DiscourseAnalysisinForensicLinguistics:DefamationasaLinguisticMatter

MEANING EXPRESSION

CONTEXT

InterpretationReliesonContext

MEANING EXPRESSION

CONTEXT

InterpretationReliesonContext

CONTEXT

MEANING EXPRESSION

CONTEXT

ExpressionHelpsBalanceContexts

InterpretationReliesonContext

JohnwasonhiswaytoschoollastFridayandwasreallyworriedaboutthemathlesson.

Lastweek,hehadbeenunabletocontroltheclass.

JohnwasonhiswaytoschoollastFridayandwasreallyworriedaboutthemathlesson.

Lastweek,hehadbeenunabletocontroltheclass.

Itwasnotfairforthemathteachertoleavehimincharge.

RobertLeonard,quotedbyJackHitt,NewYorker 7/23/12

“Thereisnolawyer’sParadisewhereallwordshaveafixed,preciselyascertainedmeaning;andwhereifthewriterhasbeencareful,alawyerhavingadocumentreferredtohim,maysitinhischair,inspectthetext,andanswerallquestionswithoutraisinghiseyes.”

J.B.Thayer,APreliminaryTreatiseonEvidenceatCommonLaw (1898),428-29(parSamiJerby, العقدتفسیر Tafsir Al’aqd ‘ContractInterpretation,’121.)

Expressionsgenerallyhavemultiplepossiblemeanings

Expression E 1MeaningA2MeaningB3MeaningCMeaning...Meaning...

• Noclear,preciseboundaryenclosestextmeaning.• Meaningisnotlimitedtothemeaningsofatext’swords.

• Everytextmustbeinterpretedbymovingthemindbetweenthetext,thecontext,andworldknowledge.

Howdoescontext(co-text,multi-modalrepresentation,worldknowledge)interactwithtexttoconveyadefamatoryeffecttoreaders?—evenwheneverysentence,consideredindependently,maybefactuallytrue?Howcantextitselfbemanipulatedtoconveyadefamatoryimpressionwhileclaimingtobetrue?

Defamation,LibelandSlander

Defamation—issuingafalsestatementaboutanotherperson,whichcausesthatpersontosufferharm

Defamation—termbroadlyusedforbothprintedmedium(“libel”)andtransitoryorspokenmedium(“slander”)

PremisesforaLinguist• FLrequiresattentiontocontext(co-text,worldknowledge,multi-modalrepresentation).

• Advocatestelllinguistsonlyselectedfactsaboutacase.

• Expertopinionsaddressonlynarrowquestions--notbasicquestionsofdisputeresolution(orjustice!),whicharetheprerogativeofthefinderoffact.

• Expertsserveasconsultants,notadvocates.• Courts,juries,litigantsdecideoutcomes—notlinguistic(orother)experts.

PremisesforaLinguist• Justoutcomesdon’tfallwithinanexpert’spurview.• Bothdraftingandrebuttinganexpertreportcanadvancemethodsofanalysisandthestatusofthefield,aswellasjustice.

• Rebuttalopinionshelpminimizeeffectsofframingbyadvocatesandshouldnotberegardedaspersonal.

• Bewise:imaginealinguistretainedtorebutyouranalysisandanticipatethecritique.

What’saspeechact?

Anutterance/locutionthatdoes something—compliments,declares—apologizes,swears,congratulates—impeaches,orders,offersajudgment—claims,accuses

ScriptedSpeechActs“Performatives”(J.L.Austin)

• Objection,yourhonor!• Wefindthedefendantnotguilty.• Overruled!• Casedismissed!• Foulball!• Safe!• Out!

Grice’sCooperativePrinciple

“Makeyourconversationalcontributionsuchasisrequired,atthestageatwhichitoccurs,bytheacceptedpurposeordirectionofthetalkexchangeinwhichyouareengaged.”

MaximofCP:Quality

• Betruthful.Sayonlywhatyoubelievetobetrueandhaveevidencefor.

• Speakersareawarethathearersexpectthemtohonorthemaximofquality.

• Thatexpectationiswhatmakeslyingpossible!

MaximofCP:QuantityBeappropriatelyinformative

Culturallydefinedexpectationsthatrelevantinformationwillnotbeconcealed.

