Enlightenment and Revolutions Inquiry How did … Grade Enlightenment and Revolutions Inquiry How...

ARKANSASC3TEACHERSHUB

10GradeEnlightenment and Revolutions Inquiry

HowdidReasonleadtoRevolution?

Anicet-Charles-GabrielLemonnier-IntheSalonofMadameGeoffrinin1755athttps://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Salon_de_M..PublicDomainImage

SupportingQuestions

1. WhatwastheEnlightenmentandwhatweretheEnlightenmentwriters’viewsonhumanrights?

2. Whatwerethesocial,economicandpoliticalproblemsthatwerepointedoutbytheEnlightenmentwriters?

3. WhatdidEnlightenmentwriterssaythatwouldinspireotherstothinkdifferentlyabouttheircurrentsocial,politicalandeconomiccondition?

4. HowdidtheAgeofReasonwritersandspeakersinfluencepeopletoactionandrevolution?

10GradeEnlightenment and Revolutions Inquiry

HowdidReasonleadtoRevolution?InquiryStandard Era7.2.WH.2:Analyzethesocial,economicandpoliticalideasthatinfluencedthe18thand19th

centuryrevolutions.

StagingtheCompellingQuestion

DiscusstheconceptofinalienablerightsasseenthroughtheexcerptsfromtheDeclarationofIndependence,theDeclarationoftheRightsofManandCitizen-1789andJohnLocke'sTwoTreatisesofGovernment-1690TheSecondTreatisesofCivilGovernment.

SummativePerformanceTask

ARGUMENTHowdidReasonleadtoRevolution?Constructanargumentthataddressesthecompellingquestionusingspecificclaimsandrelevantevidencefromhistoricalsourceswhileacknowledgingcompetingviews.EXTENSIONExpresstheseargumentsinaperspective-takingexerciseusingsnapchat,topix.com,twitter,orothersocialmedia.

SupportingQuestion1

WhatwastheEnlightenmentandwhatweretheEnlightenmentwriters’viewsonhumanrights?

FormativePerformanceTask

DefineEnlightenmentanddesignachartlistingthemajorEnlightenmentwriters,theirmajorworks,abriefbiographyofwheretheywerefrom,andtheiressentialEnlightenmentideasexpressedintheirwritings.

FeaturedSources

SourceA:Enlightenment1685-1815SourceB:WhatWastheEnlightenment?SourceC:TheEnlightenmentandHumanRightsSourceD: FamousPeopleoftheEnlightenment

SupportingQuestion2

Whatwerethesocial,economicandpoliticalproblemsthatwerepointedoutbytheEnlightenmentwriters?

MatchmajorEnlightenmentwriterswiththesocial,economicandpoliticalproblemspointedoutintheirwritings.

FeaturedSources

SourceA:JohnLocke:ExcerptsfromtheSecondTreatiseofGovernment SourceB:ExcerptsfromTheSpiritoftheLawsbyCharlesdeSecondat,BarondeMontesquieu SourceC:ExcerptsfromAnInquiryintotheNatureandCausesoftheWealthofNationsbyAdamSmith

SupportingQuestion3

WhatdidEnlightenmentwriterssaythatwouldinspireotherstothinkdifferentlyabouttheircurrentsocial,politicalandeconomiccondition?FormativePerformance

Inashortessay,summarizewhattheEnlightenmentwriterssaidintheirwritingsandsuggestwhatmightinspireotherstothinkdifferentlyabouttheircurrentconditionsocially,politicallyandeconomically.

FeaturedSources

SourceA:JohnLocke:ExcerptsfromtheSecondTreatiseofGovernmentSourceB:ExcerptsfromTheSpiritoftheLawsbyCharlesdeSecondat,BarondeMontesquieu SourceC:ExcerptsfromAnInquiryintotheNatureandCausesoftheWealthofNationsbyAdamSmith

SupportingQuestion4

HowdidtheAgeofReasonwritersandspeakersinfluencepeopletoactionandrevolution?

Developaclaimwhichissupportedbyevidencefromvariousdocuments,thatdemonstrateshowtheAgeofReasonwritersandspeakersinspiredpeopletoactionandrevolution.

FeaturedSources

SourceA:SelectedExcerptsfromCommonSensebyThomasPaine SourceB:PatrickHenry:"GiveMeLibertyorGiveMeDeath"

TakingInformedAction

UNDERSTANDInvestigatethecurrentdifficultiesbetweenpoliceandminoritygroupsintheBlackLivesMattersocio-economicpoliticalrevolutioncurrentlyunderwayintheUnitedStates.ASSESSExaminetheextenttowhichthiscurrentattemptatrevolutionisbeingsuccessfulandstateone'spersonalstanceonhowthisissueshouldberesolved.ACTIONWritealettertotheeditorofthelocalorstatenewspapercomparingtheideasasexpressedbytheAgeofReasonwritersandtheviewsasexpressedbytheBlackLivesMattermovementandhowtheseissuesshouldberesolvedpeacefullyandrespectfullyasoutlinedbyEnlightenmentwritersratherthanthroughaviolentrevolution.

InquiryDescription

HowdidtheAgeofReasonwritersinfluencethepeopleofthe18thcenturytothinkdifferentlyaboutthemselvesandtheworldaroundthem?Howdidtheirwritingsmotivatepeopletotakeactiontofightfortheirbasichumaninalienablerightsandevenlaunchviolentrevolutionsforsocialandpoliticalfreedomstoachieveitinthe18thcentury?Dotheirwritingsaffectustoday? Ifso,howdothosewritingsaffectustoday?Aretherestrugglestodaythatcanbeconnectedtothoserevolutionsofthepast?Howmuchofaroledotheirwritingsplayinoureffortstodaytoinsureequalrightsforeveryone?DoequalrightsreallyexistinAmerica?Ifnot,wherearetheinequalitiesinoursocietytoday?ThesearebutsomeofthequestionsthisinquiryattemptstohaveyoungscholarstothinkaboutandtotrytoanswerthroughadetailedstudyofselectedwritingsoftheAgeofReason.Havingresearched,analyzedandthoughtaboutwhatthesewriterssaid,scholarsshouldthenbeabletohaveascholarlycompellingargumentusingtheprimarydocumentsofthatperiod,toanswerthecompellingquestion,"HowdidReasonleadtoRevolution?" Ofcourse,thisinquiryshouldbedoneafterscholarlearningoftheEnlightenment,theAmericanandFrenchRevolutionsandisintendedtoencouragescholarstothinkcriticallyhowtheseeventsarelinkedtogether.

Finally,sinceconnectingthepasttocurrenteventsisessentialforscholarstofeelandunderstandhistory,itisofutmostimportancetofindastrugglefromourpresenttimestoassociatethisinquiryto.OnestruggleforhumaninalienablerightsatthepresenttimeinAmericaistheBlackLivesMattermovement. Beingawareofthismovementduetotheintensivemediacoverageoftheirprotestsacrossthecountry,scholarswilllookatthismovementandthinkabouthowtheirargumentsofinequalitiescanbecomparedandcontrastedtotheargumentsforequalityandinalienablerightsencouragedbyEnlightenmentwritersandfoughtforbyparticipantsoftheAmericanandFrenchRevolutions. Afterhavingdonethat,thisinquiryleadsscholarstotakeinformedactionbywritingalettertotheeditorofanewspaperencouragingpeacefulratherthanviolentprotestfromtheBlackLivesMattersupporterstoresolvetheircomplaints. Thiswholeinquiryshouldtakearound12classdaysofinstructiontimetocompletelyclosereadthedocumentsandplayouttheeventsscheduledas formativeandsummativeperformance tasks.

Structure

Thisinquirybeginswiththecompellingquestionof"HowdidReasonleadtoRevolution?"butthecompellingargumentthatscholarsmustpresentcannotcomewithoutfirst lookingatprimarydocumentsofwhatinalienablerightsareasseenthroughthewritersoftheEnlightenment. Afterdiscussingtheconceptspresentedbythesedocuments,scholarsmustdefineEnlightenmentandexpresswhatthewritersoftheEnlightenmentviewswere,ofhumanrightsinthefirstsupportingquestionintheformofachart.Afteraccomplishingthistask,scholarsthenmusttakethewealthofinformationprovidedinthenexttwosupportingquestions(thesamesourcesforbothquestions)andfirstmatchthemwiththesocial,political,andeconomicproblemstheypointedout intheirwritings,summarizewhattheEnlightenmentwriterssaidintheirwritings,andfinally,suggestwhatmightinspireotherstothinkdifferentlyabouttheircurrentconditionsocially,politicallyandeconomically.Inthelastsupportingquestion,scholarswilldevelopaclaimsupportedbyevidencethatdemonstrateshowtheAgeofReasonwritersandspeakersinspiredpeopletoactionandrevolution. Afterallofthisthinking,analyzing,evaluating,andconnectingallofthepiecesofthiscompellingquestionmaterial,scholarswillanswerthesummativeperformancetaskofconstructinganargumentthataddresses thecompellingquestionwhileacknowledgingcompetingviewsthatwouldconflictwithwhattheseyoungscholarshavearrivedatastheanswertothecompellingquestion. Finally,youngscholarsmusttakeinformedaction.Whilethiscanbedoneinanumberofways,itissuggestedthatitbedoneintheformofaformallettertotheeditorofanewspaperconnectingtheBlackLivesMattermovementwiththeargumentsmadebyEnlightenmentwritersandencouragingthefollowersofthemovementtomaketheirvoicesknownthroughtheactionsofpeacefulmethodsratherthanthroughviolentrevolution.

Overview

StagingtheCompellingQuestionCompellingQuestion

HowdidReasonleadtoRevolution?

FeaturedSources

SourceA:JohnLocke:TwoTreatisesofGovernment--1690TheSecondTreatiseofCivilGovernmentfromfaculty.history.wisc.eduSourceB:ExcerptfromtheU.S.DeclarationofIndependencefromushistory.orgSourceC:DeclarationoftheRightsofMan--1789fromavalon.law.yale.edu

Stagingthecompellingquestion

Thefirstdayofinstructiononthisinquiryneedstobespentevaluatingtheconceptofinalienablerightsthroughclassdiscussionamongtheyoungscholarsandwhattheirdefinitionofitis. Throughdiscussion,theteacher/performancecoachcanbringoutmorethan"justrightsgivenbyGodthatmancannottakeaway"tothepointofthemuchdeepermeaningsoninalienable. Theteacher/performancecoachcanthenenterintowhattheyoungscholarsthinkareinalienablerightsaswellasdeepdiscussionwhatthoserightsareandhowtheyaffectourlivesonadailybasis.Aftermuchgroupdiscussion(smallgrouporlargegroup),theteacher/performancecoachcanintroducethefollowingsourcesfortheyoungscholarstoseewhattheEnlightenmentwriterssaidwereinalienablerights. Theteacher/performancecoachcanthendiscusswiththeyoungscholarsiftherearerightsneededinthosedaysthattodaywetakeforgrantedandwhatthoserightsmaybe.Thisshouldtakeonetotwodaysofinstructiontogothroughthispieceoftheinquiry.Seethefollowingdocumentsaswellasthesourceswhichareapartofthisinquiry.

TheTwoTreatisesofGovernment-1690TheSecondTreatisesofCivilGovernmentSummary:"Inthelate1600s,theconceptof'government'meantonething- monarchy.Theideathatindividualswereallequal- oratleast,hadanequalclaimtorightsandfreedom- wasafairlyalienone.In1689,however,abookappearedthatlaidoutacontrarytheory,onewhichclaimedexactlythat- andstartedtheworldtowardsrevolutionandwhatwetodaycall'democracy.'Thatbook,TwoTreatisesonGovernment,aworkofpoliticalphilosophyintendedtopushforwardtheideasofcontracttheoryandnaturalrightswaswrittenbyapersonwhoprobablywould'vebeensomewhatshockedbywhathisideashelpedcreate,acenturylater--JohnLocke.Locke'smajorworkwasTwoTreatisesonGovernment,whichwaspublishedanonymouslyin1689.It'simportanttorememberwhenLockewaswritingtheseideas;justayearbeforehisbookcameout,thenationwasconvulsedbytheGloriousRevolution,wheretheking,JamesII,wasoverthrown(atleastinpartbecausewasCatholic).So,whilethepowerofthemonarchywasunquestioned,theideathatcommonpeoplecouldhavesomedegreeofcontroloverthegovernmentwasgainingstrength.

Onthesubjectofrights,Lockewasdecadesaheadofhistime.Lockeclaimedthattherewerenaturalrights,orentitlementshumanbeingshadmerelybecausetheywerehuman,rightsthatnoonecouldtakeawayorrightfullyeliminate.Therewereessentiallythree: life(eachpersoneffectively 'owns'him/herself),liberty(yourrighttodo,moreorless,whatyouwantwiththatlife)andproperty."

http://study.com/academy/lesson/two-treatises-of-g.. UsedwithpermissionbyAnne from the Study.comTeam

TheAmericanDeclarationofIndependenceSummary:"Asthefirstformalstatementbyanation’speopleassertingtheirrighttochoosetheirowngovernment,theDeclarationofIndependencebecameasignificantlandmarkinthehistoryofdemocracy.InadditiontoitsimportanceinthefateofthefledglingAmericannation,italsoexertedatremendousinfluenceoutsidetheUnitedStates,mostmemorablyinFranceduringtheFrenchRevolution.TogetherwiththeConstitutionandtheBillofRights,theDeclarationofIndependencecanbecountedasoneofthethreeessentialfoundingdocumentsoftheUnitedStatesgovernment."

http://www.history.com/topics/american-revolution/..Used with permission per the website

TheDeclarationoftheRightsofManandCitizen--1789Summary:"Thedocument,TheDeclarationoftheRightsofMan,isonethatisveryimportanttotheFrenchwayofliving.Thisdocumentgivesthenaturalrightsofmanandwhattheycanandcannotdo.Inthis,itisverysimilartotheDeclarationofIndependence

writtenbyThomasJefferson.ThisdocumentwaswrittenatthetimeoftheFrenchRevolutionandthewritingofthiswasthemarkeroftheresistanceagainstthemonarchy.TheDeclarationsoftheRightsofMan,statesthenaturalrightsofman,asintherightsthatcannotbetakenawaybyanyone.However,theserightsarelimitedtothepeopleofthewhitecolororthoseoftheageof25yearsold.Asbadasthatsounds,itwasastarttoanewbeginning.TheFrenchpeople,liketheAmericanpeopleduringourRevolution,feltthatthiswasgleamofhopetheyneededtocarryon."https://ccalawh.wikispaces.com/French+Revolution

Contributions tohttps://ccalawh.wikispaces.com/are licensedunder aCreativeCommonsAttributionShare- Alike3.0Licen...

CompellingQuestionFeaturedSourceA JohnLocke:TwoTreatisesofGovernment--1690TheSecondTreatiseofCivilGovernmentfrom

faculty.history.wisc.edu

Excerpt

ChapterII,Sections4-5:"Tounderstandpoliticalpowerright,andderiveitfromitsoriginal,wemustconsider,whatstateallmenarenaturallyin,andthatis,astateofperfectfreedomtoordertheiractions,anddisposeoftheirpossessionsandpersons,astheythinkfit,withintheboundsofthelawofnature,withoutaskingleave,ordependinguponthewillofanyotherman.Astatealsoofequality,whereinallthepowerandjurisdictionisreciprocal,noonehavingmorethananother;therebeingnothingmoreevident,thanthatcreaturesofthesamespeciesandrank,promiscuouslyborntoallthesameadvantagesofnature,andtheuseofthesamefaculties,shouldalsobeequaloneamongstanotherwithoutsubordinationorsubjection,unlessthelordandmasterofthemallshould,byanymanifestdeclarationofhiswill,setoneaboveanother,andconferonhim,byanevidentandclearappointment,anundoubtedright todominionandsovereignty."

ChapterIV,Section23:"Thisfreedomfromabsolute,arbitrarypower,issonecessaryto,andcloselyjoinedwithaman'spreservation,thathecannotpartwithit,butbywhatforfeitshispreservationandlifetogether:foraman,nothavingthepowerofhisownlife,cannot,bycompact,orhisownconsent,enslavehimselftoanyone,norputhimselfundertheabsolute,arbitrarypowerofanother,totakeawayhislife,whenhepleases.Nobodycangivemorepowerthanhehashimself;andhethatcannottakeawayhisownlife,cannotgiveanotherpoweroverit."Source:https://faculty.history.wisc.edu/sommerville/367/L..

PublicDomainDocument

CompellingQuestionFeaturedSourceB ExcerptfromtheU.S.DeclarationofIndependencefromushistory.org

Excerpt

henintheCourseofhumaneventsitbecomesnecessaryforonepeopletodissolvethepoliticalbandswhichhaveconnectedthemwithanotherandtoassumeamongthepowersoftheearth,theseparateandequalstationtowhichtheLawsofNatureandofNature'sGodentitlethem,adecentrespecttotheopinionsofmankindrequiresthattheyshoulddeclarethecauseswhichimpelthemtotheseparation.

