Australian Journal of Adult Learning Volume 52, Number 3, November 2012

Educational alternatives in food production, knowledge and consumption: The public

pedagogies of Growing Power and Tsyunhehkw^

Pierre WalterUniversity of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada

This paper examines how two sites of adult learning in the food movement create educational alternatives to the dominant U.S. food system. It further examines how these pedagogies challenge racialised, classed and gendered ideologies and practices in their aims, curricular content, and publically documented educational processes. The first case is Growing Power, an urban farm which embraces small scale capitalism and vocational education as an end toward community food security, social and ecological justice, and anti-racist education. The second case, Tsyunhehkw^, is the ‘integrated community food system’ of the Oneida Nation in rural Wisconsin, centred on cultural decolonisation through the growing and eating of traditional Oneida foods. In both these projects, there are strong possibilities to teach a critical, social justice alternative to white, middle class norms and practices of food production and consumption.

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Introduction

Thisstudycontributestoanemergingandvibrantscholarshipontheforms,processesandsitesofpublicpedagogy(Sandlin,Wright&Clark2011).Thisbodyofworkintersectswithalongertraditionofresearchonadultlearninginsocialmovements,includingtheenvironmentalmovement(Clover2004;Foley1999;Flowers&Chodkiewicz2009;Ollis2008;Walter2007).Ingeneral,publicpedagogyscholarshiphastendedtofocusoncritiquesofhegemonicstructuresofinformaleducationandlearninginpopularculture,followingtraditionsofcriticalpedagogy(Sandlin,O’Malley&Burdick2011).However,researchondisruptionsofdominantstate and corporate ideologies through public pedagogies such as culturejamming(Sandlin2010),voluntarysimplicity(Sandlin&Walther2009)andcriticalshopping(Jubas2011)isalsoapartofthisscholarship.Researchinsocialmovementlearning,althoughnecessarilyincludingacritiqueofdominantideologiesandsocialstructures,hasfocusedmoreonthepotentialofadultlearningandeducationforsocialchange.Todate,however,publicpedagogyandsocialmovementlearninginthefoodmovementhasreceivedrelativelylittleattention,withnotableexceptions(Flowers&Swan2011;Sumner2008).

Theenvironmentalmovement,andmorerecently,thefoodmovement,havebeencriticisedinfeministscholarshipasrepositoriesofmale,middleclassnorms,practicesandoppressivegenderrelations.Inthefoodmovement,callstoreturntomoreholistic,organicandlocalfoodproduction,forexample,maysimplymeanadditionallabourforwomen,andfamilymealsmaybesitesofviolenceagainstwomen,bothsymbolicallyandmaterially(DeVault1991;Lupton1996).Morerecently,scholarsinthefoodmovementhavealsobeguntocritiquethestructuresandrelationsofsocialclass,whitenessandpowerexpressedinalternativefoodpractices,pedagogies,spacesandcommunityinstitutionsinthefoodmovement

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(Guthman2008;Slocum2006,2007).Amongothers,RachelSlocum(2006:337)arguesfortheimportanceofunderstandingandacknowledgingthehistoryofracism,colonialism,andclassandgenderoppressionunderlyingthefoodsysteminattemptstoenactlocalalternativestoit:

ItmaybeusefulforcommunityfoodadvocatestoactivelyconsiderthattheUSfoodsystemwasbuiltonafoundationofgenocide,slaveryandlayersofracistinstitutionsthathavedispossessedracializedgroupsofculturalpride,landandwealth,ingender-andclass-specificways.Itsurvives,forinstance,throughtheworkofpeopleofcolorwhoserve,disproportionately,inthehazardousworkoffarmlaborandfoodprocessing.Institutionalizedracismintersectingwithprocessesofcolonialism,welfareideologyandgenderandclassoppressionisalsovisibleintheareasoffoodinsecurity,diseaseandexcessdeath.

InthepoliticsandactivismofIndigenousscholarsinNorthAmericaandbeyond,strongthemesofdecolonisation,landsovereignty,self-determination,culturalrevivalandindigenouspedagogiesinrelationtofoodarealsostronglyvoiced(Grande2004;LaDuke2005).Recently,IndigenousscholarshavebeguntotakeupthethornypoliticalquestionoffeminismsandIndigenousthought,activismandcultureaswell(Green2007;Suzaket.al.2010),withstrongimplicationsforthestudyofcolonialism,genderoppression,classandraceinthefoodmovement.

