides

• Herbicides– Fungicides

Pest Controls

• Early Controls– Botanical– Chemical

• Modern Controls– Synthetic chemicals

• DDT

Pesticide Types• Inorganic pesticides• Natural organic pesticides

– botanicals

• Fumigants• Chlorinated hydrocarbons• Organophosphates• Carbamates• Microbial agents

Pesticide Benefits

• Disease control• Crop protection• Increased crop production

Pesticide Problems

• Effects on Nontarget Species• Pesticide Resistance/Pest resurgence• Creation of New Pests• Persistence and Mobility in the

Environment• Human Health Problems

Alternative Pesticide Uses

• Crop rotation• Biological controls

– predatory insects– pathogens

• Herbivorous insects• Genetic and bioengineering

Reducing Pesticide Exposure

• Regulation– EPA– USDA

• Personal Safety

CHAPTER 13

BIODIVERSITY

Biodiversity and Species Concept

• What is Biodiversity?• What are species?

– Number of species

Benefits of Biodiversity

• Food• Drugs• Medicine• Ecological Benefits• Aesthetic and Cultural Benefits

Threats to Biodiversity

• Extinction• Natural Causes• Mass Extinction

Human-Caused Reductions in Biodiversity

• Habitat Destruction• Hunting and Fishing• Commercial products and Live Specimens• Predator and Pest Control• Exotic Species Introductions• Disease• Pollution• Genetic Assimilation

Biodiversity Protection• Hunting and Fishing Laws• Endangered Species Act• Recovery Plans• Private Land and Critical Habitat• Minimum Viable Populations• Habitat Protection• International Wildlife Treaties• Zoos• Botanical Gardens• Captive Breeding Programs

CHAPTER 14

LAND USE: FORESTS AND RANGELANDS

World Land Use

• Forest, 30%• Range and pasture, 26%• Cropland, 1%• Other, 33

– tundra– desert– wetlands– urban areas

World Forests

• Forest Distribution– Closed canopy– Open canopy– Woodland

Forest Products

• Industrial Timber• Fuelwood

Tropical Forests

• Diminishing Forests• Swidden Agriculture• Logging and Land Invasions• Forest Protection

– Reforestation

• Debt-for-Nature Swaps

Temperate Forests

• Ancient forest/old growth forests• Wilderness Protection• Wildlife Protection• Harvesting old growth forests

– clear-cutting– strip-cutting– selective-cutting

• Fire Management

Rangelands

• Range Management• Overgrazing and Land

Degradation– desertification

• Forage Conversion• Harvesting Wild Animals

Rangelands in the U.S.

• Bureau of Land Management• State of the Range

– feral animals

• Grazing Fees

Land Ownership

• Who owns what?

• Land Reform

• Indigenous Lands

CHAPTER 15

PRESERVING NATURE

Parks and Nature Preserves

• Origins and History• Natural Landscaping

North American Parks– Existing Systems– U.S. National Park System– Park Problems

• Over crowding• Roads• Commercialism• Pollution

– Wildlife– New Directions– New Parks

World Parks and Preserves• Biosphere Reserves• Protecting Natural Heritage• Size and Design of Nature Preserves

– recreation areas– historic areas– conservation areas– pristine research areas

• Conservation and Economic Development• Indigenous Communities

Wilderness Areas

• Wildlife Refuges– Refuge Management– International Wildlife Preserves

• poaching

Wetlands, Floodplains, & Coastal Regions

• Wetland Values• Wetland Destruction• Floods and Flood Control

– Floodplains

• Beaches, barrier Islands, and Estuaries

CHAPTER 16

EARTH AND ITS CRUSTAL RESOURCES

Earth, A Dynamic Sphere• Earth’s Layers

– Crust– Mantle– Outer Core– Inner Core

• Tectonic Processes– Tectonic Plates– Magma

• Shifting Continents

Rock Types & How They Formed

• Igneous Rock• Weathering• Sedimentation• Sedimentary Rock• Biogenic Sedimentation• Metamorphic Rock

Mineralogy

• Metals• Nonmetal Minerals• Strategic Minerals

Environmental Effects of Resource Extraction

• Mining– tunneling– water leakage– strip mining

• Processing– water pollution– chemical emissions

Conserving Mineral Resources

• Recycling– Aluminum & Platinum– Steel & Iron

• Substituting New Materials for Old Ones

Geologic Hazards

• Earthquakes– Tsunami

• Volcanoes• Floods

CHAPTER 17

AIR, CLIMATE, AND WEATHER

The Atmosphere,Composition & Structure

• Gas Mixture• Layered Envelope

– Troposphere– Stratosphere– Mesosphere– Thermosphere– Ionosphere

Weather Engine

• Solar Radiation/ Heat– Albedo (reflectivity)– “Greenhouse effect”