InWesterncultures,listenersexpectspeakerstoabidebythismaxim.(Alsoreaders/writers)

Speakersrelyonthefactthathearersbelievethespeakerisactinginaccordancewiththemaxim.(&writers/readers)

Restingonculturallyunderstoodexpectations,theunspokencooperationcreatesconversationalimplicatures.

QuantityBeappropriatelyinformative

“Doyouhaveany children?”“Yes,Ihavetwo sons.”

Conversationalimplicature (suggestion):Ihaveonlytwosons(notthreeorfour)andIdon’thaveanydaughters.

Relevance:Berelevant totheexchangeatthetimeoftheutterance

Withaseeminglyirrelevantutterance,interlocutorstypicallystrivetounderstandhowitmightberelevant

—ajoke?—indicatedispleasurewiththedirectionofthe

talk?—howdoesitfitinwitheverythingelsethatthe

text/speecheventandspeechactareabout?

Manner:Beorderlyandclear!(Avoidambiguityandobscurity)

Do1and2meanthesamething?

1.Theygotmarriedandhadababy.2.Theyhadababyandgotmarried.

Conversationalimplicature (suggestion):Howdoestheorderingoftheclausesreflectorsuggesttheorderingoftheevents.

Manner:Beorderlyandclear!

That’swhy#2seemsoddorunnatural!

1.Hegotsickanddied?2.Hediedandgotsick.

Conversation:contextdependent,reliantoncultural

knowledge,oftenindirect

Virginia:(12:15) Haveyoueatenlunchyet?Steve: Ihavetoteachat12:30…Virginia: Oh,okay!Anothertime,then.

IndirectSpeechActs

Richard: Isthebossin?Ron: Light’sonin’er office.Richard: Oh,okay,thanks!

Characteristicsofindirectspeechacts(ISA)

1. Violateamaximofthecooperativeprinciple(CP)2. Literalmeaning differsfrom intendedmeaning3. HowhearersandreadersidentifyISA:

a)noticeutteranceviolatesa maximofCPb)assumeinterlocutorishonoringCP

4. Whenhearers/readersidentifyanISA,theydecipheritsintendedmeaningwiththehelpofcontextualandworldknowledge.

AGricean Application

AttorneyJamesRagan’sWebsite

OnOctober31,2016,JamesReaganobtaineda$5.96millionjuryverdict,includinganawardof$5millioninpunitivedamages,onbehalfofhisclientDr.SaraSilatone.Thecase,formaliciousprosecution,wasfiledagainstDefendantsAlexHeeandRolandSilatone.ThecasewastriedtothejuryforoverfourweeksandresultedinoneofthebiggestverdictsformaliciousprosecutioninthehistoryofSanAntonioCountyandoneofthelargestverdictsforthe2016year.

Eachstatementistrue

üOnOctober31,2016,JamesRaganobtaineda$5.96millionjuryverdict,includinganawardof$5millioninpunitivedamages,onbehalfofhisclientDr.SaraSilatone.

üThecase,formaliciousprosecution,wasfiledagainstDefendantsAlexHee andRolandSilatone.

üThecasewastriedtothejuryforoverfourweeksandresultedinoneofthebiggestverdictsformaliciousprosecutioninthehistoryofSanAntonioCountyandoneofthelargestverdictsforthe2016year.

In-classactivity

• GroupA1. Wasthejury’sverdictagainstAlexHee?2. Wasthejury’sverdictagainstRoland

Silatone?• GroupB1. DidAlexHee havetopaypunitivedamages?2. DidRolandSilatone havetopaypunitive

damages?

üOnOctober31,2016,JamesRaganobtaineda$5.96millionjuryverdict,includinganawardof$5millioninpunitivedamages,onbehalfofhisclientDr.SaraSilatone.

üThecase,formaliciousprosecution,wasfiledagainstDefendantsAlexHee andRolandSilatone.

üThecasewastriedtothejuryforoverfourweeksandresultedinoneofthebiggestverdictsformaliciousprosecutioninthehistoryofSanAntonioCountyandoneofthelargestverdictsforthe2016year.

1.Wasthejury’sverdictagainstAlexHee andRolandSilatone?2.DidAlexHee andRolandSilatone havetopaypunitivedamages?