ThepurposeofthispaperistoexaminehowintwositesofpublicpedagogyintheU.S.foodmovementtherearepossibilitiesfor‘activists’todisrupt,contestandcreatealternativestodominantideologiesandpracticesinthefoodsystem,andtoexaminehowthesepedagogiesdoordonotaddressracialised,classedandgenderedideologiesandpracticesinthefoodmovement.Thepaperdescribestheaims,curricularcontent,andtheirpublicallydocumentededucationalprocesses.Otherresearchonpublicpedagogyinsocialmovementsitessuggeststhatadultsmay‘engage

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incriticallytransformativelearningontheirown’,focusingmoreon‘noncognitiveandembodiedrelationsoflearning…withoutthehelpofaninterveningadulteducatorandwithoutcritical,rationaldialogue’(Sandlin,Wright&Clark2011:11).Thus,thepaperlooksforevidenceofapublicpedagogypromotingtransformativelearninginthetwosites under study as well.

Methodology

Thestudysites,locatedinthestateofWisconsin,U.S.,illustratediversepublicpedagogiesembracingalternativeideologiesandmaterialpracticesoffoodproductionandconsumption,socialjustice,culturalrevival,andhumanhealth.Thefirstcase,thatof Growing Power,isanurbanfarminanimpoverishedAfricanAmericanneighborhoodinthecityofMilwaukee.Thiscaseembracessmall-scalecapitalismandvocationaleducationasanendtowardfoodsecurity,multiculturalleadership,socialandecologicaljusticeandanti-racistpedagogy.Thesecondcase,Tsyunhehkw^,isthe‘integratedcommunityfoodsystem’oftheOneidaNationinruralnortheasternWisconsin.Itcentresonrecovering,producing,processingandpromotinghealthy,traditionalOneidafoods;thatis,ondecolonisinglocalfoodandlifesystems.

Dataforthestudywascollectedinbriefsitevisits,documents(includingnewsletters,annualreports,conferenceprograms,andbrochures)andanexhaustiveinternetsearchusingGoogle-Web,-Videoand-Newssearchengines.Thisformofdigitalresearchisincreasinglyprevalentinadulteducationresearch(e.g.Irving&English2011;McGregor&Price2010).Datawereanalysedusingethnographiccontentanalysis(Altheideet. al.2008)inatwo-stageprocessforanalysingdigitalwebsitesandmediaaspublicpedagogy(Kelly2011).Inthefirstphase,alldatawerereviewedforeachcase,andacompositecase‘portrait’developed;inthesecondphase,characteristicelementsforeachcasewereidentified,andfindings

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solidifiedinasecondreviewofdataforeachcase.Internetsitesusedforthestudyincludedeachinitiative’swebpages(forGrowing Power almost50;forOneidaover150),socialmedia(bothhaveFacebookandTwittersites),blogs,independentnewsmediaaccounts(67articlesforGrowing Power,28forOneida),andinthecaseofGrowing Power,54videos.

Thestudyexaminesonlytheclaimsmadebyeachcaseintheirpublicallyavailabledocuments,andthusdoesnotrevealhowandwhatlearnersinthesesitesactuallyexperienceandlearn,exceptanecdotally. The study likewise does not directly address how educatorsinthesesettings,as‘thecriticallinkbetweenhegemonicpopularcultureandcriticalawarenessofthatcultureashegemonic’,mighthelpto‘fostercriticaldialogueandhelpadultlearnersunderstandthepowerandpoliticsatworkwithinpopularculture’(Sandlin,Wright&Clark2011:10).Thus,inonesense,thisstudy,likemanyothersprecedingit(Sandlin,O’Malley&Burdick2011:359),isananalysisofan‘imaginedpublicpedagogy’,asthispedagogyisevidentinthedocumentsofeachcase.Inthisregard,thestudyprovidesagoodstartingpointforfurtherempiricalfieldresearchonadultlearnersandlearningintheseandotherinformalpedagogicalsiteswithinthefoodmovement.

Community-based capitalism, food production and social justice

ThecityofMilwaukee,Wisconsin’sclaimtofamehasbeenitsGermanimmigrantbreweries(Miller,Schlitz,Pabst),industrialmanufacturing,andaradicalpoliticalhistoryinwhich‘SewerSocialists’electedthreeSocialistmayorsfrom1910to1960.Today,Milwaukeeisacityofabout600,000peoplesurroundedbyanother1millionpeopleinitssuburbs,whichhavegrowndramaticallysincethe1960s,inpartasaconsequenceof‘whiteflight’fromthecityproper.LikeothercitiesintheMidwesternRustBelt,Milwaukeesufferedfromadownturninmanufacturinginthelate1960s,

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inwhichthousandsofoncewell-paidindustrialworkersfoundthemselvesslippingoutofthemiddleclassandintothelowwageserviceandhealthcaresectors.Endemicpovertybegantocharacterisemanyneighbourhoodsoftheurbancore,includingthosewhichwerepredominantlyAfricanAmerican(CityofMilwaukee2012a).Thecityistodaydeeplydividedbyraceandclassbothgeographicallyandeconomically:accordingtoonerecentstudy,MilwaukeeisinfactthemostraciallysegregatedcityintheU.S.,withurbanblacksdisproportionatelysufferingtheilleffectsofjobandtaxbaselossestotheprosperouswhitesuburbs(Denvir2011).

