Post on 09-Aug-2020
ENCYCLOPEDIA OF E A R T H SCIENCES SERIES
ENCYCLOPEDIA of GEOCHEMISTRY
\ \̂
r edited by
C L A R E P. MARSHALL
RHODES W. FAIRBRIDGE
KLUWER ACADEMIC PUBLISHERS D O R D R E C H T | B O S T O N | L O N D O N
C BIBLIOTFCAH
Contents
Li>: of Contributors
Preface
Acknowledgements
.Acid Deposition Martin Mihaljevic
Acids and Bases Carl O. Moses
Actinium Cynthia E.A. Palmer
.Activation Energy, Activation Enthalpy, -Activation Volume
Thomas J. Wolery
Activity and Activity Coefficients Thomas J. Wolery
A/_minum •̂c Ildefonse
. cium: Element and Geochemistry - - R. Janecky, Wolfgang H. Runde and
Mary P. Neu
Analysis: Field Methods RR Barefoot
'.Tihrical Geochemistry / _.;:</>! Ruiz
- " • • T ical Techniques ./. Potts
-.r.-.imony: Element and Geochemistry W. Lueth
. us Solutions : L?/i A. Burton
XIX
xxxiii
X X X V
1
2
5
5
7
10
10
11
12
13
15
16
Argon Thomas Staudacher
^"Ar/^Mr Dating Method T. Mark Harrison >
Arsenic Jenny G. Webster
Astatine Ronald S. Kaufmann Atomic Absorption Spectrometry Philip J. Potts
Atomic Mass Unit, Avogadro Constant and Mole
Cesare Emiliani (deceased)
Atomic Number Russell S. Harmon
Authigenesis Rhodes W. Eairbridge
Barium Kathleen S. Smith
Berkelium Cynthia E.A. Palmer Beryllium Jeffrey G. Ryan
Biogenic Methane and Gas Hydrate Keith A. Kvenvolden
Biogeochemistry John K. Volkman
Biomarker: Aliphatic Kenneth E. Peters and Clifford C. Walters
18
19
21
23
23
23
25
26
28
29
29
30
31
31
X CONTENTS
Biomarker: Aromatic 33 Bernd R. T. Simoneit
Biomarker: Assessment of Thermal Maturity 36 Kenneth E. Peters
Biomarker: Coals 39 Matthias Radke
Biomarker: Higher Plant 39 Bernd R. T. Simoneit
Biomarkers: Lipid. Bacterial Chemical Fossils 40 Michel Rohmer
Biopolymers and Macromolecules 42 Claude Largeau
Bismuth: Element and Geochemistry 43 Virgil W. Lueth
Black Shales and Sapropels 44 Jan Jehlicka
Boron 44 Jugdeep Aggarwal
Bromine 49 Ronald S. Kaufmann
Cadmium 50 Kathleen S. Smith
Calcium 51 David W. Mittlefehldt
Calcium Carbonate and the Carbonic Acid System 51
Sylvia Frisia
Californium 57 Cynthia E.A. Palmer
Calorimetry 58 Charles A. Geiger
Carbon 58 Austin Long
Carbon-14 Dating and other Applications in Earth Sciences 59
D. Lai and S. Krishnaswami
Carbon Cycle 65 Peter S. Bakwin
Carbon Isotopes 67 Juha Karhu
Carbonate Compensation Depth 73 Elizabeth A. Burton
Carbonate Sediments Abigail M. Smith
Cerium
Scott M. McLennan
Cesium David W. Mittlefehldt Chelation Richard M. Kettler
Chemical Kinetics Youxue Zhang
Chlorine Ronald S. Kaufmann
Chromium Eugene S. Ilton
Clapeyron's Equation Jae-Young Yu
Clay Membranes P.M. Whitworth
Clay Minerals: Ion Exchange P.M. Whitworth
Coal: Organic Petrography J.C Shearer and P. A. Moore
Coal: Origin and Diagenesis R.M. Bustin
Coal: Types and Characteristics P.A. Moore and J.C. Shearer
Coal: Vitrinite Reflectance and Maturity RalfLittke
Cobalt
Achim Albrecht
Colloids Montserrat Eilella and Jacques Buffle Complexes Helen Mango
Compound-Specific Isotope Analysis Roger E. Summons
Copper Mark A. Williamson
Cosmic Elemental Abundances D. Lai