Weholdthesetruthstobeself-evident,thatallmenarecreatedequal,thattheyareendowedbytheirCreatorwithcertainunalienableRights,thatamongtheseareLife,LibertyandthepursuitofHappiness.—Thattosecuretheserights,GovernmentsareinstitutedamongMen,derivingtheir justpowersfromtheconsentofthegoverned,—ThatwheneveranyFormofGovernmentbecomesdestructiveoftheseends,itistheRightofthePeopletoalterortoabolishit,andtoinstitutenewGovernment,layingitsfoundationonsuchprinciplesandorganizingitspowersinsuchform,astothemshallseemmostlikelytoeffecttheirSafetyandHappiness.Prudence,indeed,willdictatethatGovernmentslongestablishedshouldnotbechangedforlightandtransientcauses;andaccordinglyallexperiencehathshewnthatmankindaremoredisposedtosuffer,whileevilsaresufferablethantorightthemselvesbyabolishingtheformstowhichtheyareaccustomed.Butwhenalongtrainofabusesandusurpations,pursuinginvariablythesameObjectevincesadesigntoreducethemunderabsoluteDespotism,itistheirright,itistheirduty,tothrowoffsuchGovernment,andtoprovidenewGuardsfortheirfuturesecurity.—SuchhasbeenthepatientsufferanceoftheseColonies;andsuchisnowthenecessitywhichconstrainsthemtoaltertheirformerSystemsofGovernment.ThehistoryofthepresentKingofGreatBritainisahistoryofrepeatedinjuriesandusurpations,allhavingindirectobjecttheestablishmentofanabsoluteTyrannyovertheseStates.Toprovethis,letFactsbesubmittedtoacandidworld."Source:http://www.ushistory.org/declaration/document/

CompellingQuestionFeaturedSourceC DeclarationoftheRightsofMan--1789fromavalon.law.yale.edu

Excerpt

"ApprovedbytheNationalAssemblyofFrance,August26,1789TherepresentativesoftheFrenchpeople,organizedasaNationalAssembly,believingthattheignorance,neglect,orcontemptoftherightsofmanarethesolecauseofpubliccalamitiesandofthecorruptionofgovernments,havedeterminedtosetforthinasolemndeclarationthenatural,unalienable,andsacredrightsofman,inorderthatthisdeclaration,beingconstantlybeforeallthemembersoftheSocialbody,shallremindthemcontinuallyoftheirrightsandduties;inorderthattheactsofthelegislativepower,aswellasthoseoftheexecutivepower,maybecomparedatanymomentwiththeobjectsandpurposesofallpoliticalinstitutionsandmaythusbemorerespected,and,lastly,inorderthatthegrievancesofthecitizens,basedhereafteruponsimpleandincontestableprinciples,shalltendtothemaintenanceoftheconstitutionandredoundtothehappinessofall.ThereforetheNationalAssemblyrecognizesandproclaims,inthepresenceandundertheauspicesoftheSupremeBeing,thefollowingrightsofmanandofthecitizen:

Articles:1. Menarebornandremainfreeandequalinrights.Socialdistinctionsmaybefoundedonlyuponthegeneralgood.

2. Theaimofallpoliticalassociationisthepreservationofthenaturalandimprescriptiblerightsofman.Theserightsare liberty,property,security,andresistancetooppression.

3. Theprincipleofallsovereigntyresidesessentiallyinthenation.Nobodynorindividualmayexerciseanyauthoritywhichdoesnotproceeddirectlyfromthenation.

4. Libertyconsistsinthefreedomtodoeverythingwhichinjuresnooneelse;hencetheexerciseofthenaturalrightsofeachmanhasnolimitsexceptthosewhichassuretotheothermembersofthesocietytheenjoymentofthesamerights.Theselimitscanonlybedeterminedbylaw.

5. Lawcanonlyprohibitsuchactionsasarehurtfultosociety.Nothingmaybepreventedwhichisnotforbiddenbylaw,andnoonemaybeforcedtodoanythingnotprovidedforbylaw.

6. Lawistheexpressionofthegeneralwill.Everycitizenhasarighttoparticipatepersonally,orthroughhisrepresentative,initsfoundation.Itmustbethesameforall,whetheritprotectsorpunishes.Allcitizens,beingequalintheeyesofthelaw,areequallyeligibletoalldignitiesandtoallpublicpositionsandoccupations,accordingtotheirabilities,andwithoutdistinctionexceptthatoftheirvirtuesandtalents.

7. Nopersonshallbeaccused,arrested,orimprisonedexceptinthecasesandaccordingtotheformsprescribedbylaw.Anyonesoliciting,transmitting,executing,orcausingtobeexecuted,anyarbitraryorder,shallbepunished.Butanycitizensummonedorarrestedinvirtueofthelawshallsubmitwithoutdelay,asresistance constitutes anoffense.

8. Thelawshallprovideforsuchpunishmentsonlyasarestrictlyandobviouslynecessary,andnooneshallsufferpunishmentexceptitbelegallyinflictedinvirtueofalawpassedandpromulgatedbeforethecommissionof theoffense.

9. Asallpersonsareheldinnocentuntiltheyshallhavebeendeclaredguilty,ifarrestshallbedeemedindispensable,allharshnessnotessentialtothesecuringoftheprisoner'spersonshallbeseverelyrepressedbylaw.

10. Nooneshallbedisquietedonaccountofhisopinions,includinghisreligiousviews,providedtheirmanifestationdoesnotdisturbthepublicorderestablishedbylaw.

11. Thefreecommunicationofideasandopinionsisoneofthemostpreciousoftherightsofman.Everycitizenmay,accordingly,speak,write,andprintwithfreedom,butshallberesponsibleforsuchabusesofthis

freedomasshallbedefinedbylaw.12. Thesecurityoftherightsofmanandofthecitizenrequirespublicmilitaryforces.Theseforcesare,therefore,establishedforthegoodofallandnotforthepersonaladvantageofthosetowhomtheyshallbeintrusted.

13. Acommoncontributionisessentialforthemaintenanceofthepublicforcesandforthecostofadministration.Thisshouldbeequitablydistributedamongall thecitizensinproportiontotheirmeans.

14. Allthecitizenshavearighttodecide,eitherpersonallyorbytheirrepresentatives,astothenecessityofthepubliccontribution;tograntthisfreely;toknowtowhatusesitisput;andtofixtheproportion,themodeofassessmentandofcollectionandthedurationofthetaxes.

15. Societyhastherighttorequireofeverypublicagentanaccountofhisadministration.16. Asocietyinwhichtheobservanceofthelawisnotassured,northeseparationofpowersdefined,hasnoconstitutionatall.

17. Sincepropertyisaninviolableandsacredright,nooneshallbedeprivedthereofexceptwherepublicnecessity,legallydetermined,shallclearlydemandit,andthenonlyonconditionthattheownershallhavebeenpreviously andequitably indemnified."Source:http://avalon.law.yale.edu/18th_century/rightsof.a..

SupportingQuestion1SupportingQuestion

WhatwastheEnlightenmentandwhatweretheEnlightenmentwritersviewsonhumanrights?

DefineEnlightenmentanddesignachartlistingthemajorEnlightenmentwriters,theirmajorworks,abriefbiographyofwheretheywerefrom,andtheiressentialEnlightenmentideasexpressedintheirwritings.

FeaturedSources

SourceA:Enlightenment1685-1815fromhistory.comSourceB:WhatWastheEnlightenment?fromlivescience.comSourceC:TheEnlightenmentandHumanRightsfromchnm.gmu.eduSourceD:FamousPeopleoftheEnlightenmentfrombiography.com

Inordertobeginacompellingargumenttoanswerthecompellingquestion,youngscholarsfirstmustdiscoverwhattheEnlightenmentis,defineit,andthenexpresswhattheirviewswereonhumanrights.Thissupportingquestionwilltakeafullclassperiodandmaybe1/2ofanotherday.

Young scholarswill defineEnlightenment from the various sourcesprovidedwith thisquestion, and thendesigna chartwhichhorizontally andvertically lists themajorEnlightenmentwriters, theirmajorworks,listingwheretheywerefrom,andanyfamousquotesorideasexpressedthroughtheirwritings.

SupportingQuestion1FeaturedSourceA Enlightenment1685-1815fromhistory.com

Excerpt

THEENLIGHTENMENT:"Europeanpolitics,philosophy,scienceandcommunicationswereradicallyreorientedduring thecourseofthe“long18thcentury”(1685-1815)aspartofamovementreferredtobyitsparticipantsastheAgeofReason,orsimplytheEnlightenment.Enlightenmentthinkers inBritain, inFranceandthroughoutEuropequestionedtraditionalauthorityandembracedthenotionthathumanitycouldbe improvedthroughrationalchange.TheEnlightenmentproducednumerousbooks,essays, inventions,scientificdiscoveries, laws,warsandrevolutions.TheAmericanandFrenchRevolutionsweredirectly inspiredbyEnlightenmentidealsandrespectivelymarkedthepeakofitsinfluenceandthebeginningofitsdecline.TheEnlightenmentultimatelygaveway to19th-centuryRomanticism.

THEEARLYENLIGHTENMENT:1685-1730TheEnlightenment’s important17th-centuryprecursors included theEnglishmenFrancisBaconandThomasHobbes,theFrenchmanReneeDescartesandthekeynaturalphilosophersoftheScientificRevolution,includingGalileo,KeplerandLeibniz.Itsrootsareusuallytracedto1680sEngland,whereinthespanofthreeyearsIsaacNewton publishedhis“PrincipiaMathematica”(1686)andJohnLockehis“EssayConcerningHumanUnderstanding” (1689)—twoworks thatprovided thescientific,mathematicalandphilosophicaltoolkit for theEnlightenment’smajoradvances.

DidYouKnow:Inhisessay"WhatIsEnlightenment?"(1784),theGermanphilosopherImmanuelKantsummeduptheera'smottointhefollowingterms:"Daretoknow!Havecouragetouseyourownreason!"

Lockearguedthathumannaturewasmutableandthatknowledgewasgainedthroughaccumulatedexperienceratherthanbyaccessingsomesortofoutsidetruth.Newton’scalculusandopticaltheoriesprovidedthepowerfulEnlightenmentmetaphors forpreciselymeasuredchangeand illumination.

Therewasnosingle,unifiedEnlightenment.Instead,itispossibletospeakoftheFrenchEnlightenment,theScottishEnlightenmentand theEnglish,German,SwissorAmericanEnlightenment. IndividualEnlightenmentthinkersoftenhadverydifferentapproaches.LockedifferedfromHume,RousseaufromVoltaire,ThomasJeffersonfromFredericktheGreat.Theirdifferencesanddisagreements,though,emergedoutofthecommonEnlightenmentthemesofrationalquestioningandbelief inprogress throughdialogue.

THEHIGHENLIGHTENMENT:1730-1780Centeredonthedialoguesandpublicationsof theFrench“philosophes” (Voltaire,Rousseau,Montesquieu,BuffonandDiderot),theHighEnlightenmentmightbestbesummedupbyonehistorian’ssummaryofVoltaire’s“PhilosophicalDictionary”:“achaosofclearideas.”Foremostamongthesewasthenotionthateverythingintheuniversecouldberationallydemystifiedandcataloged.ThesignaturepublicationoftheperiodwasDiderot’s“Encyclopédie”(1751-77),whichbroughttogether leadingauthors toproduceanambitious compilationofhumanknowledge.

ItwasanageofenlighteneddespotslikeFredericktheGreat,whounified,rationalizedandmodernizedPrussia inbetweenbrutalmulti-yearwarswithAustria,andofenlightenedwould-berevolutionarieslikeThomasPaineandThomasJefferson,whose“Declarationof Independence”(1776)framedtheAmericanRevolutionintermstakenfromofLocke’sessays.

Itwasalsoatimeofreligious(andanti-religious)innovation,asChristianssoughttorepositiontheirfaithalongrationallinesanddeistsandmaterialistsarguedthattheuniverseseemedtodetermineitsowncoursewithoutGod’s intervention.Secret societies—theFreemasons, theBavarian Illuminati, theRosicrucians—flourished,offeringEuropeanmen(andafewwomen)newmodesoffellowship,esotericritualandmutual

assistance.Coffeehouses,newspapersandliterarysalonsemergedasnewvenuesforideastocirculate.THELATEENLIGHTENMENTANDBEYOND:1780-1815

TheFrenchRevolutionof1789wastheculminationoftheHighEnlightenmentvisionofthrowingouttheoldauthoritiestoremakesocietyalongrationallines,butitdevolvedintobloodyterrorthatshowedthelimitsofitsownideasandled,adecadelater,totheriseofNapoleon.Still,itsgoalofegalitarianismattractedtheadmirationoftheearlyfeministMaryWollstonecraftandinspiredboththeHaitianwarof independenceandtheradical racial inclusivismofParaguay’s firstpost-independencegovernment.

Enlightenedrationalitygavewayto thewildnessofRomanticism,but19th-centuryLiberalismandClassicism—nottomention20th-centuryModernism—alloweaheavydebttothethinkersoftheEnlightenment."Source:ArticleTitle:Enlightenment;Author:History.comStaff;WebsiteName:History.com;YearPublished:2009

URL:http://www.history.com/topics/enlightenment

AccessDate: 1/11/17;Publisher:A+ENetworks

Usedwithpermissionperthewebsite

SupportingQuestion1FeaturedSourceB WhatWastheEnlightenment?fromlivescience.com

Excerpt

ExcerptsfromWhatWastheEnlightenment?byJessieSzalay,LiveScienceContributor

July7,201611:56pmET

"TheEnlightenment,alsoknownastheAgeofReason,wasaphilosophicalmovementthattookplaceprimarilyinEuropeand,later,inNorthAmerica,duringthelate17thandearly18thcentury.Itsparticipantsthoughttheywereilluminatinghumanintellectandcultureafterthe"dark"MiddleAges.CharacteristicsoftheEnlightenmentincludetheriseofconceptssuchasreason,libertyandthescientificmethod.Enlightenment philosophywas skeptical of religion— especially the powerful Catholic Church—monarchiesandhereditary aristocracy. Enlightenment philosophywas influential in ushering in the French andAmericanRevolutions and constitutions.

HistoriansdisagreeonpreciselywhentheEnlightenmentbegan,thoughmostagreethattheEnlightenment'soriginsaretiedtotheScientificRevolutioninthe1600s,accordingtotheStanfordEncyclopediaofPhilosophy.TheEnlightenmentculminated intheFrenchRevolution(1789-1799)andwasfollowedbytheRomantic period.

Major figuresof theEnlightenment includeVoltaire, JohnLocke,ThomasHobbes,DavidHume,Jean-JacquesRousseau,AdamSmith,ImmanuelKant,IsaacNewtonandThomasJefferson."

"PhilosophicalConcepts

DuringtheEnlightenment,therewasmoreemphasisonscientificmethods,secularizationof learning,religioustolerance,universaleducation, individual liberty,reason,progressandtheseparationofchurchandstate,"saidAbernethy.SomekeyEnlightenmentconceptsare:

Reason: Enlightenmentphilosophersbelievedthatrational thoughtcould leadtohuman improvementandwasthemostlegitimatemodeofthinking.Theysawtheabilitytoreasonasthemostsignificantandvaluablehumancapacity,accordingtoPBS.Reasoncouldhelphumansbreakfreefromignoranceandirrationality,andlearningtothinkreasonablycouldteachhumanstoactreasonably,aswell.Enlightenmentphilosopherssawreasonashavinganequalizingeffectonhumanity,becauseeveryone'sthoughtsandbehaviorwouldbeguidedbyreason.

Enlightenment intellectuals thought that all human endeavors should aim to increase knowledge and reason,rather than elicit emotional responses.They advocated for universal education and secularized learning, saidAbernethy.

Skepticism:Ratherthanbeingcontentwithblindfaith,Enlightenmentthinkerswantedproofthatsomethingwastrue.They testedpopularnotionswithscientificallycontrolledexperimentsandpersonalexperience,thoughskepticismofone'sownsenseswasanotherfactor inEnlightenmentthought,andcausedcomplicatedphilosophical conundrums,according to theStanfordEncyclopediaofPhilosophy.

Enlightenmentintellectualswereskepticalofthedivinerightofkingsandmonarchies ingeneral,scientificclaimsaboutthenaturalworld,thenatureofrealityandreligiousdoctrine."TheologianssoughttoreformtheirfaithduringtheEnlightenmentwhilemaintainingatruefaithinGod,"saidAbernethy.ThedeistmovementbecamepopularduringtheEnlightenment.DeismholdsthatGodexistsbutdoesnotinterveneonEarth.Theuniverseproceedsaccordingtonatural,scientificallybased laws.SeveralofAmerica'sFoundingFathersweredeists, includingThomas Jefferson.

Religious tolerance:Thoughskepticalof religious institutions,manyEnlightenment thinkersbelieved thatpeopleshouldbefreetoworshipastheywished."TheintellectualsoftheEnlightenmentvigorouslysoughtto

restrictthepoliticalpoweroforganizedreligioninanefforttocurtailtheoutbreakofintolerantreligiouswars," saidAbernethy.

Liberty: TheEnlightenmenttoleranceofreligionisrelatedtothemovement'semphasisonpersonal liberty.ThisconceptholdsthatGodand/ornaturegaveallhumansbasicrightsandhumansshouldbefreetoactwithoutoppressiverestriction."Thesephilosophersemphasizedthatgovernmenthadnoauthorityoveranindividual'sconscience,"Abernethyexplained."Individualshadrights,allmenwereequaland legitimatepoliticalpowerisbasedontheconsentofthepeopleandisobligatedtoberepresentativeofthepeople'swill."

Progress: ThecenturiesbeforetheEnlightenmentwerecharacterizedbyrapidchanges,fromthediscoveriesoftheScientificRevolutiontotheexplorationoftheworldandtheadvancementinarttechniqueduringtheRenaissance.Largelybecauseof this,Enlightenmentthinkersbelievedthatthehumanconditionwasimprovingovertime.Philosophers likeDavidHumeandAdamSmith,bothScotsmen,tiedEnlightenmentidealstopolitics,economicpoliciesandmore,accordingtotheStanfordEncyclopediaofPhilosophy.

Empiricismvs. rationalism: Empiricism isassociatedwithBritishEnlightenmentphilosophers, including JohnLocke,GeorgeBerkeleyandHume.Empiricistsarguedthatallhumanknowledgecomesthroughthesensesandsensoryexperiences.Rationalists,wholivedprimarily incontinentalEurope,arguedthatsenseswereuntrustworthyandknowledgecamefromthemind,throughconceivingofor intuitingideas,accordingtoLoyolaUniversityNewOrleans.