• Convection Currents– Water vapor

Weather• Energy Balance in the Atmosphere• Convection Cells • Prevailing Winds• Jet Streams• Frontal Weather

– cold and warm fronts• Cyclonic Storms

– hurricanes and tornadoes• Seasonal Winds

– monsoon• Weather Modification

Climate

• Climatic Catastrophes– Ice Ages

• Driving Forces & Patterns in Climatic Changes– Milankovitch Cycles

• El Niño

Human-caused Global Climate Change

• Greenhouse Gases– Carbon Dioxide– Aerosols

• Sources– Burning Fossil Fuels– Industrial Processes– Deforestation– Agriculture

Effects of Climate Change

• Temperature Changes• Impact on Plants and Animals• Rising Sea Levels impacting Coastlines• Melting Ice Packs• Possible Increase of Disease

Cutting Emissions

• United Nations “Earth Summit”• Kyoto Protocol• Developed Nations• Developing Nations

CHAPTER 18

AIR POLLUTION

Natural Sources of Air Pollution

• Volcanoes• Emissions from vegetation

Human-Caused Air Pollution

• Primary pollutants• Secondary pollutants• Fugitive emissions

Conventional or “Criteria” Pollutants

• Sulfur compounds• Nitrogen Compounds• Carbon Oxides• Metals and Halogens• Particulate Materials• Volatile Organic Compounds• Photochemical Oxidants

Unconventional Pollutants

• Emissions & emissions standards• Unconventional or noncriteria pollutants• Aesthetic degradation• Indoor air Pollution

– smoke

Climate, Topography, & Atmospheric Processes

• Inversions• Dust Domes and Heat Islands• Long Range Transport• Stratospheric Ozone

– chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)

Effects of Air Pollution• Human Health

– bronchitis– emphysema

• Plant Pathology• Acid Deposition

– pH and atmospheric acidity– aquatic effects– forest damage– buildings and monuments– visibility reduction

Air Pollution Control• Moving Pollution to Remote Areas• Particulate Removal

– filters• Sulfur Removal

– fuel switching and fuel cleaning– limestone injection/fluidized bed combustion– flue gas desulfurization– sulfur recovery processes

• Nitrogen Oxide Control• Hydrocarbon Controls

Clean Air Legislation• Clean Air Act of 1963• Amendments of 1970• Amendments of 1990

– Acid rain– Urban smog– Toxic air pollutants– Ozone protection– Marketing pollution rights– Toxic organic compounds

• EPA

CHAPTER 19

WATER USE AND MANAGEMENT

Water Resources• Hydrologic Cycle

– Evaporation/Sublimation– Saturation Point– Relative humidity– Condensation– Dew Point

• Rainfall & Topography– Rain Shadow

• Desert Belts• Balancing the Water Budget

Major Water Compartments• Oceans• Glaciers, Ice, & Snow• Ground Water

– infiltration– water table– aquifers

• Rivers and Streams• Lakes and Ponds• Wetlands• The Atmosphere

Water Availability and Use

• Water Supplies• Drought Cycles• Types of Water Use

– Withdrawal– Consumption– Degradation

• Quantities of Water Use• Use by Sector

Freshwater Shortages

• A Scarce Resource• Depleting Groundwater

– subsidence– sinkholes

Increasing Water Supplies

• Seeding Clouds &Towing Icebergs• Desalination• Dams, Reservoirs, Canals, & Aqueducts• Environmental Costs

– Evaporation, Leakage, and Siltation– Loss of Free-Flowing Rivers

Water Management & Conservation

• Watershed Management• Domestic Conservation• Industrial and Agricultural Conservation• Price Mechanisms

CHAPTER 20

WATER POLLUTION

Water Pollution

• Point Sources• Non-point Sources• Atmospheric Deposition

Types and Effects of Water Pollution

• Infectious Agents• Oxygen-Demanding Wastes• Plant Nutrients & Cultural Eutrophication• Toxic Inorganic Materials

– Heavy Metals– Nonmetallic Salts– Acids and Bases

• Organic Chemicals• Sediments• Thermal Pollution

Water Quality Today

• Surface Water in the U.S. & Canada

• Surface Water in other Countries• Groundwater and Drinking Water

Supplies• Ocean Pollution

Water Pollution Control

• Source Reduction• Non-point Sources and Land Management

– Agriculture– Urban runoff– Construction sites– Land disposal

• Human Waste Disposal– Natural Processes– Municipal Sewage Treatment

• Primary treatment• Secondary treatment• Tertiary treatment

– Low-Cost Waste Treatment• effluent sewerage

Water Legislation

• Clean Water Act• Clean Water Act Reauthorization• Other Important Water Legislation