Togetherwithanenduringlegacyofracialinequality,Milwaukeehasalsohistoricallybeenthesiteofgrassrootsmovementsforpeaceandsocialjustice,environmentalism,andcivilrights,ofinnovationsincommunitydevelopment,andofnumerousattemptstobridgeitseconomicandracialdivides.Inthelastdecade,afoodandsustainabilitymovementinthecityhasgrowninleapsandbounds,withstrongrootsinimpoverishedAfricanAmericancommunities,amongothers(Broadway2009;CityofMilwaukee2012b).Oneofthemostlong-standingandwell-knownoftheselocalfoodsecurityinitiativesisGrowing Power,anintegratedurbanfarmandnon-profittrainingcentreestablishedbyAfricanAmericaentrepreneur,farmerandcommunityleader,WillAllen.

Aformerprofessionalbasketballplayerandcorporatebusinessman,Allenhasforthelasttwentyyearsbuiltacommunity-basedurbanfarmingsystemontwoacresoflandsituateddirectlyinthemidstofoneofMilwaukee’spoorestAfricanAmericanneighbourhoods,closebytothecity’slargestpublichousingproject.Asanon-profitorganizationandlandtrust,themissionofGrowing Power (2012a)is‘supportingpeoplefromdiversebackgrounds,andtheenvironmentsinwhichtheylive,byhelpingtoprovideequalaccesstohealthy,high-quality,safeandaffordablefoodforpeopleinallcommunities’.TheGrowing Power (2012b)farmsitehouses

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20,000plantsandvegetables,100,000fish(tilapia,perch,bluegill),chickens,goats,ducks,rabbitsandbees,andsuppliescheaporganicfoodtosome10,000people.Growing Power makes400‘mobilegrocerystore’deliveriesof‘safe,healthyandaffordableproduce’tolocalpick-uppoints,managesacooperativenetworkofsmallfamilyfarmerspracticingsustainablefarming,suppliesfreshproducetosome25-40,000MilwaukeePublicSchoolstudents,isinvolvedinnumerouscommunityandschoolgardeninitiatives,donatesproducetolocalfoodpantries,andoperatestwofarmersmarketsinpoorneighborhoodswhichotherwisehavedifficultaccesstohealthyfood.TheorganizationhastaughtandemployedhundredsoflocalAfricanAmericanyouthandothersinurbanagriculture,buildingtheirprofessionalskillsandfoodknowledge,andenablingthemtopursuenew ways of attaining good health.

Growing Power’seducationalaimsareenactedinpartinitsfocusondevelopingcommunitycapacityforsustainableurbanagriculture.Thefarmisenvisionedasan‘educationallab’and‘CommunityFoodCenterandTrainingFacility’;itisa‘placetotrynewthings,learnwhatwedonotknow,andimproveonwhatwedo.Webelievethatfarmingshouldbesimpleandaccessibletoallpeople,sowecreatemethodsforgrowingandlivestockmanagementthatcanbereplicatedineveryneighborhood,fromDetroit,MichigantoGhana,Africa’(GrowingPower2012c).Tothisend,thefarmoffersdailytours,numeroushands-onworkshopsoncomposting,aquaponics,solarenergyandanimalhusbandry,long-term(fivemonth)trainingprogramsoncommunityfoodsystems,3-monthandyear-longapprenticeships,oneyearvocationaltrainingfor‘FoodSystemsSpecialists’,servicelearningandcommunityvolunteeropportunities,accreditedin-servicetrainingforschoolteachers,andyear-roundyouthleadershiptraining.Regularcommunityfeastsandcelebrationsatthefarmareacriticalpartoffoodeducationandcommunitybuildingaswell.Off-site, Growing Powerteachesaboutcommunityfoodsystemswithinanetworkofschoolandcommunitygardens,

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urbanfarmsandsome16‘RegionalOutreachTrainingCenters’aroundtheU.S.(GrowingPower2012d).

