Discourse markers: linkersMíriam Tomàs

Types of linkers• Go to page 11 on your book

and test what you already know about linkers.

Can you think of some of them?

Types of linkersLinkers can introduce:• A result• A reason• A purpose• A contrast

• although / even though / though• as• as a result• because• because of• but• consequently• despite• despite the fact that

• due to• however• in case• in order not to• in order to• in spite of• nevertheless• owing to• since• so

• so (that)• so as not to• so as to• therefore• to• yet

Classify the linkers into result,

reason, purpose and contrast.

Work with the examples provided• Agnes was attracted to the stranger, yet something

in her head was telling her not to get close to him.• In spite of being 85, she still travels all over the

world. / Despite her age… / Despite the fact that she’s 85…

• Flight 341 has been delayed due to / owing to adverse weather conditions.

• I did a language course to / in order to / so as to improve my English.

• I have a job interview next week, so I’ve bought myself a suit!

• Etc.

Figure out the rules for the linkers. Find out if:

• they are followed by a noun, a clause, a gerund, an infinitive etc.

• they are used in the beginning of a sentence, etc.

• if they are followed by a comma.

• if they are formal or informal.

Now let's find out!

result1. I have a job interview next week, so I’ve bought myself a suit!

2. ...

result1. I have a job interview next week, so I’ve bought myself a suit!

2. It had snowed hard all night. As a result, the airport was closed until 11.00 a.m.We regret that you do not have the necessary qualifications and therefore / consequently we are unable to offer you the job.We have therefore / consequently decided not to offer you the job.

1. So is the most common way of introducing a result or a logical connection.

2. As a result, therefore and consequently are more formal than so. They are used at the beginning of a sentence or before a main verb.

result

• Sales have increased over the last three months. So / Therefore we will be taking on five new employees.

Choose the better option according to register.

result

• Sales have increased over the last three months. So / Therefore we will be taking on five new employees.

Choose the better option according to register.

Therefore is more formal.

result

• The organization has severe financial problems, and so / consequently half the staff have been laid off.

Choose the better option according to register.

result

• The organization has severe financial problems, and so / consequently half the staff have been laid off.

Choose the better option according to register.

reason1. I have stopped writing to her,

because / as / since she never answers me.

• Etc.

reason

1. I have stopped writing to her, because / as / since she never answers me.Why did your boss resign? Because her wife was ill.

2. The plane was late because of the fog.Flight 341 has been delayed due to / owing to adverse weather conditions.The politician decided to resign owing to having been involved in corruption cases.

As and since are often used at the beginning of a sentence. Since is more formal.We use because (not as or since) to answer a Why…? question.

reason

1. I have stopped writing to her, because / as / since she never answers me.Why did your boss resign? Because her wife was ill.

2. The plane was late because of the fog.Flight 341 has been delayed due to / owing to adverse weather conditions.The politician decided to resign owing to having been involved in corruption cases.

Because of, due to and owing to are followed by

a noun, a gerund or the fact that + clause.

reason

• The plane was delayed because of it was too windy.

Right or wrong?

reason

• The plane was delayed because of it was too windy.• The plane was delayed because of the strong wind.

Right or wrong?

reason

• It has been announced that the last match of the season has been cancelled due to the severe weather.

Right or wrong?

reason

• It has been announced that the last match of the season has been cancelled due to the severe weather.

Right or wrong?

reason

• I’ve been off work for the last three days owing to this nasty cough I’ve got.

Right or wrong?

reason

• I’ve been off work for the last three days owing to this nasty cough I’ve got.• I’ve been off work for the last three days because of this nasty cough I’ve got.