Towardtheendoftheperiod,philosophersbegantoconsiderexactlywhattheymeantbytheterm"enlightenment."GermanphilosopherImmanuelKantofferedthisdefinitioninhisessay"WhatIsEnlightenment?":

Enlightenment isman'semergence fromhisself-imposednonage[many interpretnonageas"immaturity"].Nonageistheinabilitytouseone'sownunderstandingwithoutanother'sguidance…Daretoknow!Havethecouragetouseyourownunderstanding," isthereforethemottooftheenlightenment.

Major FiguresAbernethydiscussedthe followingmenwhomadesignificantcontributions to theEnlightenment:

JohnComenius(1592-1670)wasaCzech intellectualwhoespouseduniversaleducationandpracticalinstruction.Hewasinstrumental in introducingpictorialtextbookswritteninthevernacularofthestudentratherthanLatin.Headvocatedforlifelonglearningandthedevelopmentoflogicalthinkingasopposedtomemorizationbyrote.Hewantededucationtobegiventowomenandimpoverishedchildren.

TheDutchmanHugoGrotius(1583-1645)wasaprodigiousintellectualwholaidthefoundationforinternationallawbasedontheconceptofnaturallaw.Hewasoneofthepioneersinputtingforththeideaofasocietyofstatesgovernednotbyforceandwarfarebutbylawsandmutualagreementtoenforcethoselaws.Healsoespousedtheideaofreligioustolerance.

Englishmenwhowere influential in theEnlightenment includeThomasHobbes(1588-1679)andJohnLocke (1632-1704).Hobbeschampionedabsolutismforthesovereignbuthebelievedintherightoftheindividualandtheequalityofallmen.Hestatedthatpoliticalcommunitiesshouldbebasedona"socialcontract"meaningindividualsconsenteitherexplicitlyortacitlytosurrendersomeoftheirfreedomsandsubmittotheauthorityoftheruler(ortothedecisionofthemajority)inexchangefortheprotectionoftheirremainingrights.Lockepromotedtheoppositetypeofgovernment,whichwasarepresentativegovernment.

TheFrenchPhilosophes(philosophers) tooktheEnlightenmenttonewheights.Charles-LouisdeSecondat,betterknownastheBarondeMontesquieu (1689-1755),developedtheworkofJohnLockeandespousedtheconceptof theseparationofpowerbycreatingdivisions ingovernment.François-MarieArouet(1694-1778),betterknownasVoltaire,wasaprolificwriterwhousedsatireandcriticismtoincitesocialandpoliticalchange.HewroteattacksontheCatholicChurchandexposedinjustices.Hepromotedtheconceptsoffreedomofreligion,freedomofexpressionandtheseparationofchurchandstate.Hiswritingswerepopularandreachedmanyreaders.Jean-JacquesRousseau(1712-1778)wrote thebook"TheSocialContract," inwhichhechampionedforaformofgovernmentbasedonsmall,directdemocracy,whichopenlysignifiesthewillofthepopulation.

DenisDiderot(1713-1784)wasnotasinterestedinincitingrevolutionbutwantedtocollectanddisseminate

Enlightenmentknowledge.Heembarkedonamammothprojecttocreatethe"Encyclopaedia,oraSystemicDictionaryoftheSciences,Arts,andCrafts."Manywriterscontributedtothe35-volumework,whichaseditedbyDiderotandJeanleRondd'Alembert.The"Encyclopaedia"wouldincorporatealloftheworld'sknowledgeandspreadittoothercountriesallovertheworld.

DavidHume(1711-1776)wasaScottishphilosopherwhogainedfameasanessayist,accordingtotheStanfordEncyclopediaofPhilosophy.Hewasahighlyinfluentialempiricistwhoarguedthathumanswereabundleofsensationswithnotrueselves(thisiscalledtheBundleTheory)andthatethicswerebasedonemotionrather thanmoralprinciples.

ImmanuelKant(1724-1804)wasaGermanphilosophercentral totheEnlightenment.Hesynthesizedrationalismandempiricismthroughhistheoriesabouthumanautonomyandsetthestageforlaterphilosophicalmovements,according to theStanfordEncyclopediaofPhilosophy.

AdamSmith(1723-1790),aclosefriendofHume,wasaScottishphilosopherandeconomistmostfamousforhistheoryofthe"invisiblehandofthemarket,"accordingtotheStanfordEncyclopediaofPhilosophy.Hisbook"TheWealthofNations"laidthefoundationforfreemarketeconomics.

IsaacNewton (1642-1727)wasanEnglishmathematicianandphysicistwholaidthefoundationforclassicalmechanicsandcalculus.Newtondevelopedthe lawsofmotionanduniversalgravitation,whichledtoimprovements inunderstanding theCopernicanheliocentricuniverse,according to the IsaacNewtonInstitute forMathematical Sciences.

Thomas Jefferson(1743-1826),anAmericanFoundingFather,washeavily influencedbyEnlightenmentphilosophyandspentseveralyearsinFrance.HewrotetheDeclarationofIndependence,whichstressedEnlightenmentideassuchasliberty,fundamentalhumanrightsandequality(thoughnotforslaves),accordingtotheThomasJeffersonFoundation."

"HowtheEnlightenmentchangedtheworld

"ItcannotbestressedenoughhowinstrumentaltheEnlightenmentideaswereinchanginghistoryandsocietyaroundtheglobe,"saidAbernethy.WestillholdmanyEnlightenmentidealsdear.Someofthescientifictheorieshaveevolved,butmanyremainastheirEnlightenmentauthorswrotethem.Theconceptsof liberty,reasonandequalityinfluencedearlyfeministMaryWollstonecraft[motherofMaryShelley,authorof "Frankenstein"],AmericanabolitionistFrederickDouglassandotherseminal leaders.

"Theideasofreligioustoleranceandtheseparationofchurchandstatedidindeedleadtoareductioninwarsduetoreligiousdifferences,"saidAbernethy.Asthepowerofthechurchwaned,societiesliketheFreemasonsandtheIlluminatigainedtraction.Literarysalonsandcoffeehousesemergedasnewplacestosocializeanddiscussideas.Educationforchildrenbecamemorewidespread,andmoreuniversitieswerefounded.Literacyrates increaseddramatically,andpublic librariesandmuseumswere introduced.

"TheconceptsoftheEnlightenmentledtomanyrevolutions,whichhadatremendouseffectonchanginghistoryandsociety,"saidAbernethy."In1688,EnglishProtestantswereinstrumental inoverthrowingtheCatholicmonarchJamesIIandinstallingtheProtestantmonarchsWilliamandMary.Afterwards,theEnglishParliamentratifiedanewBillofRightsgrantingmorepersonalfreedomsforEnglishmen."

Themost famousEnlightenment-influencedrevolutionswere theFrenchandAmerican.

TheAmericanRevolution"TheFoundingFathersadoptedmanyoftheideasoftheEnlightenmentphilosophersinwritingtheConstitutionandtheBillofRights,"saidAbernethy.Theygavelesspowertothegovernmentandmorepowertothepeople.SheaddedthattheyalsoestablisheduniversaleducationinAmerica.

TheFrenchRevolutionTheFrenchRevolutiontooktheEnglishcoupastepfurtherandeliminatedmonarchyaltogether.KingLouis

XVIandhisqueen,MarieAntoinette,werebeheadedandaRepublicanformofgovernmentwasestablished.

"There'sadebateaboutwhethertheEnlightenmentaffectedsociety,orwhetherasocietychangingthroughdifferentmeansaffectedtheEnlightenment,"saidWilde."Eitherway,theideasofEnlightenment…influencedaFrenchmiddleclasstowantavoiceingovernment.In1789,[thisdesire]producedaThirdEstate,whichbrokeawayfromroyalrule,andtriggeredtheFrenchRevolution."

ThoughEnlightenmentphilosophyemphasizedseeminglypositive ideals like libertyand tolerance,Wildenotedthatitcouldbetakentoextremes."It'simportanttostressthattheEnlightenmentthinkersweren'texactlystickingtotheidealsofothers…andtheextremesofEnlightenmentthought,suchasarejectionofthechurch,havebeenblamedfortheterrorintherevolution."ThebrutalityoftherevolutionandthesubsequentNapoleonicWarsdemonstratethe limitsofattemptingtoremakesocietyalongpurelyrationallines."Source:URL: http://www.livescience.com/55327-the-enlightenment..

Accessed: 1/11/17Title:WhatWastheEnlightenment?; Author: JessieSzalay,LiveScienceContributor;PublishedDate: July7,2016at11:56pmET

SupportingQuestion1FeaturedSourceC TheEnlightenmentandHumanRightsfromchnm.gmu.edu

Excerpt

EnlightenmentandHumanRights"IftheguillotineisthemoststrikingnegativeimageoftheFrenchRevolution,thenthemostpositiveissurelytheDeclarationoftheRightsofManandCitizen,oneofthefoundingdocumentsinthehumanrightstradition.

ThelastingimportanceoftheDeclarationofRightsisimmediatelyevident:justcomparethefirstarticlefromAugust1789withthefirstarticleintheUniversalDeclarationofHumanRightspassedbytheUnitedNationsafterWorldWarII,on10December1948.Theyareverysimilar,thoughtheUNdocumentrefersto"humanbeings"inplaceof"men."(Did"men"meanwomentooin1789?Asweshallsee,thiswasfarfromclear.)

WhentheFrenchrevolutionariesdrewuptheDeclarationoftheRightsofManandCitizeninAugust1789,theyaimedtotoppletheinstitutionssurroundinghereditarymonarchyandestablishnewonesbasedontheprinciplesof theEnlightenment,aphilosophicalmovementgatheringsteamintheeighteenthcentury.ThegoaloftheEnlightenment'sproponentswastoapplythemethodslearnedfromthescientificrevolutiontotheproblemsofsociety.Further, itsadvocatescommittedthemselvesto"reason"and"liberty."Knowledge,itsfollowersbelieved,couldonlycomefromthecarefulstudyofactualconditionsandtheapplicationofanindividual'sreason,not fromreligious inspirationortraditionalbeliefs.Libertymeant freedomofreligion,freedomofthepress,andfreedomfromunreasonablegovernment(torture,censorship,andsoon).Enlightenmentwriters, suchasVoltaire,Montesquieu,andRousseau, influencedordinary readers,politicians,andevenheadsofstateallovertheWesternworld.Kingsandqueensconsultedthem,governmentministersjoinedtheircause,andintheBritishNorthAmericancolonies,AmericanrevolutionariesputsomeoftheirideasintopracticeintheDeclarationofIndependenceandthenewConstitutionoftheUnitedStates.

TheDeclarationoftheRightsofManandCitizenof1789broughttogethertwostreamsofthought:onespringingfromtheAnglo-Americantraditionof legalandconstitutionalguaranteesof individual liberties, theotherfromtheEnlightenment'sbeliefthatreasonshouldguideallhumanaffairs.EnlightenmentwriterspraisedthelegalandconstitutionalguaranteesestablishedbytheEnglishandtheAmericans,buttheywantedtoseethemappliedeverywhere.TheFrenchrevolutionariesthereforewroteaDeclarationofRights that theyhopedwouldserveasamodel ineverycornerof theworld.Reasonrather thantraditionwouldbe its justification.Asaresult, "France"or"French"neverappears in thearticlesof thedeclarationitself,onlyinitspreamble.

TheAnglo-AmericantraditionoflegalguaranteesofrightsdatesbacktotheMagnaCarta,or"GreatCharter,"of1215.InitKingJohnofEnglandguaranteedcertainlibertiestothefreemenofhiskingdom.In1628theEnglishParliamentdrewupaPetitionofRightrestatingthe"rightsandlibertiesofthesubjects."CharlesIagreedtoit,andtherightswerefurtherextendedintheEnglishBillofRightsof1689.JohnLocke'swritingsonthenatureofgovernmentinthelate1600sgaveamoreuniversalandtheoreticalcastetotheideaoftherightsoffreebornEnglishmen,suggestingthatsuchrightsbelongednotjusttotheEnglish,buttoallproperty-owningadultmales.

UntilLocke,theEnglishtraditionofrightshadbeenjustthat,English.ThevariousEnglishparliamentarydocumentsonrightshadbeenspecificallylimitedtofreebornEnglishmen.Theymadenolargerclaims.TheEnlightenmenthelpedbroadentheclaims,anditseffectscanbeseenintheAmericanoffshootsoftheEnglishparliamentarytraditionofrights.ThomasJefferson'sDeclarationofIndependenceof1776claimedthat"inalienable"rightswerethefoundationofallgovernment,andhejustifiedAmericanresistancetoEnglishruleintheseterms.Jefferson's"declaration"isespeciallyimportantbecauseitarguedthatrightshadonlytobe"declared"tobeeffective.Thesamebeliefintheself-evidenceofrightscanbeseeninGeorgeMason'sdraftoftheBillofRightsforVirginia'sstateconstitution.ThesimilaritiestotheDeclarationoftheRightsofManandCitizenarenothardtofind,forboththeVirginiaBillofRightsandJefferson'sDeclarationof

Independencehadan immediate influenceontheFrenchdeclaration.EnlightenmentwritershadpavedthewayforthereceptionoftheseideasontheEuropeancontinentand

helpedtransformEnglishrights intomoreuniversallyapplicableones.TheycomplainedthatinFrancetheserightswerebeingviolatedbydespotic,absurd,superstitious,andfanatical institutions.Voltaire, inparticular,heldoutEnglishreligioustolerationasamodel.Intheircriticism,MontesquieuandRousseaumovedbeyondexisting institutions,proposingnewprinciplesofgovernmentbasedonreasonandcomparativestudy.BeginninginthelastyearsofthereignofLouisXIVandintensifyingthereafter,writersbothwithinandoutsideFrancebeganstronglydecryingthedespotismoftheFrenchmonarchy.In1721,Montesquieu,anoblemanandjudge,publishedananonymousnovel,ThePersianLetters,inwhichheusedfictionallettersbetweenvisitingPersianstolampoonFrenchcustoms,particularlythoseoftherecentlydeceasedLouisXIV.VoltaireheldFrenchpracticesupagainstthoseinEngland,China,andelsewhereandfoundcausetoridiculeFrench"fanaticism" in religion.Theseandothercriticismspavedthewayforamoretheoreticalconsiderationofgovernmentingeneral.OneofthemostinfluentialworksofthisnaturewasMontesquieu'sSpiritofLaws(1748),whichdevelopedacomparativepoliticalanalysisoftheconditionsmost favorableto liberty.TheAmericanFoundingFathersstudiedthisworkclosely.Rousseau,inhisSocialContractof1762,tooktheideasofMontesquieuandalsoLockeastepfurther;hearguedthatallgovernmentrestedonasocialcontract(notondivineright,nottheBible,nottraditionofanykind)inwhich"theassembledpeople"(democracy)determinedeverything.Forhim,"thepersonofthemeanestcitizenisassacredandinviolableasthatofthefirstmagistrate";inotherwords,Rousseau insistedoncompleteequality (betweenmen).AlthoughthemostdemocraticoftheEnlightenmentwriters,Rousseausaidrelatively littleaboutrights.Infact,oneofthemostenduringcriticismsofhisworkisthathefailedtoguaranteeindividualrightsunderthesocialcontract.Thecommunityapparentlytookprecedenceovertheindividual inRousseau'sview.OtherEnlightenmentwriterssteppedintothisgap.Voltairemadehisreputationdefendingthosewhohadbeenpersecutedfortheirreligiousopinions.Asyet,however,therewasmoretalkaboutrightsingeneralthanaboutspecificrights.Writersoftenreferredtorightsasifeveryoneknewwhattheymeant,butinfactmanyambiguitiesremained:ShouldProtestantsorJewshavethesamerightsasCatholicsinFrance?Shouldpoormenhavethesamerightsaspropertyowners?Shouldwomenenjoythesamerightsasmen?DespitethestrongeffortsoftheFrenchmonarchyandtheCatholicChurchtobantheworksofMontesquieu,Voltaire,andRousseau,theirinfluencesoonspread,eventothehighestechelonsofthestatethatoriginallyopposedthem.OthermonarchsinEuropeeagerlysoughtthefriendshipandadviceofEnlightenmentwriters,anditwasonlyamatteroftimebeforeleadingFrenchbureaucratsalsotookuptheirideas.AmongthemoststrikingcaseswasthatofTurgot,oneofthechiefministersofLouisXVI.HismemorandumtotheKingof1775showsthattalkofrightshadpermeatedthehighestlevelsofgovernment.Before theRevolutionbrokeout in1789,mostdiscussionof rights inFrance focusedon theplightof religiousminorities.Afteryearsof criticismanddiscussion, theFrenchcrowngranted certain civil rights toProtestantsin1787,butnotpoliticalones.OncecivilrightshadbeengrantedtoProtestants,itwasperhapsinevitablethatthequestionofJewishrightswouldberaised.ButtheFrenchmonarchydidnotofferanyreformsinthestatusofJews.Aparticularlycontentiousissueinthe1780swasthatofslavery.ApowerfulcurrentofantislaveryopinionwaswellingupinEngland,France,andthenewUnitedStates,abettedinpartbytheinfluentialanti-slaverytractsofaFrenchCatholicclergyman,AbbéRaynal.RaynaldenouncedslaveryalongwithmostEuropeancommercewiththecolonies.HisworkhadgreatimpactintheBritishNorthAmericancoloniesaswellasinEurope.Writers,philosophers,andclericshadlongdebatedthequestionofawoman'sroleinsociety,butthisdiscussiondidlittletoinspiregovernmentactionbefore1789,ortoprompttheformationofclubsorsocietiesconcernedwithimprovingthestatusofwomen.Enlightenmentwriters interestedinthesubjectfocusedontheeducationofwomen,ratherthanontheircivilorpoliticalrights.MostpeopleinFrance,menandwomenalike,believedthatawoman'splacewasinthehome,notinthepublicsphere.Thiswidelyheldviewhelpsexplaintheabsenceoforganizedwomen'sgroupsinFrancebeforetheoutbreakoftheRevolution.OncetheKingconvokedtheEstates-General in1789,however,womentooktheopportunitytosubmittheir

ownpetitions,therebyhelpingplacetheirownconcernsontherevolutionaryagenda.