Cosmogenic Nuclides Eric Phorson Brown
73
75
76
76
77
80
81
82
83
85
87
90
92
96
97
98
99
100
101
102
104
CONTENTS xi
Counters Emest B. Ledger
Critical Points Peter A. Rock and William H. Casey
Crystal Chemistry Dana T. Griffen
Cry stal Field Theory Hans Keppler
Crystal Growth Youxue Zhang
Curium: Element and Geochemistry Wolfgang H. Runde, Mary P. Neu and
David R. Janecky
Dating Methods Brian D. Marshall
Debye-Hiickel Equation Thomas J. Wolery
Diagenesis L'we Brand, Joan O. Morrison and
Ian T. Campbell
Differential Thermal Analysis and Scanning Calorimetry
Janies L . Gooding
Diffusion K. Stuwe
Dolomite and Dolomitization Sylvia Frisia
Dysprosium Scott M. McLennan
Earth's Atmosphere M.A.K. Khalil
Earth's Continental Crust Scott M. McLennan and Stuart Ross Taylor
Earth's Core William F. McDonough
Earth's Formation and Geochemical Evolution H. Palme
Earth's Mantle Geochemistry Ian Ridley
Earth's Ocean Geochemistry Joris M. Gieskes
Earth's Oceanic Crust Michael Perfit
108 Eh-pH Relations Richard B. Wanty
110 Einsteinium Cynthia E.A. Palmer
110 Electrolyte Theory Thomas J. Wolery
118 Electron Capture Car la W. Montgomery
120 Electron Microprobe C. Wagner
123 Electronegativity Jae-Young Yu
Elementary Particles 124 R,K. Varma
Elements: Actinide Series 124 Benoit Villemant
Elements: Alkali and Alkaline Earth 126 David W. Mittlefehldt
Elements: Chalcophile H. Palme
J3J Elements: Distribution Frederick A. Frey
133 Elements: Halogen Ronald S. Kaufmann
14Q Elements: Heat-producing Fernando Bea
142 Elements: High Field Strength V.J.M. Salters
143 Elements: Incompatible W. Ian Ridley
145 Elements: Lanthanide Series, Rare Earths Scott M. McLennan
151 Elements: Large-ion Lithophile Roberta L . Rudnick
156 Elements: Lithophile • . H.G. Stosch
162 Elements: Metalloids Graeme E. Bat ley
168 Elements: Noble Gases Thomas Staudacher
179 Elements: Platinum Group Sarah-Jane Barnes
183
187
187
189
190
191
193
195
198
204
204
207
208
209
210
211
214
214
215
216
218
xii CONTENTS
Elements: Radioactive 219 Paul R. Dixon
Elements: Siderophile 221 H. Palme
Elements: Trace 222 M. Elaine Kennedy
Elements: Transition 223 L . Galoisy and C. Marshall
Enthalpy 226 Carl O. Moses
Entropy 227 Carl O. Moses
Epigenesis 232 Vidojko Jovic
Equilibrium 232 Heinz Gamsjdger
Equilibrium Constant 233 Erich Konigsberger
Erbium 236 Scott M. McLennan
Europium 236 Scott M. McLennan
Experimental Mineralogy and Petrology 237 Charles A. Geiger
Exsolution 239 Jae-Young Yu
Fermium 245 Cynthia E.A. Palmer
Fick's Law 245 Ronald S. Kaufmann
Fission-track Analysis 246 Charles H. Naeser and Nancy D. Naeser
Fluid-Rock Interaction 248 William E. Glassley
Fluids in Volcanic and Plutonic Environments: Evidence From Fluid Inclusions 250
B. De Vivo
Fluorine 252 Ronald S. Kaufmann
Francium 253 David W. Mittlefehldt
Free Energy 253 Carl O. Moses
Fugacity 256 Uwe Brand and Ian T. Campbell
Gadolinium 257 Scott M. McLennan
Gallium: Element and Geochemistry 257 Erich Schroll
Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (GS-MS) 259
Andrew T. Revill