– Safe Drinking Water Act– Superfund– Great lakes Water Quality Agreement

CHAPTER 21

CONVENTIONAL ENERGY

Energy• A Brief History• Current Energy Sources

– Fossil fuels– Nuclear power– Hydroelectric– Solar

• Per Capita Consumption• Energy Use

Coal

• Coal Resources and Reserves• Mining• Air Pollution

Oil

• Oil Resources and Reserves• Oil Imports and Domestic Supplies• Oil Shales and Tar Sands

Natural Gas

• Natural Gas Resources and Reserves• Unconventional Gas Sources

– Methane hydrate

Nuclear Power

• Nuclear Reactors: How They Work?• Types of Reactors• Alternative Reactor Designs• Breeder Reactors

Radioactive Waste Management

• Ocean Dumping • Land Disposal

– high-level waste repository– monitored, retrievable storage

• Decommissioning Old Nuclear Plants

Changing Fortunes of Nuclear Power

• Changing Public Opinion• Nuclear Fusion

– Magnetic confinement– Inertial confinement

CHAPTER 22

SUSTAINABLE ENERGY

Conservation

• Utilization Efficiencies• Energy Conversion Efficiencies

– net energy yield

• Negawatt programs• Co-generation

Tapping Solar Energy

• A Vast Resource• Passive Solar Heat• Active Solar Heat

– Eutectic Chemicals

High-Temperature Solar Energy

• Solar Cookers• Promoting Renewable Energy• Photovaltaic Solar Energy

– Photovoltaic Cells

• Storing Electrical Energy

Energy from Biomass

• Burning Biomass• Fuelwood crisis in LDCs• Dung and Methane as Fuels• Alcohol from Biomass

– gasohol

• Crop Residues, Energy Crops and Peat

Energy from the Earth’s Forces• Hydropower

– Dams and Hydro Generators

• Wind Energy– Wind Farms

• Geothermal Energy• Tidal and Wave Energy

– Tidal Stations

• Ocean Thermal Electric Conversion

CHAPTER 23

SOLID, TOXIC AND HAZARDOUS WASTE

Solid Waste • Waste Stream

– Paper, 38%– Yard waste, 17%– Metals, 8%– Plastics, 8%– Glass, 7%– Food, 7%– Miscellaneous, 14%

Waste Disposal Methods• Open Dumps• Ocean Dumpings• Landfills• Export Waste• Incineration and Resource Recovery

– Types of incinerators• refuse-derived fuel• mass burn

– Incinerator Cost and Safety

Reducing the Waste Stream

• Recycling• Composting• Energy from Waste• Reuse• Producing Less Waste

– Photodegradable plastics– Biodegradable plastics

Hazardous and Toxic Wastes• Hazardous Waste Disposal• Superfund• Hazardous Waste Management

– Produce Less Waste– Convert to Less Hazardous Substances

• Physical treatments• Chemical treatments• Bioremediation

– Store Permanently• Retrievable Storage• Secure Landfills

CHAPTER 24

URBANIZATION AND SUSTAINABLE CITIES

Urbanization

• What is a city?– Rural area– Urban area– Village– City– Megacity– Core region

• World Urbanization

Causes of Urban Growth

• Immigration Push Factors• Immigration Pull Factors• Government Policies

Urban Problems

• The Developing World– Traffic and Congestion– Air Pollution– Sewer Systems and Water Pollution– Housing

• Slums• Shantytowns• Squatter Towns

• The Developed World– Urban Problems– Urban Renewal– Noise

Transportation and City Growth

• Transportation methods– horse & buggy– automobiles

• Roads/freeways

City Planning

• History• Garden Cities and New Towns• Cities of the Future

– technopolis

• Urban Redesign• Design for Open space

– conservation

• Urban Redesign– Limit size– Development areas– Shopping malls into city centers– Convenience for shopping and services– Job location– Exercise areas– Diverse housing– “Superblocks”– Self-sustainable food and waste centers– Public participation

CHAPTER 25

WHAT THEN SHALL WE DO?

Environmental Education

• Environmental Literacy• Environmental Careers

Individual Accountability• Shopping for Green Products

– precycling– Non toxic products– recyclable products– natural products– Environmentally friendly products

• Blue Angels and Green Seals• Limits of Green Consumerism• Paying Attention to What’s Important

Collective Actions• Student Environmental Groups• Mainline Environmental Organizations• Broadening the Environmental Agenda• Deep or Shallow Environmentalism• Radical Environmental Groups• Anti-environmental Backlash

Global Issues

• Public Opinions and Environmental Protection– “Post materialist” values

• Sustainable Development• International Nongovernmental

Organizations

Green Government and Politics• Green Politics

– “Green” Parties

• Green Plans• National Legislation• Courts• Executive Branch• Environmental Impact Statements• International Environmental Treaties and

Conventions