Asthenotionofrightsspread,itbecameincreasinglyradical.WhenKingLouisXVIcalledtheEstates-Generaltomeetin1789,heinadvertentlyreleasedatorrentofcomplaintsaboutthefutureofthecountryintheformofpamphlets.Oneofthemostinfluentialofthesepamphletswaswrittenbyaclergyman,AbbéSieyès.In"WhatIstheThirdEstate?",heofferedafundamentallynewvisionofFrenchsocietyinwhichpositionwouldbedeterminedbyusefulness,notbirth.Inshort,heattackedtheconceptofahereditarynobility.Sieyès'spamphlethelpedclearthewayfortheviewsthatwouldbeexpressedintheDeclarationoftheRightsofManandCitizen.

BeforetherevolutionariescouldestablishtheDeclarationofRightsasthefountofgoverningauthority,however,theyhadtoteardowntheancientedifice.Theydidnotimmediatelyabolishmonarchyitself;insteadtheytriedtoputitonadifferentfoundationofconstitutionalism.Buttheydidabolishtheoldsystemofspecialprivileges.Inonelongsession(throughoutthenightof4August1789),thedeputiestothenewNationalAssemblyvoluntarilyrenouncedtheprivilegesof theirtowns,provinces,andvarioussocialgroups.Nobles,clergy,judges,andevenordinarytaxpayerslostwhateverspecialstandingtheyhadgainedoverthecenturies.Fromnowon,everyonewastobeidenticalbeforethelaw.Thisconceptofequalitybecameoneofthecardinalprinciplesofthenewdeclaration,passedonlythreeweekslater.Thedeclarationgavebirthtothefamousrevolutionarytriad:Liberty,Equality,andFraternity.Inallimagesofthetime,theseprincipleswererepresentedbyfemalefigures—butthatdidnotmeanwomenwereabouttogainequalaccesstotherightsthetriadembodied.Thedeclarationsaidnothingaboutwomen,oraboutreligiousminorities,ormenwhodidnotownproperty,orslaves.Notsurprisingly,themomentthedeclarationpassed,thestatusofallthesegroupsbecamethesubjectofheateddebate.Thefirstissuetakenupwasthequestionofpropertyqualificationsforfullcitizenship.TheNationalAssemblyinstitutedpropertyqualificationsonlytorescindthemin1792andreinstitutethemafter1795.Whenthequestionofreligiousminoritiescameup,theassemblyreadilyagreedtograntfullrightstoProtestantsbuthesitatedtodosoforJews.Jewspetitionedforfullrightsandfinallygainedthemon27September1791.Thequestionofslaverywasmorecomplicatedstill,ifonlybecausealargeproportionofFrenchcommercedependedonthecolonies,whoseagrarianeconomyrestedheavilyonthatinstitution.IntheFrenchcolonies,mulattosandfreeblackshadbegunagitatingforrights,butanysuchmovewasfiercelyresistedbywhiteplanters,whofeareditwouldunderminetheentireslavesystem.TheNationalAssemblytriedtotakeamiddlecourse,stillsupportingtheslavesystembutgrantingrightstocertainfreeblacksandmulattos(inMay1791).Somedeputieswantedtoabolishtheslavetradeandslaveryitself.WhenamassiveslaverevoltbrokeoutinthelargestFrenchcolony,SaintDomingue(present-dayHaiti;seeChapter8),thedeputiesrescindedtherightsoffreeblacksandmulattos,onlytoreinstitutethemafewmonthslater(March1792).Theassemblyoriginallytriedtosuppresstheslaverevolt,butratherthanlosethecolonyaltogetherwhentheslavesthreatenedtoallywithGreatBritainandSpain,theNationalConvention,on4February1794,finallyabolishedslaveryinallthecolonies.ItwouldbereestablishedunderNapoleonin1802.OncetheFrenchRevolutiongotunderway,itsparkedthefirstexplicitfeministmovementinhistory.Membersofbothsexeswerenowarguingthatwomenshouldenjoythesamerightsasmen,buttheyweredefinitelyintheminority.Theprevailingviewwasstillthatwomenwerefundamentallydifferentfrommenandshouldconfinethemselvestodomesticconcerns.Nevertheless,asmallnumberofwomensetuptheirownclubsand,thoughtheyhesitatedtoaskforthevoteandotherpoliticalrights,theyinsistedthatwomenshouldbeeducatedtobegoodrepublicansandshouldparticipateintheRevolutionasmuchaspossible,whetherby ferretingoutcounterrevolutionaries,watchingthemarketplaces for infractionsagainst thenewpricecontrols,makingbandagesforthewareffort,orevenonsomerareoccasionsarmingthemselvestogotothefront.Inresponsetotheupsurgeinfemalepoliticalactivity,theNationalConventionofficiallybannedallwomen'spoliticalclubson29–30October1793.Althoughwomencontinuedtobedeniedpoliticalrights,theyhadacquiredmorecivilrightsthaneverbefore.Newlawsestablisheddivorceforthefirsttimeandgavewomenequalaccesstoit;otherlawsinsistedthatgirlshavethesameinheritancerightsasboyswhenfamiliespassedontheirproperty.

Afterallthedebates,theDeclarationoftheRightsofManandCitizenremainedopentomodificationastheRevolutionchangedcourse.In1793theNationalConventionofferedanewconstitution,whichincludeda

modifiedDeclarationoftheRightsofManandCitizen.Thenewdeclarationrepeatedmanyoftheprovisionsofthefirstonebutaddedanemphasisonsocialwelfare(Article21:"Societyowesmaintenanceto

unfortunatecitizens").Althoughthenewconstitutionneverwentintoeffect(itwasshelvedwhilethecountrywasatwar),itandthedeclarationreflectedagrowingtensionthatwouldhenceforthaccompanythediscussionofrights.Manyquestionsremainedtobeanswered:Shouldtheserightsbesimpleguaranteesoflegalfreedomandequality,orshouldtheyencompassmoreambitiousprospectsofsocial improvementandamelioration?Didrightsapplyjusttolegalandpoliticalactivities,ordidtheyalsoextendtothesocialandeconomicsphereoflife?Didpeoplehavearighttohelpformtheirgovernment?

In1795theNationalConventionwroteyetanotherconstitution,andthisoneactuallydidgointoeffect.ThedeputiesalsopreparedaDeclarationoftheRightsandDutiesofManandCitizen,therebyrespondingtoacurrentofopinionthathadalreadygatheredsomestrengthduringthe1789discussions.Shouldadeclarationofrightsnotbeaccompaniedbyadeclarationofduties?Thedutieslistedherehaveamodernresonance:theyincludewhatwewouldcall"familyvalues,"adefenseofproperty,andacalltomilitaryservice.Still,thedeclarationofdutiesmadequiteclearthatbothrightsanddutiespertainedonlytomen."Source:URL:Liberty,Equality,Fraternity:Exploring theFrenchRevolution,

https://chnm.gmu.edu/revolution/chap3a.html

SiteCredits:LIBERTY,EQUALITY,FRATERNITY:EXPLORINGTHEFRENCHREVOUTIONThissite isacollaborationoftheRoyRosenzweigCenterforHistoryandNewMedia(GeorgeMasonUniversity)andtheAmericanSocialHistoryProject(CityUniversityofNewYork),supportedbygrantsfromtheFlorenceGouldFoundationandtheNationalEndowmentfortheHumanities,anIndependentFederalAgency.Editorsandprincipalauthors:JackR.CenserandLynnHuntProducedby:PenneeBender,JoshuaBrown,RoyRosenzweigAssociateProducers:JackR.Censer,LynnHuntExecutiveProducers:StephenBrier,JoshuaBrown,RoyRosenzweigMultimediaProduction:PenneeBender, JoshuaBrownAssociateEditors:GregoryBrownandJeffHorn."HowtoReadImages"byPhilippeBordes"SongsoftheRevolution"byLauraMasonDesigners:JoshuaBrownandFernandoAzevedoGraphicsandArtWork:FernandoAzevedo,JoshuaBrown,AndreaAdesVásquezDatabasedevelopment:ElenaRazlogovaWebProgramming: JenniferMin,BurçAcar,ChristopherHefner,ElenaRazlogova,PeterStrongTranslations:ThomasMorgan,LeeAnnGhajar,EmanuelleM.MosinskiCopyediting:VickyMacintyre,SusieLeBlancResearchandTechnicalAssistance: JessicaFinnefrock,PeterStrong,GideonBrown,ElenaRazlogova,TuVinhVuong,AlanGevinson,JulieCarpenter,DeborahGómez,LynneZegeer,CathieBoivin,ClaireTaylor,ElizabethHarden,ChrisMoore,LouiseVis,NathanHamilton,JosephRinehart,ErinMiller,TomMcMurrer,SanchiaSpence,StevePaxton,JenniferSessions,MichaelLaine,DanMaxwell,TroyLaChance

Usedwithpermissionper:

PenneeBender--AssociateDirectorCityUniversityofNewYork—TheGraduateCenterNewYork,NY10016

http://www.ashp.cuny.edu

SupportingQuestion1FeaturedSourceD FamousPeopleoftheEnlightenmentfrombiography.com

Excerpt

FamousPeopleof theEnlightenment

"TheEnlightenmentor‘AgeofReason’ wasaperiodinthelateseventeenthcenturyandearlyeighteenthcentury,whereagroupofphilosophers,scientistsandthinkersadvocatednewideasbasedonreason.Thisperiodsawadeclineinthepowerofabsolutemonarchies,adeclineinthepre-eminenceofthechurchandariseofmodernpolitical ideologies,suchas liberalism,republicanismandgreater independenceofthought.TheEnlightenment idealswere influential forcesbehindtheAmericanandFrenchrevolutions.

FrancisBacon(1561– 1626)Englishphilosopher,statesman,oratorandscientist.Baconisconsideredthe‘fatherofempiricism’ forhisworkandadvocacyofscientificmethodandmethodicalscientificinquiryininvestigatingscientificphenomena.Heencouragedanempiricalapproachboththroughhisownexampleandphilosophically.AkeyfigureintheScientificrevolutionofthe17thCentury.

ReneDescartes(1596–1650)ReneDescarteswasaFrenchphilosopherandmathematician.Descartesmadeasignificantcontribution to thephilosophyof rationalism.Descartes’ Meditationswasground-breakingbecausehewaswillingtodoubtpreviouscertaintiesandtriedtoprovetheirvaliditythroughlogic.LaterempiricistsdisagreedwithDescartesmethods,buthisphilosophyopenedupmanytopicstogreaterdiscussion.AlthoughDescartes‘proved’ theexistenceofGod,hisdoubtwasanimportantstepinpromotingreasonoverfaith.Descartesalsomadeimportantdiscoveries inanalyticalgeometry,calculusandmathematics.

BaruchSpinoza (1632-1677)Spinozawasa Jewish-Dutchphilosopher.Hewasan influentialrationalist,whosawtheunderlyingunityintheuniverse.Hewascriticalofreligiousscriptures,andpromotedaviewthattheDivinewasinall,andtheUniversewasordered,despiteitsapparentcontradictions.Hisphilosophyinfluencedlaterphilosophers,writersandromanticpoets,suchasShelleyandColeridge.

ImmanuelKant(1724–1804)ImmanuelKantwasaninfluentialGermanphilosopherwhose ‘CritiqueofPureReason’ soughttounitereasonwithexperienceandmovephilosophyonfromthedebatebetweenrationalistsandempiricists.Kant’sphilosophywas influentialon futureGerman idealistsandphilosophers,suchasShellingandSchopenauer.

JohnLocke(1632–1704)Lockewasaleadingphilosopherandpoliticaltheorist,whohadaprofoundimpactonliberalpoliticalthought.Heiscreditedwithideas,suchasthesocialcontract–theideagovernmentneedstobewiththeconsentofthegoverned.Lockealsoarguedforliberty,religioustoleranceandrightstolifeandproperty.LockewasaninfluentialfigureonthoseinvolvedintheAmericanandFrenchrevolutions,suchasJefferson,MadisonandVoltaire.

SirIsaacNewton (1642-1726)Newtonmadestudies inmathematics,optics,physics,andastronomy.InhisPrincipiaMathematica,publishedin1687,helaidthefoundationsforclassicalmechanics,explaininglawofgravityandtheLawsofMotion.

Voltaire (1694–1778)–Frenchphilosopherandcritic.BestknownforhisworkCandide(1762)whichepitomiseshissatireandcriticismsofsocialconvention.Voltairewas instrumental inpromotingrepublicanideasduetohiscriticismoftheabsolutemonarchyofFrance.

JeanJacquesRousseau (1712-1778)RousseauwasapoliticalphilosopherwidelyknownforhisS‘ocialContract‘(1762),whichsoughttopromoteamoreegalitarianformofgovernmentbyconsentandformedthebasisofmodernrepublicanism.Hisideaswereinfluential intheFrenchandAmericanrevolutions.

BenjaminFranklin(1706-1790)OneoftheAmericanFoundingFathersoftheUnitedStates.Hewasanauthor,politician,diplomat,scientistandstatesman.HewasakeyfigureintheAmericanenlightenment,

whichsawmajorbreakthroughsinscienceandideasofpoliticalrepublicanism.FranklinwasanearlysupporterofcolonialunityandtheUnitedStates.

ThomasJefferson(1743-1826)wasanAmericanFoundingFatherandtheprincipleauthorofTheDeclarationofIndependence(1776)Inthisdeclaration,JeffersonlaidoutthefundamentalprinciplesofAmerica,callingforequalityandliberty.Healsoadvocatedendingslaveryandpromotingreligioustolerance."Source:Citation:Pettinger,Tejvan.+“FamouspeopleofTheEnlightenment”,Oxford,www.biographyonline.net,4thJune,2013

UsedwithpermissionbytheAuthor4/13/17

Whatwerethesocial,economicandpoliticalproblemsthatwerepointedoutbytheEnlightenmentwriters?

MatchmajorEnlightenmentwriterswiththesocial,economicandpoliticalproblemspointedoutintheirwritings.

FeaturedSources

SourceA:JohnLocke:ExcerptsfromtheSecondTreatiseofGovernmentfromearlymoderntexts.comSourceB:ExcerptsfromTheSpiritoftheLawsbyCharlesdeSecondat,BarondeMontesquieufromconstitution.orgSourceC:ExcerptsfromAnInquiryintotheNatureandCausesoftheWealthofNationsbyAdamSmithfromeconlib.org

AfterhavingdiscoveredwhattheEnlightenmentwasandwhatthewritersoftheperiodviewedabouthumanrights,youngscholarsmustthenpointoutspecificallywhatthesocial,economic,andpoliticalproblemsthatwerepointedoutintheperiodthisinquiryiscriticallyanalyzing.Thisstageoftheinquirywilltakeatleast2daystoaccomplishthisformativeperformancetaskandanswerthesupportingquestioncorrectly.

Sincepeerteamstudyandevaluationsareveryimportanttoyoungscholarsanditencouragesownershipintheoverallmasteryofallthescholars, youryoungscholarswillcreateamatchingassessmenttestformasteryofthematerialofwhattheEnlightenmentwriterswerepointingoutintheirwritingsforotherscholarswhoarealsoparticipatinginthisinquiry. Itisimportantthatthesescholarsnotonlymakeouttheassessmentexams,buthaveakeytogradethemasteryoftheotherscholarstoprovidepeerfeedback.Whenthesescholarshavetomakeouttheexamsandprepareforsomeoneelse'srandomexam,itiscleartheywillstudyveryhardtomasterthisformativeperformancetask.

SupportingQuestion2FeaturedSourceA JohnLocke:ExcerptsfromtheSecondTreatiseofGovernmentfromearlymoderntexts.com

Excerpt

ExcerptsfromChapter2:Thestateofnature"4.Tounderstandpoliticalpowercorrectlyandderiveitfromitspropersource,wemustconsiderwhatstateallmenarenaturallyin.Inthisstatemenareperfectlyfreetoordertheiractions,anddisposeoftheirpossessionsandthemselves,inanywaytheylike,withoutaskinganyone’spermission—subjectonlyto limitssetbythelawofnature.Itisalsoastateofequality,inwhichno-onehasmorepowerandauthoritythananyoneelse;becauseitissimplyobviousthatcreaturesofthesamespeciesandstatus,allborntoallthesameadvantagesofnatureandtotheuseofthesameabilities,shouldalsobeequal·inotherways·,withno- onebeingsubjectedtoorsubordinatetoanyoneelse,unless·God·,thelordandmasterofthemall,weretodeclareclearlyandexplicitlyhiswishthatsomeonepersonberaisedabovetheothersandgivenanundoubtedright todominionandsovereignty

6. Butthoughthisisastateof•liberty,itisn’tastateof•licence·inwhichtherearenoconstraintsonhowpeoplebehave·.Amaninthatstateisabsolutelyfreetodisposeofhimselforhispossessions,butheisn’tatlibertytodestroyhimself,oreventodestroyanycreatedthinginhispossessionunlesssomethingnoblerthanitsmerepreservationisatstake.Thestateofnatureisgovernedbyalawthatcreatesobligationsforeveryone.Andreason,whichisthatlaw,teachesanyonewhotakesthetroubletoconsultit,thatbecauseweareallequalandindependent,no-oneoughttoharmanyoneelseinhislife,health,liberty,orpossessions.Thisisbecause•wearealltheworkofoneomnipotentandinfinitelywisemaker;•wearealltheservantsofonesovereignmaster,sentintotheworldbyhisordertodohisbusiness;•weareallthepropertyofhimwhomadeus,andhemadeustolastaslongashechooses,notaslongaswechoose;•wehavethesameabilities,andshareinonecommonnature,sotherecan’tbeanyrank-orderingthatwouldauthorizesomeofustodestroyothers,asifweweremadetobeusedbyoneanother,asthelowerkindsofcreaturesaremadetobeusedbyus.Everyoneisobligedtopreservehimselfandnotoptoutoflifewillfully,soforthesamereasoneveryoneought,whenhisownsurvivalisn’tatstake,todoasmuchashecantopreservetherestofmankind;andexceptwhenit’samatterofpunishinganoffender,no-onemaytakeawayordamageanythingthatcontributestothepreservationofsomeoneelse’slife,liberty,health,limb,orgoods.