Gas Source Mass Spectrometry 261 LP. Wright
Geoavailability 262 Kathleen S. Smith
Geochemical Classification of the Elements 263 Scott M. McLennan
Geochemical Exploration 266 Arthur W. Rose
Geochemical Reference Materials 269 K. Govindaraju
Geochemical Tectonics 270 Joaquin Ruiz
Geochemical Thermodynamics 271 Peter A. Rock and William H. Casey
Geochemistry 277 William S. Fyfe
Geochemistry: Low-temperature 280 Elizabeth A. Burton
Geochemistry of Sediments 282 Scott M. McLennan and Richard W. Murray
Geochronology and Radioisotopes 292 Carla W. Montgomery
Geologic Time Scale 295 R. Michael Easton
Geothermal Systems 298 Steven W. Lonker
Geothermometers 3<^ Maurice Pagel and Pierre Barbey
Geothermometry and Geobarometry 305 Richard E. Wendlandt
Germanium: Element and Geochemistry 307 Erich Schroll
Gibbs-Duhem Equation 3C® Peter A. Rock and William H. Casey
CONTENTS XIII
J. Webster
'•:an Patchett
Staudacher
~ Isotopes i Graham
- Law T. Campbell and Uwe Brand
?f Geochemistry • I" Fairbridge
'•!. McLennan
.- .-rbons •J Volkman
\ Kaufman
: r " Isotopes imurthy
: gic Cycle k£my
-ermal Alteration ~ Berger
;;riial Solutions / Bodnar
Jovic
Element and Geochemistry '-'•oil
.. Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry ^-MS)
Bea
C V. Butler
:ge Chromatography S.dsteren
rrobe Shimizu
Griffen
Bmtfoot
309
312
312
314
315
315
322
323
325
326
330
331
333
337
339
340
341
342
343
344
347
Iron Mark A. Williamson ,
Isotope Dilution Carla W. Montgomery
Isotope Fractionation Ian D. Clark
Krypton Thomas Staudacher
Laboratory Simulations of Oil and Natural Formation
J.S. Seewald and T.I. Eglinton
Lanthanum Scott M. McLennan
Laser Ablation-Inductively Coupled Plasma-Mass Spectrometry
Douglas L . Miles
Lawrencium Cynthia E.A. Palmer
Lead Martin Mihaljevic
Lead: Stable Isotopes Leon E. Long
Lipids (Eubacteria and Archebacteria) Michel Rohmer
Lithium: Element and Geochemistry Ju-chin Chen
Luminescence G. Galas
Lutetium Scott M. McLennan
Lutetium-Hafnium Decay System P. Jonathan Patchett
Magmatic Processes Robert L . Cullers
Magnesium David W. Mittlefehldt
Magnetism Guillaume Morin
Manganese Lloyd M. Petrie
Mass Transfer Ross C. Kerr
Gas
348
353
354
35^
359
360
360
m
362
363
368
369
: 370
371
372
373
379
, 379
382
384
xiv CONTENTS
Mendelevium Cynthia E.A. Palmer
Mercury Martin Mihaljevic
Metamorphic Environments: Chemical Mobility D. R. Bowes and J. Rosier
Meteorites Gregory A. Snyder
Micro-Raman Spectroscopy Stephen Roberts
Mid-Ocean Ridge Basalt (MORB) Anton P. le Roex
Mineral Defects Annemarie Meike
Mineral Genesis Alain J. Baronnet
Mineralogy William S. Eyfe
Molybdenum A.A. Bookstrom
Mossbauer Spectroscopy D.G. Rancourt
Natural Gas Alain Prinzhofer
Natural Resources Martin Hale
Neodymium Scott M. McLennan
Neodymium in Igneous Rocks / Rosier
Neodymium in Sedimentary Rocks Carol D. Frost
Neon Thomas Staudacher
Neptunium: Element and Geochemistry Wolfgang H. Runde, David R. Janecky and
Mary P. Neu
Neutron Activation Analysis James R. Budahn
Nickel Laurence Galoisy
Niobium A.M.R. Neiva
387 Nitrogen A. Hall