Aspartofitsmissiontopromoteprogressivesocialchangeinthefoodmovement,andracialandeconomicequalityforpoorpeopleofcolour,inparticular,Growing Power has established the Growing Food and Justice for All Initiative (GFJI).AsleaderWillAllennotes:

‘Thepeoplehithardestbythecurrentfoodsystemareusuallypeopleofcolor–butevenadecadeago,farmingcarriedastigmainthesecommunities.Therewerememoriesofsharecropping,likeinmyownfamily.Today,folksarejumpingontothe“goodfood”revolution,andit’scrucialtheyseefacesthatlookliketheirown’(quotedinKaufman2010:17).ThemissionofGFJIisthusboth to encourage the participation of people of colour in the foodmovementandtoaddressracismandsocialinjusticeonabroadscale:GFJIis‘aninitiativeaimedatdismantlingracismandempoweringlow-incomeandcommunitiesofcolorthroughsustainableandlocalagriculture’(GrowingPower2012e).

GFJI’saimsareaccomplishedinthebuildingofanationalanti-racismnetworkthroughablog,newsletter,website,andsocialnetworking,provisionoffinancialandeducationalsupportforcommunityinitiativestodismantleracism,policyactivism,andtrainingofcommunity-basedanti-racismtrainers(GrowingPower2012e).Aboveallelse,however,isGFJI’sannualconference,and strong presence at Growing Power’s (2012f)urbanfarmingconferences.The‘IntensiveLeadershipFacilitationTraining’(ILFT)immediatelybeforethe4thannualGFJIConferencein2011,forexample,was‘designedtobuildacommunityofleadersandprovideintensivetraininganddialogueforparticipantstofacilitateanti-racistfoodjusticetrainingsintheirownregions/communities’(GFJI2011:7).DuringtheILFTtraining,participantsengagedin‘farmingactivities(atGrowing Power’sfarmsite)thatexplorehowtobuildajustfoodsystem,identifybarrierstoachievingjusticeandequity,historicalchallengesandcommunitybuilding’(ibid:7).Theyfurther

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discussed‘examplesofinstitutionalandstructuralracismandhowitoperates…,practicalapplicationsoffacilitatingchangeandbecomingachangeagent’,andindividualrolesandprocessesofanti-racismwork,includingstrategiesandactionplans(ibid:7).Ingeneral,GFJIeducationalinitiativesaddresstheintersectionalityofvariousoppressions,includingracism,class,homophobiaandsexism.AttheSeptember2012GrowingPowerConference(upwardof3,000participantsexpected),forinstance,theGFJI(2012)TrackincludestopicssuchasRaceandFood;LGBTQPeopleintheFoodMovement;EnvironmentalInjustice;IndigenousRights:GlobalMovement,SurvivalandCulturalPreservation;OccupytheFoodSystem:Action,OrganizeandProtest;PracticalFoodJusticewithHandsonToolsandActivitiestoTaketoYourCommunity;andCommunityBasedPolicy.

No. 1: Milwaukee

Food production and the recovery of Indigenous knowledge and identity

Formerlyoccupyingsome6millionacresoflandinNewYorkState,theOneidaPeoplenowlivinginWisconsinwere,beforetheyweredispossessedoftheirlands,slashandburnagriculturalists,whorotatedcropsofcorn,squashandbeansthroughswiddenfields,huntedand‘farmed’deer,caughtfishandcollectedwildfoods(Loew2001:100-102).Inthelate1800s,theOneidawereforcedofftheirNewYorklandsbyhostilewhitesettlersandunscrupulouslandspeculators.Intheearly1800s,theymigratedtoGreenBay,WisconsinandpurchasedasmallstripoflandfromtheMenomineeNation,settlingalongtheFoxRivertopracticesedentaryagriculture(OneidaTribe2012a).In1838,theNationwasallotted65,430acres(263km2)ofland,butinafamiliarhistoryofdispossession,by1999,mostofthislandwasinprivatehands(Loew2001).However,by2009,withbuy-backoftraditionallandsbytribalgovernment,theOneidaNationregainedsovereigntyover22,398acres(90km2)oftheiroriginalreservedlands(Griffin2009).Today,thereare16,567

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OneidapeopleinWisconsin,about6,000ofwhomliveonorneartheOneidareservation(WSTI2011).