7. Sothat•allmenmaybeheldbackfrominvadingtherightsofothersandfromharmingoneanother,andsothat•thelawofnaturethataimsatthepeaceandpreservationofallmankindmaybeobeyed,theenforcementofthatlawofnature(inthestateofnature)isineveryman’shands,sothateveryonehasarighttopunishlaw-breakersasseverelyasisneededtohindertheviolationofthelaw.Forthelawofnature,likeeverylawconcerningmeninthisworld,wouldbefutileifno-onehadpowertoenforceitandtherebypreservetheinnocentandrestrainoffenders.Andinthestateofnatureifanyonemaypunishsomeoneforsomethingbadthathehasdone,theneveryonemaydoso....

13.Tothisstrangedoctrine·ofmine·,namelythatinthestateofnatureeveryonehasthepowertoenforcethelawofnature,Iexpectthisobjectiontoberaised:Itisunreasonableformentobejudgesintheirowncases,becauseself- lovewillbiasmeninfavourofthemselvesandtheirfriends.Andontheotherside,hostility,passionandrevengewillleadthemtopunishotherstooseverely.Sonothingbutconfusionanddisorderwillfollow,andthatiswhyGodhas—ashecertainlyhas—establishedgovernmenttorestrainthepartialityandviolenceofmen.Ifreelyallowthatcivilgovernmentistheproperremedyforthedrawbacksofthestateofnature.Theremustcertainlybegreatdisadvantagesinastatewheremenmaybejudgesintheirowncase;someonewhowasso•unjustastodohisbrotheraninjurywill(wemaywellsuppose)hardlybeso•justastocondemnhimselfforit!ButIrespondtotheobjectorasfollows:Ifthestateofnatureisintolerablebecauseoftheevilsthatareboundtofollowfrommen’sbeingjudgesintheirowncases,andgovernmentistobetheremedyforthis,·letusdoacomparison·.Ontheonesidethereisthe•stateofnature;ontheotherthereis•governmentwhereoneman—and remember that absolutemonarchs areonlymen!—commandsamultitude,isfreetobethejudgeinhisowncase,andcandowhathelikestoallhissubjects,withno-onebeingallowedtoquestionorcontrolthosewhocarryouthiswishes,andeveryonehavingtoputupwith

whateverhedoes,whetherheisledbyreason,mistakeorpassion.Howmuchbetteritisinthestateofnature,wherenomanisobligedtosubmittotheunjustwillofsomeoneelse,andsomeonewhojudges

wrongly(whetherornotitisinhisowncase)isanswerableforthattotherestofmankind!"ExcerptsfromChapter3:Thestateofwar"16.Thestateofwarisastateofenmityanddestruction.Sowhensomeonedeclaresbywordoraction—notinasuddenoutburstofrage,butasamatterofcalmsettleddesign—thatheintendstoendanotherman’slife,heputshimselfintoastateofwaragainsttheotherperson;andhetherebyexposeshislifetotheriskoffallingtothepowerofthe•otherpersonoranyonethatjoinswith•himinhisdefenceandtakesuphisquarrel.ForitisreasonableandjustthatIshouldhavearighttodestroyanythingthatthreatensmewithdestruction,becausethefundamentallawofnaturesaysthatmenaretobepreservedasmuchaspossible,andthatwhennoteveryonecanbepreservedthesafetyoftheinnocentistobepreferred.·Inlinewiththis·,Imaydestroyamanwhomakeswaronmeorhasrevealedhimselfasanenemytomylife,forthesamereasonthatImaykillawolforalion;becausesuchmenarenotunderthetiesofthecommonlawofreason,havenoruleexceptthatofforceandviolence,andsomaybetreatedasbeastsofprey—dangerouscreaturesthatwillcertainlydestroymeifIfallintotheirpower.

17. Soitcomesaboutthatsomeonewhotriestogetanothermanintohisabsolutepowertherebyputshimselfintoastateofwarwiththeother,forsuchanattemptamountstoadeclarationofaplanagainstthelifeoftheotherman.Ifsomeonewantstogetme•intohispowerwithoutmyconsent,Ihavereasontoconcludethatwouldusemeashepleasedwhenhehadgotme•there,andwoulddestroymeifhewantedto;forno-onecanwanttohavemeinhisabsolutepowerunlessit’stocompelmebyforcetosomethingthatisagainsttherightofmyfreedom,i.e.tomakemeaslave.TobesureofmyownsurvivalImustbefreefromsuchforce;andreasontellsmetolookonhim—thepersonwhowants7SecondTreatiseJohnLocke3:Thestateofmeinhispower—asanenemytomysurvival,wantingtotakeawaythefreedomthatisthefencetoit.Sosomeonewhotriestoenslavemetherebyputshimselfintoastateofwarwithme.Someonewantstotakeaway•thefreedomofsomeoneelsemustbesupposedtohaveaplantotakeaway•everythingelsefromtheperson,becausefreedomisthefoundationofalltherest;andthatholdsinacommonwealthaswellasinthestateofnature.

18. Thismakesitlawfulformetokillathiefwhohasn’tdonemeanyharmordeclaredanyplanagainstmylife,otherthanusingforcetogetmeinhispowersoastotakeawaymymoneyorwhateverelsehewants.Nomatterwhatheclaimsheisupto,heisusingforcewithoutright,togetmeintohispower;soIhavenoreasontothinkthathewon’t,whenhehasmeinhispower,takeeverythingelseawayfrommeaswellasmyliberty.Soitislawfulformetotreathimassomeonewhohasputhimselfintoastateofwarwithme,i.e.tokillhimifIcan;forthatistheriskheranwhenhestartedawarinwhichheistheaggressor.

19. This is theplaindifferencebetweenthestateof•natureandthestateof•war.Somemen—·notablyHobbes·—havetreatedthemasthesame;butinfacttheyareasdistantfromoneanotherasastateof•peace,goodwill,mutualassistanceandpreservation isdistant fromastateof•enmity,malice,violenceandmutualdestruction.Astateofnature,properlyunderstood,involvesmenlivingtogetheraccordingtoreason,withno-oneonearthwhostandsabovethembothandhasauthoritytojudgebetweenthem.Whereasinastateofwaramanusesordeclareshisintentiontouseforceagainstanotherman,withno-oneonearthtowhomtheothercanappealforrelief.Itisthelackofsuchanappealthatgivesamantherightofwaragainstanaggressor,·notonlyinastateofnaturebut·eveniftheyarebothsubjectsinasinglesociety. IfathiefhasalreadystolenallthatIamworthandisnotacontinuingthreattome,Imaynotharmhimexceptthroughanappealtothelaw.Butifheisnowsettingonmetorobme—evenifit’sjustmyhorseormycoatthatheisafter—Imaykillhim.Thereisthelaw,whichwasmadeformyprotection,butthereisnotimeforittointervenetosavemefromlosingmygoodsandperhapslosingmylife(andifIlosethatthereisnoreparation).Furthermore,itisthethief’sfaultthatthereisnotimeforanappealtothejudgethatstandsoverhimandme—namely,thelaw—andsoIamallowedtomakemyowndefence,andtobeatwarwiththethiefandtokillhimifIcan.Whatputsmenintoastateofnatureisthelackofacommonjudgewhohasauthority;theuseofunlawfulforceagainstaman’spersoncreatesastateofwar,whetherornotthereisacommonjudgeand(therefore)whetherornottheyareinastateofnature.

20. Butformenwhoareinasociety·underagovernment·,thestateofwarendswhentheactualforceends;andthenthoseoneachside·ofthetrouble·shouldequallysubmittothefairdeterminationofthelaw....But

inthestateofnature,wheretherearenopositivelawsorjudgeswithauthoritytoappealto,onceastateofwarhasbegunitcontinues—withtheinnocentpartyhavingarighttodestroytheotherifhecan—untilthe

aggressorofferspeace,andseeksreconciliationontermsthatwillmakeupforanywrongshehasdoneandwillgivetheinnocentpersonsecurityfromthenon.Whatifthesituationislikethis?Thereistimeandopportunityforanappealtothelaw,andtolegallyconstitutedjudges,buttheremedyisnotavailablebecauseofamanifestpervertingofjustice,abarefacedtwistingofthelawssothattheyprotectorevenrewardtheviolenceorinjuriesperpetratedbysomemenorsomepartyofmen.Insuchacaseitishardtothinkwehaveanythingbutastateofwar.Forwhereverviolenceisusedandinjurydone,evenifitisdonebypeopleappointedtoadministerjusticeandisdressedupinthename,claims,orformsoflaw,itisstillviolenceandinjury.Thepurposeofthelawistoprotectandgetcompensationfortheinnocent,byanunbiasedtreatmentofallwhocomeunderit;andwhenthisisnotgenuinelydone,warismadeuponthesufferers,andthey—havingnowhereonearthtoappealtoforjustice—arelefttotheonlyremedyinsuchcases,anappealtoheaven."

ExcerptsfromChapter4:Slavery"22.The•naturallibertyofmanistobefreefromanysuperiorpoweronearth,andnottobeunderthewillorlegislativeauthorityofmenbuttoberuledonlybythelawofnature.Thelibertyofman•insocietyistobeundernolegislativepowerexcepttheoneestablishedbyconsentinthecommonwealth;andnotunderthepowerofanywillorunderrestraintfromanylawexceptwhatisenactedbythelegislatureinaccordancewithitsmandate.FreedomthenisnotwhatSirRobertFilmertellsus(ObservationsonHobbes,Milton,etc.,page55),namelyalibertyforeveryonetodowhathewants,liveashepleases,andnotbetiedbyanylaws.Rather,·freedomisoneoftwothings·.•Freedomofnatureisbeingundernorestraintexceptthelawofnature.•Freedomofmenundergovernmentishavingastandingruletoliveby,commontoeveryoneinthesocietyinquestion,andmadebythelegislativepowerthathasbeensetupinit;alibertytofollowone’sownwillinanythingthatisn’tforbiddenbytherule,andnottobesubjecttotheinconstant,uncertain,unknown,arbitrarywillofanotherman.

23…Thisfreedomfromabsolute,arbitrarypower,issonecessarytoaman’ssurvival,sotightlytiedtoit,thatlosingitinvolveslosing·allcontrolover·hisownlife.·That’swhyno-onecanvoluntarilyenterintoslavery·.Amandoesn’thavethepowertotakehisownlife,sohecan’tvoluntarilyenslavehimselftoanyone,orputhimselfundertheabsolute,arbitrarypowerof•someoneelsetotakeawayhislifewhenever•hepleases.Nobodycangivemorepowerthanhehas;sosomeonewhocannottakeawayhisownlifecannotgivesomeoneelsesuchapoweroverit.Ifsomeoneperformsanactthatdeservesdeath,hehasbyhisownfaultforfeitedhisownlife;thepersontowhomhehasforfeiteditmay(whenhehashiminhispower)delaytakingitandinsteadmakeuseoftheoffendingmanforhisownpurposes;andthisisn’tdoinghimanywrong,becausewheneverhefindsthehardshipofhisslaverytooutweighthevalueofhislife,hehasthepowertoresistthewillofhismaster,thusbringingthedeaththathewants.

24.WhatIhavebeendiscussingistheconditionofcompleteslavery,whichisjustacontinuationofthestateofwarbetweenalawfulconquerorandacaptive.Iftheyenterintoanykindofpact—agreeingtolimitedpowerontheonesideandobedienceontheother—thestateofwarandslaveryceasesforaslongasthepactisineffect.For,asIhavesaid,nomancanbyanagreementpassovertosomeoneelsesomethingthathedoesn’thimselfhave,namelyapoweroverhisownlife.IadmitthatwefindamongtheJews,aswellasothernations,caseswheremensoldthemselves;butclearlytheysoldthemselvesonlyintodrudgery,notslavery.Itisevidentthatthepersonwhowassoldwasn’ttherebyputatthemercyofanabsolute,arbitrary,despoticpower;forthemasterwasobligedatacertaintimetolettheothergofreefromhisservice,andsohecouldn’tatanytimehavethepowertokillhim.Indeedthemasterofthiskindofservantwassofarfromhavinganarbitrarypoweroverhis•lifethathecouldn’tarbitrarilyeven•maimhim:thelossofaneyeoratoothsethimfree(Exodusxxi)."

ExcerptfromChapter6:Paternalpower"61.Thusweareborn•free,asweareborn•rational;notthatweasnewbornbabiesactuallyhavetheuseofeither:agethatbrings•reasonbrings•freedomwithit."

ExcerptsfromChapter7:PoliticalorCivilSociety

"90.Thismakesitevidentthatabsolutemonarchy,whichsomepeopleregardastheonly·genuine·governmentintheworld,isactuallyinconsistentwithcivilsocietyandsocan’tbeaformofcivilgovernment

atall!Considerwhatcivilsocietyisfor.Itissetuptoavoidandremedythedrawbacksofthestateofnaturethatinevitablyfollowfromeveryman’sbeingjudgeinhisowncase,bysettingupaknownauthoritytowhicheverymemberofthatsocietycanappealwhenhehasbeenharmedorisinvolvedinadispute—anauthoritythateveryoneinthesocietyoughttoobey.Soanypeoplewhodon’thavesuchanauthoritytoappealtoforthesettlementoftheirdisputesarestillinthestateofnature.Thus,everyabsolutemonarchisinthestateofnaturewithrespecttothosewhoareunderhisdominion.

91.Foranabsolutemonarchissupposedtohavebothlegislativeandexecutivepowerinhimselfalone;sothereisnojudgeorcourtofappealthatcanfairly,impartially,andauthoritativelymakedecisionsthatcouldprovidereliefandcompensationforanyharmthatmaybeinflictedbythemonarchoronhisorders.Sosuchaman—callhimCzarorGrandSeigniororwhatyouwill—isasmuchinthestateofnaturewithrespecttohissubjectsasheiswithrespecttotherestofmankind.·Thisisaspecialcaseofthestateofnature,becausebetweenitandtheordinarystateofnaturethereis·thisdifference,awoefuloneforthesubject(really,theslave)ofanabsolutemonarch:•intheordinarystateofnatureamanisfreetojudgewhathehasarightto,andtousethebestofhispowertomaintainhisrights;whereas•inanabsolutemonarchy,whenhispropertyisinvadedbythewillofhismonarch,henotonlyhasno-onetoappealtobutheisn’tevenfreetojudgewhathisrightsareortodefendthem(asthoughhewereacatoradog,thatcan’tthinkforitself).Heis,inshort,exposedtoallthemiseryandinconveniencesthatamancanfearfromsomeonewhoisintheunrestrainedstateofnatureandisalsocorruptedwithflatteryandarmedwithpower."

ExcerptsfromChapter8:Thebeginningofpoliticalsocieties"95.Menallbeingnaturallyfree,equal,andindependent,no-onecanbedeprivedofthisfreedometc.andsubjectedtothepoliticalpowerofsomeoneelse,withouthisownconsent.Theonlywayanyonecanstripoffhisnaturallibertyandclothehimselfinthebondsofcivilsocietyisforhimtoagreewithothermentouniteintoacommunity,soastolivetogethercomfortably,safely,andpeaceably,inasecureenjoymentoftheirpropertiesandagreatersecurityagainstoutsiders.Anynumberofmencandothis,becauseitdoesnoharmtothefreedomoftherest;theyareleftwiththelibertyofthestateofnature,whichtheyhadallalong.Whenanynumberofmenhaveinthiswayconsentedtomakeonecommunityorgovernment,thatimmediatelyincorporatesthem,turnsthemintoasinglebodypoliticinwhichthemajorityhavearighttoactonbehalfoftherestandtobindthembyitsdecisions.

99.Sothosewhooutofastateofnatureuniteintoacommunitymustbeunderstoodtogiveupallthepowerrequiredtosecureitspurposestothemajorityofthecommunity(unlesstheyexplicitlyagreeonsomenumbergreaterthanthemajority).Theyachievethissimplybyagreeingtouniteintoonepoliticalsociety;that’sallthecompactthatisneededbetweentheindividualsthatcreateorjoinacommonwealth.Thus,whatbeginsapoliticalsocietyandkeepsitinexistenceisnothingbuttheconsentofanynumberoffreemencapableofamajoritytouniteandincorporateintosuchasociety.Thisistheonlythingthatdidorcouldgiveabeginningtoanylawfulgovernmentintheworld."

ExcerptfromChapter18:Tyranny"202.Whereverlawends,tyrannybegins,ifthebreachofthelawbringsharmtosomeoneelse;andanyoneinauthoritywhoexceedsthepowergivenhimbythelaw,usingtheforceathisdisposaltodotothesubjectthingsthataren’tallowedbythelaw,therebystopsbeinganofficerofthelaw;andbecauseheactswithoutauthorityhemay·rightly·beopposed,asmayanyothermanwhobyforceinvadestherightofsomeoneelse."