387 Nitrogen Cycle Elisabeth A. Holland
389 Nitrogen Isotopes Nathaniel E. Ostrom and Peggy H. Ostrom
395 Nobelium Cynthia E.A. Palmer
400 Nucleosynthesis J.N. Goswami
401 Nutrients J. Faganeli
401 Occurrence of Organic Facies R. Basil Johns
404 Oil Seeps and Coastal Bitumens Andrew T. Revill
409 Oil Shales A.T Revill
411 Oil-Oil and Oil-Source Rock Correlation Clijford C. Walters
413 Oklo Natural Nuclear Reactor Mark J. Rigali and Bartholomew S. Nagy
415 (deceased)
Onuma Diagrams 416 Jean M. Richardson
Ore Deposits 418 Martin Hale
Organic Geochemistry 418 John K. Volkman
Organic Matter in Fossils 421 Stephen A. Macko and Michael H. Engel
Organic Matter in Meteorites 422 Scott Messenger
Organics: Contemporary Degradation and 423 Preservation
Stuart G. Wakeham
Organics: Sources and Depositional 424 Environments
Stuart G. Wakeham
425 Osmium John W. Morgan
426 Oxidation-Reduction Charles G. Patterson
426
428
431
434
434
437
439
441
441
442
444
446
447
453
456
458
458
460
461
462
CONTENTS XV
Oxygen 467 Steven C. Semken
Oxygen Isotopes 469 Ethan L . Grossman
Paleo-Sea Surface Temperature Estimations: Organic Geochemistry and Paleoclimates 475
Elisabeth L . Sikes
Paleoenvironments 477 .V/. Elaine Kennedy
Paleoproductivity 479 Uwe Brand, Ian T. Campbell and
Joan O. Morrison
Paleotemperature 480 Uwe Brand, Joan O. Morrison and
Ian T. Campbell
Palladium 484 Christopher J. Capobianco
Paragenesis 485 Robert J. Kamilli
Particle-Induced X-Ray Emission (PIXE) 488 J . L . Campbell
Partition Coefficients 489 Robert L . Cullers
Peat 490 William Shotyk
Periodic Table 491 Gregory A. Snyder
Petroleum 494 R.G. Sehaefer
Petroleum: Hydrothermal 497 Bernd R. T. Simoneit
Petroleum: In-reservoir Biodegradation 498 Jacques Connan
Petroleum: Kinetic Modeling 499 RG. Sehaefer
Petroleum: Primary Migration (Generation and Expulsion) 500
Jean Burrus
Petroleum: Surface Geochemistry 502 RP. Philp
Petroleum: Types, Occurrence and Reserves 504 RG. Sehaefer and D.H. Welte
Phase Equilibria 505 Robert W. Luth
Phosphorus 516 Gerald Matisoff
Platinum 516 W. Crawford Elliott
Plutonium: Environmental Chemistry and Geochemistry ' 517
Paul R. Dixon and David B. Curtis
Polonium: Element and Geochemistry 518 Wolfgang H. Runde
Porphyrins , 519 Chris Boreham
Potassium 522 David W. Mittlefelhdt
Potassium-Argon Dating Method 522 K.A. Poland
Potassium-Calcium Decay System 525 Brian D. Marshall
Praseodymium 526 Scott M. McLennan
Precambrian Atmosphere 526 Grant M. Young
Precambrian Geochemistry 532 R. Michael Easton
Precambrian Organic Matter ^ 535 Roger E. Summons
Promethium 537 Scott M. McLennan
Protactinium 537 David A. Pickett
Quantum Numbers 539 D. G. Rancourt
Radioactivity 540 Stephen A. Prevec
Radium M l Arthur W. Rose
Radon 542 Arthur W. Rose
Rare Earth Element Tetrad Effect 543 T. Akagi
Remote Sensing 544 David A. Rot hery
Rhenium 547 John W. Morgan
xvi CONTENTS
Rhenium-Osmium Dating Method John W. Morgan
Rhodium R.R. Barefoot
Rock-Eval Pyrolysis Kenneth E. Peters
Rocks Vidojko Jovic
Rubidium: Element and Geochemistry E. Craig Simmons