From1893to1920,Oneidachildren,likemanyotherNativeAmericans,weresubjecttoforcedassimilationpoliciesinIndianboardingschools.Intheseschools(someasfarawayasPennsylvaniaandVirginia),Oneidachildrenwerepunishediftheyspoketheirnativelanguageorpracticedculturalrituals,werecladindrabandproperVictorianeraclothes,hadtheirhaircutshort,wereassignedforeignnames,fedforeignfoods,andtaughtacurriculumcomprisedofhalfacademictrainingandhalfmenial,andoftengruelling,manuallabour(Loew2001).The‘de-culturalising’aimoftheseschools,wherebynativechildrenwereforciblyremovedfromtheirhomestoridthemoftheirIndigenousculture,wassimilartoassimilationistpoliciesacrosstheU.S.,Canada,AustraliaandAotearoaNewZealand(Smith2009).FortheOneidapeople,aculturalrenaissanceofsortsbeganintheRedPowermovementofthe1960sand1970sinurbanMilwaukee(Loew2001).Bythe1980s,theOneidawereamongthefirstIndiantribestosignagamblingagreementwiththeStateofWisconsin,andsubsequentlyopenedathrivingcasino,hotel,restaurantandconventioncentrecomplex.FundsgeneratedweretheninvestedonOneidalandsina‘textbookexample’ofcommunitydevelopmentandculturalrevival:thisincludedlandbuy-backs,establishmentofahealthcareclinic,housing,acourtandpolicesystem,socialwelfareprograms,alibrary,anearlychildhoodprogram,eldercare,highereducationscholarships,atribalschoolsystem,andanintegratedcommunityfoodsystem(Loew2001;OneidaTribe2012b).

AsonestrandofOneidaculturalrevivalandeducation,theOneidaNationelementaryschoolwasestablishedin1994.TogetherwiththeOneidasecondaryschool,theschoolsystemnowenrolsover400students(WSTI2011),andoffersabilingualandbiculturalcurriculumbasedontraditionalOneidaculture,comprisingOneida

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language,music,history,Indigenousknowledgeandcustomarytraditions.Includedinthiseducationistheelementaryschool’sThreeSistersGarden(corn,squash,beans),andmedicinalandherbgardens.Here,childrengrowIndigenousfoods,learnOneidafoodstoriesanddances,harvestcropsandlearntocookandpresentacommunityfeastoftraditionalfoods(Griffin2009;Vasquez2011).Asasecondmajorstrandinrecoveringandpromotingtraditionalculture,since1994,theOneidaNationhasdevelopedthe’OneidaCommunityIntegratedFoodSystems’comprisedofan83acrecertifiedorganicfarm,a40acreappleorchard(4,000trees),acannery,greenhouses,small-scaleaquaponics,afoodpantry,healthcentre,farmersmarket,amuseum,aretailstoresellingtraditionalfoods,andayouthprogram(OneidaTribe2012c).Withinthisfoodsystem,theTsyunhehkw^(‘lifesustenance’)programisa‘culturallyandcommunitybasedagriculturalprogramfortheOneidaNation’whoseaimistoplay‘apivotalroleinthereintroductionofhighquality,organicallygrownfoodsthatwillensureahealthierandmorefulfillinglifefortheOn^yote?aka (Oneida),and(be)thefacilitatorofpositivedietaryandnutritionalchange’(Ibid.).Thethreemajorcomponentsofthesystemareagriculture,thecanneryandretailsales.

JeffMetoxen(2005),managerofTsyunhehkw^,writesaboutthereason why traditional agricultural and food processing are being recovered,adaptedandtaughttocommunitymembersandothers:

ItisourOn^yote?aka(Oneida)CulturalBeliefthatwhenthehumanswerecreated,shukwaya?tisu(Creator)instructedthemthatallthatwasneededforagoodlifewasreadilyavailabletothem.Theywouldwantfornothing;therewaswater,food,medicines–everythingneededtosustainthem.Allthatwasaskedofthehumanswastogatherwhatwasprovidedandgivethanks…Overtime,wefailedtoprovidethisrecognitionandignoredourresponsibilities…theThreeSistersweregoingtoleavethisworldifthepeoplecontinuedinthisway.Thepeoplerecognizedtheyhad failed and began again to honor the Three Sisters in their

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ceremonies…Wecontinuetodayinhonoringallofcreation,andwerecognizetheThreeSistersinourceremonies…AswecarefortheThreeSisters,wecontinuetolearnhowtoaccomplishthis,andsharethatknowledge.CaringfortheWhiteCorngoeshandinhandwithcaringforandrespectingournaturalenvironmentandallthatitprovidesinreturn.ItisourjobtorespectallthattheCreatorhasoffered,andwelookatfoodasthenaturalmedicinesandhealthprovidedforusbytheCreator.