ExcerptsfromChapter19:Thedissolutionofgovernment"229.Thepurposeofgovernmentisthegoodofmankind.Whichisbetterformankind:thatthepeoplebealwaysexposedtothelimitlesswilloftyranny,orthattherulersbesometimesliabletomeetwithoppositionwhentheygrowexorbitantintheuseoftheirpoweranduseitforthedestructionandnotthepreservationofthepropertiesoftheirpeople?

232.Anyonewhousesforcewithoutright(aseveryoneinsocietydoesifheusesforcewithoutlaw)putshimselfintoa•stateofwarwiththoseagainstwhomheusesit;andin•thatstateall formerbondsarecancelled,allotherrightscease,andeveryonehasarighttodefendhimself,andtoresisttheaggressor.Thisis

soobviousthatBarclayhimself,thatgreatassertorofthepowerandsacrednessofkings,isforcedtoadmitthatitissometimeslawfulforthepeopletoresisttheirking;andhesaysit,what’smore,inachapterin

whichheofferstoshowthatthedivinelawblocksthepeoplefromeverykindof•rebellion!Infacthisowndoctrinemakesitclearthatsincethepeoplemay•resistinsomecases,notallresistancetomonarchsisrebellion.Hiswordsarethese.

240. Atthispointyouarelikelytoask:Whoistobethejudgeofwhetherthemonarchorlegislaturehaveactedcontrarytotheirtrust?Thattheyhavesoactedisthesortofthingthatcanbespreadaroundamongthepeoplebydiscontentedandfactiousmen,whenallthekinghasdoneistomakeuseofhislegitimateprerogative.TothisIreply,Thepeopleshouldbejudge;forwhoshouldjudgewhetheratrusteeordeputyhasactedwellandaccordingtothetrustreposedinhim,ifnotthepersonwhodeputeshim?Havingdeputedhim,hemusthavestillapowertodiscardhimwhenhefailsinhistrust.Ifthisisreasonableinparticularcasesofprivatemen,whyshoulditbeotherwiseinthismostimportantcasewherethewelfareofmillionsisconcerned,andwherethethreatenedevilisgreater,andredressingitisverydifficult,costly,anddangerous?

241. Furthermore,thequestion‘Whoistobethejudge?’ can’tmeanthatthereisnojudgeatall;forwhenthereisnojudicatureonearthtodecidecontroversiesamongmen,Godinheavenisthejudge.ItistruethatGodaloneisthejudgeofwhatisright.Buteverymanisjudgeforhimself,inthiscaseasinallothers,ofwhetheranothermanhasputhimselfintoastateofwarwithhim,andwhetherheshouldappealtothesupreme judge.

242. Ifacontroversyarisesbetweenakingandsomeofthepeople,inamatterofgreatimportancewherethelawissilent,ordoubtful,Ithinktherightumpirewouldbethebodyofthepeople.Forincaseswherethekinghasatrustplacedinhimandisdispensedfromthecommonordinaryrulesofthelaw,ifany·private·menareaggrievedandthinkthatthekingactsbeyondthattrustorcontrarytoit,thebodyofthepeoplewhofirstplacedthattrustinhimareclearlythebestjudgesofhowfartheymeantthetrusttoextend.Ifthatwayofsettlingthematteristurneddownbytheking,orwhoeverisadministeringthegovernment,theonlycourtofappealisinheaven....·Whatwehavehereis·properlyastateofwar,inwhichtheonlyappealistoheaven;andinthatstatetheinjuredpartymustjudgeforhimselfwhenitisfitforhimtomakesuchanappeal."

Source:URL: http://www.earlymoderntexts.com/assets/pdfs/locke1..

SupportingQuestion2FeaturedSourceB ExcerptsfromTheSpiritoftheLawsbyCharlesdeSecondat,BarondeMontesquieufrom

constitution.org

Excerpt

ExcerptsfromBookXI:OftheLaws,WhichEstablishPoliticalLiberty,withRegardtotheConstitution"2.DifferentSignificationsofthewordLiberty.Thereisnowordthatadmitsofmorevarioussignifications,andhasmademorevariedimpressionsonthehumanmind,thanthatofliberty.Somehavetakenitasameansofdeposingapersononwhomtheyhadconferredatyrannicalauthority;othersforthepowerofchoosingasuperiorwhomtheyareobligedtoobey;othersfortherightofbearingarms,andofbeingtherebyenabledtouseviolence;others,infine,fortheprivilegeofbeinggovernedbyanativeoftheirowncountry,orbytheirownlaws.[1]Acertainnationforalongtimethoughtlibertyconsistedintheprivilegeofwearingalongbeard.[2]Somehaveannexedthisnametooneformofgovernmentexclusiveofothers:thosewhohadarepublicantasteappliedittothisspeciesofpolity;thosewholikedamonarchicalstategaveittomonarchy.[3]Thustheyhaveallappliedthenameoflibertytothegovernmentmostsuitabletotheirowncustomsandinclinations:andasinrepublicsthepeoplehavenotsoconstantandsopresentaviewofthecausesoftheirmisery,andasthemagistratesseemtoactonlyinconformitytothelaws,hencelibertyisgenerallysaidtoresideinrepublics,andtobebanishedfrommonarchies.Infine,asindemocraciesthepeopleseemtoactalmostastheyplease,thissortofgovernmenthasbeendeemedthemostfree,andthepowerofthepeoplehasbeenconfoundedwith their liberty.

3. InwhatLibertyconsists.Itistruethatindemocraciesthepeopleseemtoactastheyplease;butpoliticallibertydoesnotconsistinanunlimitedfreedom.Ingovernments,thatis,insocietiesdirectedbylaws,libertycanconsistonlyinthepowerofdoingwhatweoughttowill,andinnotbeingconstrainedtodowhatweoughtnottowill.Wemusthavecontinuallypresenttoourmindsthedifferencebetweenindependenceandliberty.Libertyisarightofdoingwhateverthelawspermit,andifacitizencoulddowhattheyforbidhewouldbenolongerpossessedofliberty,becauseallhisfellow-citizenswouldhavethesamepower.

4. ThesameSubjectcontinued.Democraticandaristocraticstatesarenotintheirownnaturefree.Politicallibertyistobefoundonlyinmoderategovernments;andevenintheseitisnotalwaysfound.Itisthereonlywhenthereisnoabuseofpower.Butconstantexperienceshowsusthateverymaninvestedwithpowerisapttoabuseit,andtocarryhisauthorityasfarasitwillgo.Isitnotstrange,thoughtrue,tosaythatvirtueitselfhasneedoflimits?Topreventthisabuse,itisnecessaryfromtheverynatureofthingsthatpowershouldbeachecktopower.Agovernmentmaybesoconstituted,asnomanshallbecompelledtodothingstowhichthelawdoesnotobligehim,norforcedtoabstainfromthingswhichthelawpermits.

6.OftheConstitutionofEngland.Ineverygovernmenttherearethreesortsofpower:thelegislative;theexecutiveinrespecttothingsdependentonthelawofnations;andtheexecutiveinregardtomattersthatdependonthecivillaw.Byvirtueofthefirst,theprinceormagistrateenactstemporaryorperpetuallaws,andamendsorabrogatesthosethathavebeenalreadyenacted.Bythesecond,hemakespeaceorwar,sendsorreceivesembassies,establishesthepublicsecurity,andprovidesagainstinvasions.Bythethird,hepunishescriminals,ordeterminesthedisputesthatarisebetweenindividuals.Thelatterweshallcallthejudiciarypower,andtheothersimplytheexecutivepowerofthestate.Thepoliticallibertyofthesubjectisatranquilityofmindarisingfromtheopinioneachpersonhasofhissafety.Inordertohavethisliberty,itisrequisitethegovernmentbesoconstitutedasonemanneednotbeafraidofanother.Whenthelegislativeandexecutivepowersareunitedinthesameperson,apprehensionsmayarise,lestthesamemonarchorsenateshouldenacttyrannicallaws,toexecutetheminatyrannicalmanner.Again,thereisnoliberty,ifthejudiciarypowerbenotseparatedfromthelegislativeandexecutive.Wereitjoinedwiththelegislative,thelifeandlibertyofthesubjectwouldbeexposedtoarbitrarycontrol;forthejudgewouldbethenthelegislator.Wereit joinedtotheexecutivepower,thejudgemightbehavewithviolenceandoppression.Therewouldbeanendofeverything,werethesamemanorthesamebody,thatofenactinglaws,thatofexecutingthepublicresolutions,andoftryingthecausesofindividuals. Thejudiciarypoweroughtnottobegiventoastandingsenate;itshouldbeexercisedbypersonstakenfromthebodyofthepeople[7]atcertaintimesofthe

year,andconsistentlywithaformandmannerprescribedbylaw,inordertoerectatribunalthatshouldlastonlysolongasnecessityrequires. Bythismethodthejudicialpower,soterribletomankind,notbeing

annexedtoanyparticularstateorprofession,becomes,asitwere,invisible.Peoplehavenotthenthejudgescontinuallypresenttotheirview;theyfeartheoffice,butnotthemagistrate. Inaccusationsofadeepandcriminalnature,itisproperthepersonaccusedshouldhavetheprivilegeofchoosing,insomemeasure,hisjudges,inconcurrencewiththelaw;oratleastheshouldhavearighttoexceptagainstsogreatanumberthattheremainingpartmaybedeemedhisownchoice.Theothertwopowersmaybegivenrathertomagistratesorpermanentbodies,becausetheyarenotexercisedonanyprivatesubject;onebeingnomorethanthegeneralwillofthestate,andtheothertheexecutionofthatgeneralwill.Butthoughthetribunalsoughtnottobefixed,thejudgmentsought;andtosuchadegreeastobeeverconformabletotheletterofthelaw.Weretheytobetheprivateopinionofthejudge,peoplewouldthenliveinsociety,withoutexactlyknowingthenatureoftheirobligations.Thejudgesoughtlikewisetobeofthesamerankastheaccused,or,inotherwords,hispeers;totheendthathemaynotimagineheisfallenintothehandsofpersonsinclinedtotreathimwithrigour. Ifthelegislatureleavestheexecutivepowerinpossessionofarighttoimprisonthosesubjectswhocangivesecurityfortheirgoodbehaviour,thereisanendofliberty;unlesstheyaretakenup,inordertoanswerwithoutdelaytoacapitalcrime,inwhichcasetheyarereallyfree,beingsubjectonlytothepowerofthelaw."

ExcerptsfromBookXII.OftheLawsThatFormPoliticalLiberty,inRelationtotheSubject"12.OfindiscreetSpeeches.Nothingrendersthecrimeofhightreasonmorearbitrarythandeclaringpeopleguiltyofitforindiscreetspeeches.Speechissosubjecttointerpretation;thereissogreatadifferencebetweenindiscretionandmalice;andfrequentlysolittleisthereofthelatterinthefreedomofexpression,thatthelawcanhardlysubjectpeopletoacapitalpunishmentforwordsunlessitexpresslydeclareswhatwordstheyare.[34] Wordsdonotconstituteanovertact;theyremainonlyinidea.Whenconsideredbythemselves,theyhavegenerallynodeterminatesignification;forthisdependsonthetoneinwhichtheyareuttered. Itoftenhappensthatinrepeatingthesamewordstheyhavenotthesamemeaning;thisdependsontheirconnectionwithotherthings,andsometimesmoreissignifiedbysilencethanbyanyexpressionwhatever. Sincetherecanbenothingsoequivocalandambiguousasallthis,howisitpossibletoconvertitintoacrimeofhightreason?Whereverthislawisestablished,thereisanendnotonlyofliberty,butevenofitsveryshadow.

13.OfWritings.Inwritingsthereissomethingmorepermanentthaninwords,butwhentheyareinnowaypreparativetohightreasontheycannotamounttothatcharge."

ExcerptsfromBookXV.InWhatMannertheLawsofCivilSlaveryRelatetotheNatureoftheClimate"1.OfcivilSlavery.Slavery,properlysocalled,istheestablishmentofarightwhichgivestoonemansuchapoweroveranotherasrendershimabsolutemasterofhislifeandfortune.Thestateofslaveryisinitsownnaturebad.Itisneitherusefultothemasternortotheslave;nottotheslave,becausehecandonothingthroughamotiveofvirtue;nortothemaster,becausebyhavinganunlimitedauthorityoverhisslavesheinsensiblyaccustomshimselftothewantofallmoralvirtues,andthencebecomesfierce,hasty,severe,choleric,voluptuous,andcruel. Indespoticcountries,wheretheyarealreadyinastateofpoliticalservitude,civilslaveryismoretolerablethaninothergovernments. Everyoneoughttobesatisfiedinthosecountrieswithnecessariesandlife.Hencetheconditionofaslaveishardlymoreburdensomethanthatofasubject.Butinamonarchicalgovernment,whereitisoftheutmostimportancethathumannatureshouldnotbedebasedordispirited,thereoughttobenoslavery.Indemocracies,wheretheyarealluponequality;andinaristocracies,wherethelawsoughttousetheirutmostendeavorstoprocureasgreatanequalityasthenatureofthegovernmentwillpermit,slaveryiscontrarytothespiritoftheconstitution:itonlycontributestogiveapowerandluxurytothecitizenswhichtheyoughtnottohave.Neitherisittruethatafreemancansellhimself.Saleimpliesaprice;nowwhenapersonsellshimself,hiswholesubstanceimmediatelydevolvestohismaster;themaster,therefore,inthatcase,givesnothing,andtheslavereceivesnothing.Youwillsayhehasapeculium.Butthispeculiumgoesalongwithhisperson.Ifitisnotlawfulforamantokillhimselfbecauseherobshiscountryofhisperson,forthesamereasonheisnotallowedtobarterhisfreedom.Thefreedomofeverycitizenconstitutesapartofthepublicliberty,andinademocraticstateisevenapartofthesovereignty.Tosellone'sfreedom[3]issorepugnanttoallreasonascanscarcelybesupposedinanyman.Iflibertymayberatedwithrespecttothebuyer,itisbeyondallpricetotheseller.Thecivillaw,whichauthorisesadivisionofgoodsamongmen,cannotbethoughttorankamongsuchgoodsapartofthemen

whoweretomakethisdivision.Thesamelawannulsalliniquitouscontracts;surelythenitaffordsredressinacontractwherethegrievanceismostenormous.Thethirdwayisbirth,whichfallswiththetwoformer;for

ifamancouldnotsellhimself,muchlesscouldhesellanunborninfant.Ifaprisonerofwarisnottobereducedtoslavery,muchlessarehischildren. Ifitbepretendedthatithasbeenbeneficialtohim,ashismasterhasprovidedforhissubsistence,slavery,atthisrate,shouldbelimitedtothosewhoareincapableofearningtheirlivelihood.Butwhowilltakeupwithsuchslaves?Astoinfants,nature,whohassuppliedtheirmotherswithmilk,hadprovidedfortheirsustenance;andtheremainderoftheirchildhoodapproachessoneartheageinwhichtheyaremostcapableofbeingofservicethathewhosupportsthemcannotbesaidtogivethemanequivalentwhichcanentitlehimtobetheirmaster.Norisslaverylessopposedtothecivillawthantothatofnature.Whatcivillawcanrestrainaslavefromrunningaway,sinceheisnotamemberofsociety,andconsequentlyhasnointerestinanycivilinstitutions?Hecanberetainedonlybyafamilylaw,thatis,bythemaster'sauthority.Butasallmenarebornequal,slaverymustbeaccountedunnatural,thoughinsomecountriesitbefoundedonnaturalreason;andawidedifferenceoughttobemadebetweensuchcountries,andthoseinwhichevennaturalreasonrejectsit,asinEurope,whereithasbeensohappilyabolished."Source:URL:http://www.constitution.org/cm/sol.txt

Author:JonRoland,founderandPresidentofConstitutionSociety

SupportingQuestion2FeaturedSourceC ExcerptsfromAnInquiryintotheNatureandCausesoftheWealthofNationsbyAdamSmith

fromeconlib.org

Excerpt

BookIOftheCausesofImprovementintheproductivePowersofLabour,andoftheOrderaccordingtowhichitsProduceisnaturallydistributedamongthedifferentRanksofthePeople

BookI,ChapterIOftheDivisionofLabor*16

I.1.1Thegreatest improvement*17 in theproductivepowersof labour, and the greaterpart of the skill, dexterity,andjudgmentwithwhichit isanywheredirected,orapplied,seemtohavebeentheeffectsofthedivisionoflabour.

Theeffectsofthedivisionoflabour,inthegeneralbusinessofsociety,willbemoreeasilyunderstood,byconsideringinwhatmanneritoperates insomeparticularmanufactures.