Rubidium-Strontium Method Leon E. Long
Ruthenium R.R. Barefoot
Samarium Scott M. McLennan
Samarium-Neodymium Carla W. Montgomery
Sampling
Jean M. Richardson
Scandium Scott M. McLennan Scanning Electron Microscope C. Wagner
Sedimentary Fluids Ian E. Hutcheon
Selenium Eugene S. Ilton
Silicon, Silica Nancy W. Hinman
Silver: Element and Geochemistry Helen N. Mango
Sodium
David W. Mittlefehldt
Soil William S. Fyfe Solid Solution Erich Konigsberger
Solubility Heinz Gamsjdger
Spectrophotometry Ian T. Campbell and Uwe Brand
547
550
551
554
555
556
561
563
563
567
569
569
570
571
572
576
578
578
580
583
587
Stable Isotopes 588 Ian D. Clark
Standard States 592 Peter A. Rock and William H. Casey
Steroidal Compounds 593 John K. Volkman •
Stoichiometry 595 R. Hellmann
Strontium: Element and Geochemistry 598 E. Craig Simmons
Strontium in Igneous Rocks 599 Jon Davidson
Strontium in Sedimentary Rocks 600 Uwe Brand, Joan O. Morrison and
Ian T. Campbell
Sulfate Minerals 603 Jeremy P. Richards
Sulfate Reduction 603 Hans G. Machel
Sulfide Minerals 605 Jeremy P. Richards
Sulfides in Mafic and Ultramafic Magmas 606 Robert D. Francis
Sulfosalt Minerals 607 Jeremy P. Richards
Sulfur 608 Martin A. A. Schoonen
Sulfur Cycle 608 Martin A. A. Schoonen
Sulfur Isotopes in Geochemistry 610 Keith Hannan
Supergene 615 Vidojko Jovic
Surface Geochemistry 616 Christian Ludwig and William H. Casey
Synchrotron X-Ray Fluorescence Analysis 617 Philip J. Potts
Syngenesis 618 Rhodes W. Eairbridge
Tantalum 620 A.M.R. Neiva
Technetium: Environmental Chemistry and Geochemistry 621
Paul R. Dixon and David B. Curtis
CONTENTS xvii
Tellurium 621 Vidojko Jovic
Terbium 622 Scott M. McLennan
Thallium 622 Vidojko Jovic
Thermal Ionization Mass Spectrometry 623 Peter van Calsteren
Thermochemistry 624 Mitchell Schulte
Thermogravimetry 626 Patrick K. Gallagher
Thermoluminescence 628 Christophe Falgueres
Thixotropy 630 H.C. Weed
Thorium: Element and Geochemistry 630 5". Krishnaswami
Thulium 635 Scott M. McLennan
Tin 635 A.M.R. Neiva
Titanium: Element and geochemistry 636 Francois Farges
Trace Element Partitioning Models 637 Roger L . Nielsen
Tritium 639 Austin Long
Tungsten 639 John C. Groen
Uranium: Element and Geochemistry 645 Fernando Bea
Uranium-Lead Thorium-Lead Decay System 648 P. Vidal
Uranium Series Disequilibria 650 Michel Condomines
Van der Waals Force 655 Jae-Young Yu
Vanadium 656 Gregory A. Snyder
Volcanic Gases 656 P.M. Gerlach
Volcanism 658 Peter W. Francis
Water 660 Carl O. Moses
Water: Fresh 667 Arthur H. Brownlow
Weathering: Chemical 668 Patrick V. Brady
X-Ray Diffraction 670 R.J. Angel
X-Ray Fluorescence Analysis 670 Philip J. Potts
Xenon 671 Thomas Staudacher
Ytterbium 673 Scott M. McLennan
Yttrium 673 Scott M. McLennan
Zinc 674 Martin Mihaljevic
Zirconium: Element and Geochemistry 675 Frangois Farges
Appendix A: List of entries by subject 676
Appendix B: Alphabetical list of the chemical
elements (up to 103) 680
Appendix C: The international system of units 682
Index of authors cited 685
Subject index 703