CentraltotheseteachingsistherecoveryofIndigenousknowledgeoftheThreeSisters(corn,squash,beans),andinparticular,therevivalofOneidavarietiesofWhiteCorn,atraditionalprotein-richvarietyofcornattheheartoftheOneidadiet,culture,cosmology,healthandagriculture.TeachingsintheagriculturalcomponentofTsyunhehkw^areofferedtothecommunityinhands-onworkshopsongrowingoforganicheirloomWhiteCorn,creatingaThreeSistersGarden,andgrowingtraditionalherbs,berriesandvegetables.Intherevivaloftraditionalagriculturalknowledge,visitsbacktoOneidarelationslivinginNewYorkandCanadaarealsoimportant(Vasquez2011).Infact,theoriginalWhiteCornseedsnowplantedon-siteinWisconsinwereobtainedfromtheOneidaNationinNewYorkin1992(Metoxen2005).

AnothersourceoftraditionalknowledgeandeducationisTheOneidaMuseum:itexplainsthehistoryofWhiteCorn,theThreeSisters,theGreenCornStory,cycleofceremonies,theThanksgivingAddress,womenandmen’straditionalroles,thelonghouse,andOneidalanguage,music,symbolism,historyandart.Inthefalloftheyear,theannualTsyunhehkw^HarvestandHuskingBeeservesasafurtherpedagogicalsitewhereOneidapeople‘sharetheknowledgeofsnapping,huskingandbraidingourWhiteCorn.WithcommunitysupportthecornishandharvestedandbraidedtodryintheOneidatradition’(p.4).Eldersandhistoricalrecordsareconsultedtolearnmoreabout‘traditionalwaystocareforthecrops,land,andtheanimals’andmuchknowledgeisgainedaswell

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throughtrialanderror(Metoxen2005:4;Vasquez2011).AttheTsyunhehkw^ Cannery,workshopsareregularlypresentedonhowtomakeculturallysignificantWhiteCornfoodslikecornsoup,cornbread,cornmeal,flouranddehydratedcornaswellascanningandpreservationoflocallygrownfruitsandvegetables(OneidaTribe2012d).Finally,educationalaimsofTsyunhehkw^ are put into practiceintheOneidaTsyunhehkwaRetailStore,whichsellsandteachesaboutawiderangeoftraditionalmedicinalherbsandoils,WhiteCornproducts(fromtheCannery),wildriceandherbalteas(OneidaTribe2012e).Inthiseffort,thestorerunsaninteractiveFacebookinformationandadviceblog,holdsanannualopenhouse,andoffersaBrownBaglunchseries,withregularworkshopsonholisticandtraditionalOneidamedicine.

Discussion

Bothofthecommunityinitiativespresentedaboveappeartoberichpedagogicalsitesinthefoodmovement.Eachaimstoconveyaparticularoppositionalknowledge,practice,ideologyandethicoflocal,sustainablefoodproductionandconsumption.Inexaminingtheirpublicpedagogy(i.e.,thedocumentationfoundintheirwebsites,reports,newsletters,blogsandotherpublicmediasuchasvideosandnewsaccounts),itisevidentthatthesesitesprovideaneducationalcurriculumwhichcouldbeusedtofostergrassroots,oppositionaladultlearning–inworkshops,demonstrations,hands-onexperience,culturalrituals,ceremoniesandfeasts,experimentation,andthesharingoflocalandindigenousknowledgeinstoriesandcommunitydialogue.

Thetwocasespresentaneducationalcurriculumwhichisinpartaboutlearning,re-learningandre-valuingtraditionalfoodwork–includinggrowing,preparing,processingandharvestingfood,butalsoeatingfood:asre-envisionedpractices,theseareinfactpedagogical acts. This pedagogy then helps not only to undo the

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legaciesofracism,colonialismanddispossessionandthewhiteness’uponwhichtheUSfoodsystemisbuilt(Slocum2006),butalsotoestablishamorejustsystemoffoodsecurity,culturalidentityandhealthforracialisedgroupssuchtheOneidaandmarginalisedAfricanAmericanurbanyouth.Partoftheintentoforganizingthemanysharedmeals,ritualsandfoodceremoniesinthelifeofTsyunhehkw^ (e.g.theOneidaHarvestandHuskingBee),forexample,istoteachacommonOneidaidentitythroughtheactofpreparingandeatingtraditionalfoods.Thissortoflearning,asitisdescribedbytheOneidaorganizersandpublicdescriptionsofTsyunhehkw^,ispartlyabouttherecoveryoflostknowledgeandculturalpractices,butisalsoaboutembodied,relationalandspirituallearningalongsideothersinthecommunity;itismeansofrevivingcollectiveOneidaidentitythroughfood.