Right or wrong?

purpose

1. I did a language course to / in order to / so as to improve my English.

2. Etc.

purpose

1. I did a language course to / in order to / so as to improve my English.

2. She closed the door quietly so as not to / in order not to wake the baby.

3. They moved to London so (that) they could see their grandchildren more often.

4. I’m not going to tell Ann in case she tells everyone else.

purpose

1. I did a language course to / in order to / so as to improve my English.

2. She closed the door quietly so as not to / in order not to wake the baby.

3. They moved to London so (that) they could see their grandchildren more often.

4. I’m not going to tell Ann in case she tells everyone else.

+ infinitive

purpose

1. I did a language course to / in order to / so as to improve my English.

2. She closed the door quietly so as not to / in order not to wake the baby.

3. They moved to London so (that) they could see their grandchildren more often.

4. I’m not going to tell Ann in case she tells everyone else.

+ infinitiveFor negative

purpose

purpose

1. I did a language course to / in order to / so as to improve my English.

2. She closed the door quietly so as not to / in order not to wake the baby.

3. They moved to London so (that) they could see their grandchildren more often.

4. I’m not going to tell Ann in case she tells everyone else.

+ can / could+ will / would

Leave out that in informal English

purpose

1. I did a language course to / in order to / so as to improve my English.

2. She closed the door quietly so as not to / in order not to wake the baby.

3. They moved to London so (that) they could see their grandchildren more often.

4. I’m not going to tell Ann in case she tells everyone else.

+ clauseWhen we do something in

order to be ready for future situations

purpose

• We only use energy-efficient light bulbs. We don’t want to waste electricity. So as

Join the sentences using the bold word(s), making any necessary changes.

purpose

• We only use energy-efficient light bulbs. We don’t want to waste electricity. So as• We only use energy-efficient light

bulbs so as not to waste energy.

Join the sentences using the bold word(s), making any necessary changes.

purpose

• I took the price off the bag. I didn’t want Becky to know how much it had cost. so

Join the sentences using the bold word(s), making any necessary changes.

purpose

• I took the price off the bag. I didn’t want Becky to know how much it had cost. So• I took the price off the bag so that Becky wouldn’t know how much it had cost.

Join the sentences using the bold word(s), making any necessary changes.

purpose

• Keep the receipt for the sweater. Your dad might not like it. In case

Join the sentences using the bold word(s), making any necessary changes.

purpose

• Keep the receipt for the sweater. Your dad might not like it. In case• Keep the receipt for the sweater in case your dad doesn’t like it.

Join the sentences using the bold word(s), making any necessary changes.

contrast

• We enjoyed the concert, but the journey home was a nightmare.• Etc.

contrast

• We enjoyed the concert, but the journey home was a nightmare.

• Agnes was attracted to the stranger, yet something in her head was telling her not to get close to him.

• It’s a really good idea. However, it may be too expensive.

• The moon shone brightly. Nevertheless, it was hard to find our way.

• We enjoyed the film although / even though / though it was long.

• In spite of being 85, she still travels all over the world.

• Despite her age…• Despite the fact that she’s 85…

contrast

• We enjoyed the concert, but the journey home was a nightmare.• Agnes was attracted to the stranger,

yet something in her head was telling her not to get close to him.

But is more common and informal.

Yet is more formal, and literary.

contrast

• It’s a really good idea. However, it may be too expensive.• The moon shone brightly.

Nevertheless, it was hard to find our way. They’re used at the

beginning of a sentence to connect to to the previous

one and are usually followed by a comma.

Nevertheless (or nonetheless) is more formal.

contrast• We enjoyed the film although / even

though / though it was long.• We enjoyed the film. It was long,

though.

Even though is more emphatic than although.

though is more common in informal speech and

can be used at the end of the sentence.

contrast• In spite of being 85, she still travels

all over the world.• Despite her age…• Despite the fact that she’s 85…

After in spite of and despite use a gerund…

… a noun…

…or the fact that + clause.

contrast

• Our seats were a long way from the stage. We enjoyed the play. In spite of• We …

Join the sentences using the bold word(s), making any necessary changes.

contrast

• Our seats were a long way from the stage. We enjoyed the play. In spite• We enjoyed the play in spite of

our seats being a long way from the stage.• We enjoyed the play in spite of the fact that our seats were a long way from the stage.

Join the sentences using the bold word(s), making any necessary changes.

contrast

• Susanna is an only child. She isn’t at all spoilt. Even though• Susanna…

Join the sentences using the bold word(s), making any necessary changes.

contrast

• Susanna is an only child. She isn’t at all spoilt. Even though• Susanna isn’t at all spoilt even though she’s an only child.

Join the sentences using the bold word(s), making any necessary changes.