Totakeanexample,therefore,*19fromaverytriflingmanufacture;butoneinwhichthedivisionoflabourhasbeenveryoftentakennoticeof,thetradeofthepin-maker;aworkmannoteducatedtothisbusiness(whichthedivisionoflabourhasrenderedadistincttrade),*20noracquaintedwiththeuseofthemachineryemployedinit(totheinventionofwhichthesamedivisionoflabourhasprobablygivenoccasion),couldscarce,perhaps,withhisutmostindustry,makeonepininaday,andcertainlycouldnotmaketwenty.Butinthewayinwhichthisbusinessisnowcarriedon,notonlythewholeworkisapeculiartrade,butitisdividedintoanumberofbranches,ofwhichthegreaterpartarelikewisepeculiartrades.Onemandrawsoutthewire,anotherstraightsit,athirdcutsit,afourthpointsit,afifthgrindsitatthetopforreceivingthehead;tomaketheheadrequirestwoorthreedistinctoperations;toputiton,isapeculiarbusiness,towhitenthepinsisanother;itisevenatradebyitselftoputthemintothepaper;andtheimportantbusinessofmakingapinis,inthismanner,dividedintoabouteighteendistinctoperations,which,insomemanufactories,areallperformedbydistincthands,thoughinothersthesamemanwillsometimesperformtwoorthreeof them.*21Ihaveseenasmallmanufactoryofthiskindwheretenmenonlywereemployed,andwheresomeofthemconsequentlyperformedtwoorthreedistinctoperations.Butthoughtheywereverypoor,andthereforebut indifferentlyaccommodatedwiththenecessarymachinery,theycould,whentheyexertedthemselves,makeamongthemabouttwelvepoundsofpinsinaday.Thereareinapoundupwardsoffourthousandpinsofamiddlingsize.Thosetenpersons,therefore,couldmakeamongthemupwardsofforty- eightthousandpinsinaday.Eachperson,therefore,makingatenthpartofforty-eightthousandpins,mightbeconsideredasmakingfourthousandeighthundredpinsinaday.Butiftheyhadallwroughtseparatelyandindependently,andwithoutanyofthemhavingbeeneducatedtothispeculiarbusiness,theycertainlycouldnoteachofthemhavemadetwenty,perhapsnotonepininaday;thatis,certainly,notthetwohundredandfortieth,perhapsnotthefourthousandeighthundredthpartofwhattheyareatpresentcapableofperforming,inconsequenceofaproperdivisionandcombinationoftheirdifferentoperations.

Thisgreatincreaseofthequantityofworkwhich,inconsequenceofthedivisionoflabour,thesamenumberofpeoplearecapableofperforming,*26isowingtothreedifferentcircumstances;firsttotheincreaseofdexterityineveryparticularworkman;secondly,tothesavingofthetimewhichiscommonlylostinpassing

fromonespeciesofworktoanother;andlastly,totheinventionofagreatnumberofmachineswhichfacilitateandabridgelabour,andenableonemantodotheworkofmany.*27

BookI,ChapterVOftheRealandNominalPriceofCommodities,oroftheirPriceinLabour,andtheirPriceinMoney

Everymanisrichorpooraccordingtothedegreeinwhichhecanaffordtoenjoythenecessaries,conveniencies,andamusementsofhumanlife.*1Butafterthedivisionof labourhasoncethoroughlytakenplace,itisbutaverysmallpartofthesewithwhichaman'sownlabourcansupplyhim.Thefargreaterpartofthemhemustderivefromthelabourofotherpeople,andhemustberichorpooraccordingtothequantityofthatlabourwhichhecancommand,orwhichhecanaffordtopurchase.Thevalueofanycommodity,therefore,tothepersonwhopossessesit,andwhomeansnottouseorconsumeithimself,buttoexchangeitforothercommodities,isequaltothequantityoflabourwhichitenableshimtopurchaseorcommand.Labour,therefore,istherealmeasureoftheexchangeablevalueofallcommodities.

Therealpriceofeverything,whateverythingreallycoststothemanwhowantstoacquireit,isthetoilandtroubleofacquiringit.Whateverythingisreallyworthtothemanwhohasacquiredit,andwhowantstodisposeofitorexchangeitforsomethingelse,isthetoilandtroublewhichitcansavetohimself,andwhichitcanimposeuponotherpeople.Whatisboughtwithmoneyorwithgoodsispurchasedbylabour,*2asmuchaswhatweacquirebythetoilofourownbody.Thatmoneyorthosegoodsindeedsaveusthistoil.Theycontainthevalueofacertainquantityoflabourwhichweexchangeforwhatissupposedatthetimetocontainthevalueofanequalquantity.Labourwasthefirstprice,theoriginalpurchase-moneythatwaspaidforallthings.Itwasnotbygoldorbysilver,butbylabour,thatallthewealthoftheworldwasoriginallypurchased;anditsvalue,tothosewhopossessit,andwhowanttoexchangeitforsomenewproductions,ispreciselyequaltothequantityoflabourwhichitcanenablethemtopurchaseorcommand.

Wealth,asMr.Hobbessays,ispower.*3Butthepersonwhoeitheracquires,orsucceedstoagreatfortune,doesnotnecessarilyacquireorsucceedtoanypoliticalpower,eithercivilormilitary.Hisfortunemay,perhaps,affordhimthemeansofacquiringboth,butthemerepossessionofthatfortunedoesnotnecessarilyconveytohimeither.Thepowerwhichthatpossessionimmediatelyanddirectlyconveystohim,isthepowerofpurchasing;acertaincommandoverallthelabour,oroveralltheproduceoflabourwhichistheninthemarket.Hisfortuneisgreaterorless,preciselyinproportiontotheextentofthispower;ortothequantityeitherofothermen'slabour,or,whatisthesamething,oftheproduceofothermen'slabour,whichitenableshimtopurchaseorcommand.Theexchangeablevalueofeverythingmustalwaysbepreciselyequaltotheextentofthispowerwhichitconveystoitsowner.*4

I.5.4Butthoughlabourbetherealmeasureoftheexchangeablevalueofallcommodities,itisnotthatbywhichtheirvalueiscommonlyestimated.Itisoftendifficulttoascertaintheproportionbetweentwodifferentquantitiesoflabour.Thetimespentintwodifferentsortsofworkwillnotalwaysalonedeterminethisproportion.Thedifferentdegreesofhardshipendured,andof ingenuityexercised,mustlikewisebetakenintoaccount.Theremaybemorelabourinanhour'shardworkthanintwohourseasybusiness;orinanhour'sapplicationtoatradewhichitcosttenyearslabourtolearn,thaninamonth'sindustryatanordinaryandobviousemployment.Butitisnoteasytofindanyaccuratemeasureeitherofhardshiporingenuity.Inexchangingindeedthedifferentproductionsofdifferentsortsoflabourforoneanother,someallowanceiscommonlymadeforboth.Itisadjusted,however,notbyanyaccuratemeasure,butbythehigglingandbargainingofthemarket,accordingtothatsortofroughequalitywhich,thoughnotexact,issufficientforcarryingonthebusinessofcommonlife.*5

I.5.5Everycommoditybesides, ismorefrequentlyexchangedfor,andtherebycomparedwith,othercommodities

thanwithlabour.Itismorenaturaltherefore,toestimateitsexchangeablevaluebythequantityofsomeothercommoditythanbythatofthelabourwhichitcanpurchase.Thegreaterpartofpeopletoounderstand

betterwhatismeantbyaquantityofaparticularcommodity,thanbyaquantityoflabour.Theoneisaplainpalpableobject;theotheranabstractnotion,which,thoughitcanbemadesufficientlyintelligible,isnotaltogethersonaturalandobvious.I.5.6Butwhenbarterceases,andmoneyhasbecomethecommoninstrumentofcommerce,everyparticularcommodityismorefrequentlyexchangedformoneythanforanyothercommodity.Thebutcherseldomcarrieshisbeeforhismuttontothebaker,orthebrewer,inordertoexchangethemforbreadorforbeer;buthecarriesthemtothemarket,whereheexchangesthemformoney,andafterwardsexchangesthatmoneyforbreadandforbeer.Thequantityofmoneywhichhegetsforthemregulatestoothequantityofbreadandbeerwhichhecanafterwardspurchase.Itismorenaturalandobvioustohim,therefore,toestimatetheirvaluebythequantityofmoney,thecommodityforwhichheimmediatelyexchangesthem,thanbythatofbreadandbeer,thecommoditiesforwhichhecanexchangethemonlybytheinterventionofanothercommodity;andrathertosaythathisbutcher'smeatisworththreepenceorfourpenceapound,thanthatitisworththreeorfourpoundsofbread,orthreeorfourquartsofsmallbeer.Henceitcomestopass,thattheexchangeablevalueofeverycommodityismorefrequentlyestimatedbythequantityofmoney,thanbythequantityeitheroflabourorofanyothercommoditywhichcanbehadinexchangeforit.I.5.7Goldandsilver,however,likeeveryothercommodity,varyintheirvalue,aresometimescheaperandsometimesdearer,sometimesofeasierandsometimesofmoredifficultpurchase.Thequantityoflabourwhichanyparticularquantityofthemcanpurchaseorcommand,orthequantityofothergoodswhichitwillexchangefor,dependsalwaysuponthefertilityorbarrennessofthemineswhichhappentobeknownaboutthetimewhensuchexchangesaremade.ThediscoveryoftheabundantminesofAmericareduced,inthesixteenthcentury,thevalueofgoldandsilverinEuropetoaboutathirdofwhatithadbeenbefore.*6Asitcostlesslabourtobringthosemetalsfromtheminetothemarket,sowhentheywerebroughtthither*7theycouldpurchaseorcommandlesslabour;andthisrevolutionintheirvalue,thoughperhapsthegreatest,isbynomeanstheonlyoneofwhichhistorygivessomeaccount.Butasameasureofquantity,suchasthenaturalfoot,fathom,orhandful,whichiscontinuallyvaryinginitsownquantity,canneverbeanaccuratemeasureofthequantityofotherthings;soacommoditywhichisitselfcontinuallyvaryinginitsownvalue,canneverbeanaccuratemeasureofthevalueofothercommodities.Equalquantitiesoflabour,atalltimesandplaces,maybesaidtobe*8ofequalvaluetothelabourer.Inhisordinarystateofhealth,strengthandspirits;intheordinarydegreeofhisskillanddexterity,*9hemustalwayslaydownthesameportionofhisease,hisliberty,andhishappiness.Thepricewhichhepaysmustalwaysbethesame,whatevermaybethequantityofgoodswhichhereceivesinreturnforit.Ofthese,indeed,itmaysometimespurchaseagreaterandsometimesasmallerquantity;butitistheirvaluewhichvaries,notthatofthelabourwhichpurchasesthem.Atalltimesandplacesthatisdearwhichitisdifficulttocomeat,orwhichitcostsmuchlabourtoacquire;andthatcheapwhichistobehadeasily,orwithverylittlelabour.Labouralone,therefore,nevervaryinginitsownvalue,isalonetheultimateandrealstandardbywhichthevalueofallcommoditiescanatalltimesandplacesbeestimatedandcompared.Itistheirrealprice;moneyistheirnominalpriceonly.I.5.8Butthoughequalquantitiesoflabourarealwaysofequalvaluetothelabourer,yettothepersonwhoemployshimtheyappearsometimestobeofgreaterandsometimesofsmallervalue.Hepurchasesthemsometimeswithagreaterandsometimeswithasmallerquantityofgoods,andtohimthepriceoflabourseemstovarylikethatofallotherthings.Itappearstohimdearintheonecase,andcheapintheother.Inreality,however,itisthegoodswhicharecheapintheonecase,anddearintheother.I.5.9Inthispopularsense,therefore,labour,likecommodities,maybesaidtohavearealandanominalprice.Itsrealpricemaybesaidtoconsistinthequantityofthenecessariesandconvenienciesoflifewhicharegivenforit;itsnominalprice,inthequantityofmoney.Thelabourerisrichorpoor,iswellorillrewarded,in

proportiontothereal,nottothenominalpriceofhislabour.I.5.10

Thedistinctionbetweentherealandthenominalpriceofcommoditiesandlabour,isnotamatterofmerespeculation,butmaysometimesbeofconsiderableuseinpractice.Thesamerealpriceisalwaysofthesamevalue;butonaccountofthevariationsinthevalueofgoldandsilver,thesamenominalpriceissometimesofverydifferentvalues.Whenalandedestate,therefore,issoldwithareservationofaperpetualrent,ifitisintendedthatthisrentshouldalwaysbeofthesamevalue,itisofimportancetothefamilyinwhosefavouritisreserved,thatitshouldnotconsistinaparticularsumofmoney.*10Itsvaluewouldinthiscasebeliabletovariationsoftwodifferentkinds;first,tothosewhicharisefromthedifferentquantitiesofgoldandsilverwhicharecontainedatdifferenttimesincoinofthesamedenomination;and,secondly,tothosewhicharisefromthedifferentvaluesofequalquantitiesofgoldandsilveratdifferenttimes.

BookI,ChapterVIIOftheNaturalandMarketPriceofCommodities*65

I.7.1Thereisineverysocietyorneighbourhoodanordinaryoraverageratebothofwagesandprofitineverydifferentemploymentoflabourandstock.Thisrateisnaturallyregulated,asIshallshowhereafter,*66partlybythegeneralcircumstancesofthesociety,theirrichesorpoverty,theiradvancing,stationary,ordecliningcondition;andpartlybytheparticularnatureofeachemployment.

Thereislikewiseineverysocietyorneighbourhoodanordinaryoraveragerateofrent,whichisregulatedtoo,asIshallshowhereafter,*67partlybythegeneralcircumstancesofthesocietyorneighbourhoodinwhichthelandissituated,andpartlybythenaturalorimprovedfertilityoftheland.

Theseordinaryoraverageratesmaybecalledthenaturalratesofwages,profit,andrent,atthetimeandplaceinwhichtheycommonlyprevail.

Whenthepriceofanycommodityisneithermorenorlessthanwhatissufficienttopaytherentoftheland,thewagesofthelabour,andtheprofitsofthestockemployedinraising,preparing,andbringingittomarket,accordingtotheirnaturalrates,thecommodityisthensoldforwhatmaybecalleditsnaturalprice.

Thecommodityisthensoldpreciselyforwhatitisworth,orforwhatitreallycoststhepersonwhobringsittomarket;forthoughincommonlanguagewhatiscalledtheprimecostofanycommoditydoesnotcomprehendtheprofitofthepersonwhoistosellitagain,yetifhesellsitatapricewhichdoesnotallowhimtheordinaryrateofprofitinhisneighbourhood,heisevidentlyaloserbythetrade;sincebyemployinghisstockinsomeotherwayhemighthavemadethatprofit.Hisprofit,besides,ishisrevenue,theproperfundofhissubsistence.As,whileheispreparingandbringingthegoodstomarket,headvancestohisworkmentheirwages,ortheirsubsistence;soheadvancestohimself,inthesamemanner,hisownsubsistence,whichisgenerallysuitabletotheprofitwhichhemayreasonablyexpectfromthesaleofhisgoods.Unlesstheyyieldhimthisprofit,therefore,theydonotrepayhimwhattheymayveryproperlybesaidtohavereallycosthim.

Thoughtheprice,therefore,whichleaveshimthisprofit,isnotalwaysthelowestatwhichadealermaysometimessellhisgoods,itisthelowestatwhichheislikelytosellthemforanyconsiderabletime;atleastwherethereisperfectliberty,*68orwherehemaychangehistradeasoftenashepleases.

Theactualpriceatwhichanycommodityiscommonlysoldiscalleditsmarketprice.Itmayeitherbeabove,orbelow,orexactlythesamewithitsnaturalprice.

I.7.8Themarketpriceofeveryparticularcommodityisregulatedbytheproportionbetweenthequantitywhichisactuallybroughttomarket,andthedemandofthosewhoarewillingtopaythenaturalpriceofthe commodity,orthewholevalueoftherent,labour,andprofit,*69whichmustbepaidinordertobringitthither.Suchpeoplemaybecalledtheeffectualdemanders,andtheirdemandtheeffectualdemand;sinceitmaybesufficienttoeffectuatethebringingofthecommoditytomarket.Itisdifferentfromtheabsolutedemand.Averypoormanmaybesaidinsomesensetohaveademandforacoachandsix;hemightliketohaveit;buthisdemandisnotaneffectualdemand,asthecommoditycanneverbebroughttomarketinordertosatisfyit.I.7.9Whenthequantityofanycommoditywhichisbroughttomarketfallsshortoftheeffectualdemand,allthosewhoarewillingtopaythewholevalueoftherent,wages,andprofit,whichmustbepaidinordertobringitthither,cannotbesuppliedwiththequantitywhichtheywant.Ratherthanwantitaltogether,someofthemwillbewillingtogivemore.Acompetitionwillimmediatelybeginamongthem,andthemarketpricewillrisemoreorlessabovethenaturalprice,accordingaseitherthegreatnessofthedeficiency,orthewealthandwantonluxuryofthecompetitors,happentoanimatemoreorlesstheeagernessofthecompetition.Amongcompetitorsofequalwealthandluxurythesamedeficiency*70willgenerallyoccasionamoreorlesseagercompetition,accordingastheacquisitionofthecommodityhappenstobeofmoreorlessimportancetothem.*71Hencetheexorbitantpriceofthenecessariesoflifeduringtheblockadeofatownorinafamine.I.7.10Whenthequantitybroughttomarketexceedstheeffectualdemand,itcannotbeallsoldtothosewhoarewillingtopaythewholevalueoftherent,wagesandprofit,whichmustbepaidinordertobringitthither.Somepartmustbesoldtothosewhoarewillingtopayless,andthelowpricewhichtheygiveforitmustreducethepriceofthewhole.Themarketpricewillsinkmoreorlessbelowthenaturalprice,accordingasthegreatnessoftheexcessincreasesmoreorlessthecompetitionofthesellers,oraccordingasithappenstobemoreorlessimportanttothemtogetimmediatelyridofthecommodity.Thesameexcessintheimportationofperishable,willoccasionamuchgreatercompetitionthaninthatofdurablecommodities; intheimportationoforanges,forexample,thaninthatofoldiron.I.7.11Whenthequantitybroughttomarketisjustsufficienttosupplytheeffectualdemandandnomore,themarketpricenaturallycomestobeeitherexactly,orasnearlyascanbejudgedof,thesamewiththenaturalprice.Thewholequantityuponhandcanbedisposedofforthisprice,andcannotbedisposedofformore.Thecompetitionofthedifferentdealersobligesthemalltoacceptofthisprice,butdoesnotobligethemtoacceptofless.I.7.12Thequantityofeverycommoditybroughttomarketnaturallysuitsitselftotheeffectualdemand.Itistheinterestofallthosewhoemploytheirland,labour,orstock,inbringinganycommoditytomarket,thatthequantitynevershouldexceedtheeffectualdemand;anditistheinterestofallotherpeoplethatitnevershouldfallshortofthatdemand.*72

I.7.13Ifatanytimeitexceedstheeffectualdemand,someofthecomponentpartsofitspricemustbepaidbelowtheirnaturalrate.Ifitisrent,theinterestofthelandlordswillimmediatelypromptthemtowithdrawapartoftheirland;andifitiswagesorprofit,theinterestofthelabourersintheonecase,andoftheiremployersintheother,willpromptthemtowithdrawapartoftheirlabourorstockfromthisemployment.Thequantitybroughttomarketwillsoonbenomorethansufficienttosupplytheeffectualdemand.Allthedifferentpartsofitspricewillrisetotheirnaturalrate,andthewholepricetoitsnaturalprice.