The teaching and learning which takes place through Tsyunhehkw^ mightthusbeunderstoodasadecolonising,politicalactofpopulareducation,inwhichnotonlyculturalrevival,butalsofoodandlandsovereignty,socialjustice,andcriticalplace-basededucationmeetataparticularjunctureofadultlearningthefoodmovement.Theconnectionoffoodandlandasasourceofidentity,sustenanceandcollectivehistoryisparticularlyimportantinthelargerprojectofre-possessingdispossessedterritories,placeandculture.PartofthehistoryofcolonisationofNativeAmericanpeopleswastotakeawaybothnativelandsandthenativefoodswhichflourishedupontheselands.Ascloseasacenturyago,mostAmericanIndianNationsproducedalmostalltheirownfood;todaytheytypicallyproducelessthan20%(HTE2009:19).NativeAmericanreservations,liketheurbaninnercity,areoftenfooddeserts,alongcarridefromthenearestsupermarketsandsourcesofhealthyfood.Partlyasaresultoftheirrelianceonimported,highlyprocessedindustrialfoods,manyNativecommunitiessufferhighratesofdiabetes,heartdiseaseandobesity.Thesediseasesareenduringlegaciesoflanddispossession,de-culturalisationthroughboardingschools,andtheconcomitant

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lossofcultural,agricultural,spiritualandancestralknowledge(LaDuke2005;McGregor2004).InovercomingtheilleffectsofcolonialismthroughTsyunhehkw^,Oneidayouthandadultsmaydiscovertheirhistoryandculture,forexample,intheactofgardeningtheThreeSisters,learningtobraidandhangWhiteCornfordrying,participatinginOneidaritualsandceremoniesofplanting,growthandthanksgiving,orsimplylisteningascommunityeldersrecounttheOneidaCreationStoryorequally,thetraumasandviolenceofboarding schools. This learning in Tsyunhehkw^ clearlyinvolvesmorethanjustculturallearning:itisalsopoliticaleducation,andpotentiallytransformative.

In Growing Power,likeOneida’sTsyunhehkw^,therearenumerouscommunitymealsandeventsaspartofthepublicpedagogy;however,unlike Tsyunhehkw^,thesefarmmealsoftenbringtogetherpeopleofdifferentclass,racialandethnicbackgroundstoprepare,eatandcelebratethefarm’sfood,whichtheyhavecollectivelyhelpedtogrow.Intheraciallyandclass-dividedCityofMilwaukee,thesemealscanrepresentapoliticalact:whenlocalAfricanAmericanpeopleinapoor‘black’neighbourhoodworkalongside,sitdowntoeatameal,andtalktogetherwithmiddleclasspeoplefromthecity’snearby‘white’Eastsideneighbourhood,theprocesscanbetransformativeforboth.Thatis,itmayinvolvearealisationofsharedhumanity,butalsobetterunderstandingsofrelationsofpower,whiteprivilegeanddifferenceacrossrace,classandculture,andperhapsevenpromoteasharedcommitmenttopoliticalactivismforchange.Ontheotherhand,thereisalsothepossibilitythat‘white’peoplediningwith‘black’peoplemaybe(unwittingly)engagingintheculturalpoliticsof‘eatingtheother’,inanactofculturalcommodificationandappropriation(hooks1992).Asbellhooks(1992:21)tellsus,inthisformofcross-culturalconsumption,‘ethnicitybecomesspice,seasoningthatcanlivenupthedulldishthatismainstreamwhiteculture’.Alongtheselines,WisconsinnativeLisaHeldke(2001:78),forexample,writesofher‘adventures’in‘culturalfoodcolonialism’as

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shesampledadiversityoffoodsatthe‘ethnic’restaurantsofChicago,MinneapolisandSt.Paul:‘IwasmotivatedbyadeepdesiretohavecontactwithandsomehowtoownanexperienceofanExoticOthertomakemyselfmoreinteresting’.Thepoliticaleconomyofurbanspace,food,raceandpovertyislikewiseanimportantconsiderationinunderstandingthepotentialforcross-culturallearninginGrowing Power.SharonZukin(2005),forinstance,examineshowahistoryof‘shoppingforethnicity’acrossspatialbarriersofclassandethnicityinNewYorkCityhasledtourbangentrification,forcingAfricanAmerican,Latino,Caribbeanandotherminorityandworkingclassresidentsoutoftheirownneighbourhoods.ThustheveryrevivalofaneighbourhoodthroughtheeffortsoforganizationslikeGrowing Powermightinfactsowtheseedsofitslaterspatialconsumptionbywealthier,‘whiter’outsiders.Howtheseissuesareaddressedinthepublicpedagogyofsocialjusticeandanti-racisminGrowing Power is animportantquestionforfurtherresearch.