I.7.14

If,onthecontrary,thequantitybroughttomarketshouldatanytimefallshortoftheeffectualdemand,someofthecomponentpartsofitspricemustriseabovetheirnaturalrate.Ifitisrent,theinterestofallotherlandlordswillnaturallypromptthemtopreparemorelandfortheraisingofthiscommodity;ifitiswagesorprofit,theinterestofallotherlabourersanddealerswillsoonpromptthemtoemploymorelabourandstockinpreparingandbringingittomarket.Thequantitybroughtthitherwillsoonbesufficienttosupplytheeffectualdemand.Allthedifferentpartsofitspricewillsoonsinktotheirnaturalrate,andthewholepricetoitsnaturalprice.I.7.15Thenaturalprice,therefore,is,asitwere,thecentralprice,towhichthepricesofallcommoditiesarecontinuallygravitating.Differentaccidentsmaysometimeskeepthemsuspendedagooddealaboveit,andsometimesforcethemdownevensomewhatbelowit.Butwhatevermaybetheobstacleswhichhinderthemfromsettlinginthiscenterofreposeandcontinuance,theyareconstantlytendingtowardsit.I.7.16Thewholequantityofindustryannuallyemployedinordertobringanycommoditytomarket,naturallysuitsitselfinthismannertotheeffectualdemand.Itnaturallyaimsatbringingalwaysthatprecisequantitythitherwhichmaybesufficienttosupply,andnomorethansupply,thatdemand.I.7.17Butinsomeemploymentsthesamequantityofindustrywillindifferentyearsproduceverydifferentquantitiesofcommodities;*73whileinothersitwillproducealwaysthesame,orverynearlythesame.Thesamenumberoflabourersinhusbandrywill,indifferentyears,produceverydifferentquantitiesofcorn,wine,oil,hops,&c.Butthesamenumberofspinnersandweaverswilleveryyearproducethesameorverynearlythesamequantityoflinenandwoollencloth.Itisonlytheaverageproduceoftheonespeciesofindustrywhichcanbesuitedinanyrespecttotheeffectualdemand;andasitsactualproduceisfrequentlymuchgreaterandfrequentlymuchlessthanitsaverageproduce,thequantityofthecommoditiesbroughttomarketwillsometimesexceedagooddeal,andsometimesfallshortagooddealoftheeffectualdemand.Eventhoughthatdemandthereforeshouldcontinuealwaysthesame,theirmarketpricewillbeliabletogreatfluctuations,willsometimesfallagooddealbelow,andsometimesriseagooddealabove,theirnaturalprice.Intheotherspeciesofindustry,theproduceofequalquantitiesoflabourbeingalwaysthesame,orverynearlythesame,itcanbemoreexactlysuitedtotheeffectualdemand.Whilethatdemandcontinuesthesame,therefore,themarketpriceofthecommoditiesislikelytodosotoo,andtobeeitheraltogether,orasnearlyascanbejudgedof,thesamewiththenaturalprice.Thatthepriceoflinenandwoollenclothisliableneithertosuchfrequentnortosuchgreatvariationsasthepriceofcorn,everyman'sexperiencewillinformhim.Thepriceoftheonespeciesofcommoditiesvariesonlywiththevariationsinthedemand:Thatoftheothervariesnotonlywiththevariationsinthedemand,butwiththemuchgreaterandmorefrequentvariationsinthequantityofwhatisbroughttomarketinordertosupplythatdemand.I.7.18Theoccasionalandtemporaryfluctuationsinthemarketpriceofanycommodityfallchieflyuponthosepartsofitspricewhichresolvethemselvesintowagesandprofit.Thatpartwhichresolvesitselfintorentislessaffectedbythem.Arentcertaininmoneyisnotintheleastaffectedbythemeitherinitsrateorinitsvalue.Arentwhichconsistseitherinacertainproportionorinacertainquantityoftherudeproduce,isnodoubtaffectedinitsyearlyvaluebyalltheoccasionalandtemporaryfluctuationsinthemarketpriceofthatrudeproduce;butitisseldomaffectedbytheminitsyearlyrate.Insettlingthetermsofthelease,thelandlordandfarmerendeavour,accordingtotheirbestjudgment,toadjustthatrate,nottothetemporaryandoccasional,buttotheaverageandordinarypriceoftheproduce.I.7.19Suchfluctuationsaffectboththevalueandtherateeitherofwagesorofprofit,accordingasthemarkethappenstobeeitherover-stockedorunder-stockedwithcommoditiesorwithlabour;withworkdone,or

withworktobedone.Apublicmourningraisesthepriceofblackcloth*74(withwhichthemarketisalmostalwaysunder-stockeduponsuchoccasions)andaugmentstheprofitsofthemerchantswhopossessany

considerablequantityofit.Ithasnoeffectuponthewagesoftheweavers.Themarketisunder-stockedwithcommodities,notwithlabour;withworkdone,notwithworktobedone.Itraisesthewagesofjourneymentaylors.Themarketishereunder-stockedwithlabour.Thereisaneffectualdemandformore*75labour,formoreworktobedonethancanbehad.Itsinksthepriceofcolouredsilksandcloths,andtherebyreducestheprofitsofthemerchantswhohaveanyconsiderablequantityofthemuponhand.Itsinkstoothewagesoftheworkmenemployedinpreparingsuchcommodities,forwhichalldemandisstoppedforsixmonths,perhapsforatwelvemonth.Themarketishereover-stockedwithcommoditiesandwithlabour.I.7.20Butthoughthemarketpriceofeveryparticularcommodityisinthismannercontinuallygravitating,ifonemaysayso,towardsthenaturalprice,yetsometimesparticularaccidents,sometimesnaturalcauses,andsometimesparticularregulationsofpolice,may,inmanycommodities,keepupthemarketprice,foralongtimetogether,agooddealabovethenaturalprice.I.7.21Whenbyanincreaseintheeffectualdemand,themarketpriceofsomeparticularcommodityhappenstoriseagooddealabovethenaturalprice,thosewhoemploytheirstocksinsupplyingthatmarketaregenerallycarefultoconcealthischange.Ifitwascommonlyknown,theirgreatprofitwouldtemptsomanynewrivalstoemploytheirstocksinthesameway,that,theeffectualdemandbeingfullysupplied,themarketpricewouldsoonbereducedtothenaturalprice,andperhapsforsometimeevenbelowit.Ifthemarketisatagreatdistancefromtheresidenceofthosewhosupplyit,theymaysometimesbeabletokeepthesecretforseveralyearstogether,andmaysolongenjoytheirextraordinaryprofitswithoutanynewrivals.Secretsofthiskind,however,itmustbeacknowledged,canseldombelongkept;andtheextraordinaryprofitcanlastverylittlelongerthantheyarekept.I.7.22Secretsinmanufacturesarecapableofbeinglongerkeptthansecretsintrade.Adyerwhohasfoundthemeansofproducingaparticularcolourwithmaterialswhichcostonlyhalfthepriceofthosecommonlymadeuseof,may,withgoodmanagement,enjoytheadvantageofhisdiscoveryaslongashelives,andevenleaveitasalegacytohisposterity.Hisextraordinarygainsarisefromthehighpricewhichispaidforhisprivatelabour.Theyproperlyconsistinthehighwagesofthatlabour.Butastheyarerepeateduponeverypartofhisstock,andastheirwholeamountbears,uponthataccount,aregularproportiontoit,theyarecommonlyconsideredasextraordinaryprofitsofstock.*76

I.7.23Suchenhancementsofthemarketpriceareevidentlytheeffectsofparticularaccidents,ofwhich,however,theoperationmaysometimeslastformanyyearstogether.I.7.24Somenaturalproductionsrequiresuchasingularityofsoilandsituation,thatallthelandinagreatcountry,whichisfitforproducingthem,maynotbesufficienttosupplytheeffectualdemand.Thewholequantitybroughttomarket,therefore,maybedisposedoftothosewhoarewillingtogivemorethanwhatissufficienttopaytherentofthelandwhichproducedthem,togetherwiththewagesofthelabour,andtheprofitsofthestockwhichwereemployedinpreparingandbringingthemtomarket,accordingtotheirnaturalrates.Suchcommoditiesmaycontinueforwholecenturiestogethertobesoldatthishighprice;*77andthatpartofitwhichresolvesitselfintotherentoflandisinthiscasethepartwhichisgenerallypaidaboveitsnaturalrate.Therentofthelandwhichaffordssuchsingularandesteemedproductions,liketherentofsomevineyardsinFranceofapeculiarlyhappysoilandsituation,bearsnoregularproportiontotherentofotherequallyfertileandequallywell-cultivatedlandinitsneighbourhood.Thewagesofthelabourandtheprofitsofthestockemployedinbringingsuchcommoditiestomarket,onthecontrary,areseldomoutoftheirnaturalproportiontothoseoftheotheremploymentsoflabourandstockintheirneighbourhood.

I.7.25

Suchenhancementsofthemarketpriceareevidentlytheeffectofnaturalcauseswhichmayhindertheeffectualdemandfromeverbeingfullysupplied,andwhichmaycontinue,therefore,tooperatefor-ever.I.7.26Amonopolygrantedeithertoanindividualortoatradingcompanyhasthesameeffectasasecretintradeormanufactures.Themonopolists,bykeeping themarketconstantlyunder-stocked,bynever fullysupplyingtheeffectualdemand,selltheircommoditiesmuchabovethenaturalprice,andraisetheiremoluments,whethertheyconsistinwagesorprofit,greatlyabovetheirnaturalrate.I.7.27Thepriceofmonopolyisuponeveryoccasionthehighestwhichcanbegot.Thenaturalprice,orthepriceoffreecompetition,onthecontrary,isthelowestwhichcanbetaken,notuponeveryoccasionindeed,butforanyconsiderabletimealtogether.Theoneisuponeveryoccasionthehighestwhichcanbesqueezedoutofthebuyers,orwhich,itissupposed,theywillconsenttogive:Theotheristhelowestwhichthesellerscancommonlyaffordtotake,andatthesametimecontinuetheirbusiness.I.7.28Theexclusiveprivilegesofcorporations,statutesofapprenticeship*,78andall thoselawswhichrestrain,inparticularemployments,thecompetitiontoasmallernumberthanmightotherwisegointothem,havethesametendency,thoughinalessdegree.Theyareasortofenlargedmonopolies,andmayfrequently,foragestogether,andinwholeclassesofemployments,keepupthemarketpriceofparticularcommoditiesabovethenaturalprice,andmaintainboththewagesofthelabourandtheprofitsofthestockemployedaboutthemsomewhatabovetheirnaturalrate.I.7.29Suchenhancementsofthemarketpricemaylastaslongastheregulationsofpolicewhichgiveoccasiontothem.I.7.30Themarketpriceofanyparticularcommodity,thoughitmaycontinuelongabove,canseldomcontinuelongbelow,itsnaturalprice.Whateverpartofitwaspaidbelowthenaturalrate,thepersonswhoseinterestitaffectedwouldimmediatelyfeeltheloss,andwouldimmediatelywithdraweithersomuchland,orsomuchlabour,orsomuchstock,frombeingemployedaboutit,thatthequantitybroughttomarketwouldsoonbenomorethansufficienttosupplytheeffectualdemand.Itsmarketprice,therefore,wouldsoonrisetothenaturalprice.Thisatleastwouldbethecasewheretherewasperfectliberty.*79

I.7.31Thesamestatutesofapprenticeshipandothercorporationlawsindeed,which,whenamanufactureisinprosperity,enabletheworkmantoraisehiswagesagooddealabovetheirnaturalrate,sometimesobligehim,whenitdecays,toletthemdownagooddealbelowit.Asintheonecasetheyexcludemanypeoplefromhisemployment,sointheothertheyexcludehimfrommanyemployments.Theeffectofsuchregulations,however,isnotnearsodurableinsinkingtheworkman'swagesbelow,asinraisingthemabovetheirnaturalrate.Theiroperationintheonewaymayendureformanycenturies,butintheotheritcanlastnolongerthanthelivesofsomeoftheworkmenwhowerebredtothebusinessinthetimeofitsprosperity.Whentheyaregone,thenumberofthosewhoareafterwardseducatedtothetradewillnaturallysuititselftotheeffectualdemand.ThepolicemustbeasviolentasthatofIndostanorantientEgypt*80(whereeverymanwasboundbyaprincipleofreligiontofollowtheoccupationofhisfather,andwassupposedtocommitthemosthorridsacrilegeifhechangeditforanother),whichcaninanyparticularemployment,andforseveralgenerationstogether,sinkeitherthewagesoflabourortheprofitsofstockbelowtheirnaturalrate.I.7.32

ThisisallthatIthinknecessarytobeobservedatpresentconcerningthedeviations,whetheroccasionalorpermanent,ofthemarketpriceofcommoditiesfromthenaturalprice.

I.7.33Thenaturalpriceitselfvarieswiththenaturalrateofeachofitscomponentparts,ofwages,profit,andrent;andineverysocietythisratevariesaccordingtotheircircumstances,accordingtotheirrichesorpoverty,theiradvancing,stationary,ordecliningcondition.Ishall, inthefourfollowingchapters,endeavourtoexplain,asfullyanddistinctlyasIcan,thecausesofthosedifferentvariations.

I.7.34

First,Ishallendeavourtoexplainwhatarethecircumstanceswhichnaturallydeterminetherateofwages,andinwhatmannerthosecircumstancesareaffectedbytherichesorpoverty,bytheadvancing,stationaryordecliningstateofthesociety.

I.7.35

Secondly,Ishallendeavourtoshowwhatarethecircumstanceswhichnaturallydeterminetherateofprofit,andinwhatmannertoothosecircumstancesareaffectedbythelikevariationsinthestateofthesociety.

I.7.36

Thoughpecuniarywagesandprofitareverydifferentinthedifferentemploymentsoflabourandstock;yetacertainproportionseemscommonlytotakeplacebetweenboththepecuniarywagesinallthedifferentemploymentsof labour,andthepecuniaryprofitsinallthedifferentemploymentsofstock.Thisproportion,itwillappearhereafter,dependspartlyuponthenatureofthedifferentemployments,andpartlyuponthedifferentlawsandpolicyofthesocietyinwhichtheyarecarriedon.Butthoughinmanyrespectsdependentuponthelawsandpolicy,thisproportionseemstobelittleaffectedbytherichesorpovertyofthatsociety;byitsadvancing,stationary,ordecliningcondition;buttoremainthesameorverynearlythesameinallthosedifferentstates.Ishall,inthethirdplace,endeavourtoexplainallthedifferentcircumstanceswhichregulatethis proportion.

I.7.37

Inthefourthandlastplace,Ishallendeavourtoshowwhatarethecircumstanceswhichregulatetherentofland,andwhicheitherraiseorlowertherealpriceofallthedifferentsubstanceswhichitproduces.

Source:Smith,Adam.AnInquiryintotheNatureandCausesoftheWealthofNations.EdwinCannan,ed.London:Methuen&Co.,Ltd.1904.LibraryofEconomicsandLiberty[Online]availablefromhttp://www.econlib.org/library/Smith/smWN0.html; accessed 17 January 2017; Internet.

WhatdidEnlightenmentwriterssaythatwouldinspireotherstothinkdifferentlyabouttheircurrentsocial,politicalandeconomiccondition?

Inashortessay,summarizewhattheEnlightenmentwriterssaidintheirwritingsandsuggestwhatmightinspireotherstothinkdifferentlyabouttheircurrentconditionsocially,politicallyandeconomically.

FeaturedSources

SourceA:JohnLocke:ExcerptsfromtheSecondTreatiseofGovernmentfromearlymoderntexts.comSourceB:ExcerptsfromTheSpiritoftheLawsbyCharlesdeSecondat,BarondeMontesquieufromconstitution.orgSourceC:ExcerptsfromAnInquiryintotheNatureandCausesoftheWealthofNationsbyAdamSmithfromeconlib.org

Afterhavingaccomplishedsupportingquestion2formativeperformancetask,youngscholarswillusetheprovideddocumentstothinkaboutwhattheEnlightenmentwriterssaidthatwouldinspireotherstothinkdifferentlyabouttheircurrentsocial,political,andeconomiccondition. Thisquestionisgearednotonlyatthetimeperiodinvolved,butalsoforthepresenttimeinAmerica. Thisstageoftheinquirywilltake2daystoaccomplishthe formativeperformancetask.

Youngscholarswillexpressananswertotheformativeperformancetaskusingthesourcesprovided,andalsoincludehowthiscanbeattachedtocurrentconditionsofpeoplesintheUnitedStatessocially,politically,andeconomicallyintheformofanessay.

SupportingQuestion3FeaturedSourceA JohnLocke:ExcerptsfromtheSecondTreatiseofGovernmentfromearlymoderntexts.com