Since Growing Power’seducationalpracticesarecentredsymbolicallyandmateriallyonempoweringmarginalisedpeopleofcolour,andnotprimarilyinthe(‘white’)alternativefoodmovement,theyare,however,well-positionedtoaddresstheracistandclassfoundationsoftheU.S.foodsystem,andthelikelihoodoffurther‘colonial’abuse.Tothisend,Growing Power offersacurriculumofsafe,skilled,andproductiveagriculturallabourandeducationforAfricanAmericanandotheryouth,promotesfoodsecurity,sustainabilityandsocialjusticeinthepoor,racialisedcommunitiesinwhichitoperates,anddirectlyaddressessustainability,racismandsocialjusticeinitspublicpedagogy.UnlikemuchofthenorthAmericanfoodmovement,Growing Powerisnotcentredonthenorms,peopleandfoodpracticesofmiddleclass‘whiteness’(Guthman2008;Slocum2006);butinsteadproposeseducationalalternativestothese.Inthis,Growing Power,andaboveall,itsGrowing Food and Justice for AllInitiative,joinothereffortsattestingtothepowerofanti-racisteducativeactivisminthefoodmovement,suchasMo’BettaFoods

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inOakland,California,FoodfromtheHoodinLosAngeles,andJustFoodsinNewYork(Guthman2008:394).Assuch,Growing Power andtheseothersocialjusticeinitiativesappeartoembodyaspaceandpedagogyofhoperatherthanwhite,middleclassprivilegeinthefoodmovement.

Fromthisstudy,itisnotclearhowgenderrolesandrelationsplayoutin the public pedagogy of either Growing Power or Tsyunhehkw^,althoughtheseareimportantquestionsforresearchonpublicpedagogyinthefoodmovement.What,forexample,isgenderdivisionoflabourinthegrowingoffood,theprocessing,preparationandservingoffood,theorganizationalandproductivedecisions,thedistributionofincomeandbenefits?Howmightthesetwocasesofpublicpedagogybeoppressivetowomen,oralternately,asourceofincreasedcapabilitiesandfreedom?Doesareturntotraditionalfoodcropping,harvestandpreparationinTsyunhehkw^meananintensificationofgenderroles,anincreaseinwomen’sworkandadecreaseinpower,forexample?Oristheveryshapeofthisfeministanalysisoffoodworksimplyafurtherexpressionof‘whitestream’Westerncolonialism;amisunderstandingofthemanycomplexanddiverserelationsofgenderinindigenoussocieties,someofwhichholdwomenandtwo-spiritedpeopleinpositionsofgreatreverenceandpower(Grande2004;St.Denis2007)?Thesearealsoexcellentquestions for further research.

Conclusion

ItisevidentfromthisstudythatTsyunhehkw^ and Growing Power act as sites of public pedagogy which disrupt and create educationalalternativestodominantracialisedandclassedideologiesandpracticesintheU.S.foodsystem.Assuch,theycontributetomorecritical,sociallyawareconceptualizationsandpracticesofproduction,distributionandconsumptioninthefoodmovement,asitmovesawayfromitswhite,middleclassfoundationstowardmorebroadlyinclusiveincarnations.Thesepedagogiesarecognizant

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ofhistoricallegaciesofracism,colonialismandclassoppressionandworktoovercomethem.Bycontrast,itisnotclearhowtheytake up an understanding of gender oppression in their educational work.Inbothcases,theimportanceofinformalandtransformativeadultlearningisevidentintheiraims,curriculumandeducationalprocesses.Howandwherethislearningoccursinpractice,andhowitmightbeencouragedbyadulteducators;thatis,howthesesitesmobilisepeopletosocialaction,whoismobilised,andwithwhatresults,isfertilegroundforfurtherresearch,bothintheseandothersitesofpublicpedagogyinthefoodmovement.

Note: ManythankstoanonymousreviewersandtoeditorsRickFlowersandElaineSwanfortheircriticalcommentsandsuggestionsonseveraldraftsofthispaper,particularlyinrelationtotheorisingsexismandracisminthefoodmovement.

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About the author

Pierre Walter is an Associate Professor in the Adult Learning and Education (ALE) graduate program at the University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada. His teaching and research focus on adult learning in community-based ecotourism in Southeast Asia, comparative and international education, and social movement learning in the North American environmental movement.

Contact details

Department of Educational Studies, 2125 Main Mall, Vancouver, BC, V6T 1Z4, Canada.

Email: pierre.walter@ubc.ca