ü…JamesRaganobtaineda$5.96millionjuryverdict,includinganawardof$5millioninpunitivedamages,onbehalfofhisclientDr.SaraSilatone.

üThecase,formaliciousprosecution,wasfiledagainstDefendantsAlexHee andRolandSilatone.

üThecasewastriedtothejuryforoverfourweeksandresultedinoneofthebiggestverdictsformaliciousprosecutioninthehistoryofSanAntonioCounty…

1.Wasthejury’sverdictagainstAlexHee andRolandSilatone?2.DidAlexHee andRolandSilatone havetopaypunitivedamages?

ü…JamesRaganobtaineda$5.96millionjuryverdict,includinganawardof$5millioninpunitivedamages,onbehalfofhisclientDr.SaraSilatone.

üThecase,formaliciousprosecution,wasfiledagainstDefendantsAlexHee andRolandSilatone.

üThecasewastriedtothejuryforoverfourweeksandresultedinoneofthebiggestverdictsformaliciousprosecutioninthehistoryofSanAntonioCounty…

1.Wasthejury’sverdictagainstAlexHee?2.Wasthejury’sverdictagainstRolandSilatone?3.DidAlexHee havetopaypunitivedamages?4.DidRolandSilatone havetopaypunitivedamages?

ü…JamesRaganobtaineda$5.96millionjuryverdict,includinganawardof$5millioninpunitivedamages,onbehalfofhisclientDr.SaraSilatone.

üThecase,formaliciousprosecution,wasfiledagainstDefendantsAlexHee andRolandSilatone.

üThecasewastriedtothejuryforoverfourweeksandresultedinoneofthebiggestverdictsformaliciousprosecutioninthehistoryofSanAntonioCounty…

Tabloids

Relyonsensationalstoriesaboutfamouspeople.(Hollywoodstars,televisionpersonalities,politicalfigures)Mesmerizingphotosonfrontpagewithsuggestiveorprovocativeheadlines.Headlinesandphotoscatchtheeyeofshoppersatsupermarketcheck-outcounters.

Tabloids

Headlines,stories,andcall-outsarelinguisticexpressions.Especiallywhencoupledwithothermodes(e.g.,photography)andinterpretedinlightofworldknowledge,tabloidstoriesmayconveyunfavorableimpressionssoharmfulthatthetargetdeemsthearticledefamatory andfilesalawsuit.

In1997MarthaStewartbroughta$10millionlawsuitagainsttheNationalEnquirerforanarticleentitled,“MarthaStewartIsMentallyIll.”

The Enquirer quoted "nationally renowned expert" Dr Leland Heller as calling Martha Stewart

1) a "textbook example [of] borderline personality disorder”

2) with a proclivity for "self-mutilation and suicidal threats.”

Eventually, the tabloid admitted defeat and offered a substantial pay-off to soothe Stewart’s feelingsof “shame, mortification and emotional distress.”

http://www.guardian.co.uk/media/1999/nov/03/tvandradio.g2

Storiesarepowerfulframingdevices!

InAdversarialLegalSettings

Storiestoldfromcompetingpointsofviewwillrepresentdifferenttruths(andmayamounttofalsehood).

Notsurprisingthat,intheU.S.,litigantsonbothsidesretainexpertlinguists—incivilcases(trademark,defamation,contractinterpretation,authorshipanalysis)andcriminalcases(authorship,murder)

ArethaFranklin

PerspectiveforLinguisticsExpert“A”Franklin,59,hasbeenoneofpopmusic’s

mostrespectedvoices,thankstoaslewofhitsdatingfromthe‘60sincludingRespect,NaturalWoman,ChainofFoolsandFreewayofLove.

ShealsoholdstheprestigiousdistinctionofbeingthefirstwomaninductedintotheRockandRollHallofFame,in1987.

PerspectiveforLinguisticsExpert“B”Franklin,59,hasbeenoneofpopmusic’s

mostrespectedvoices,thankstoaslewofhitsdatingfromthe‘60sincludingRespect,NaturalWoman,ChainofFoolsandFreewayofLove.

ShealsoholdstheprestigiousdistinctionofbeingthefirstwomaninductedintotheRockandRollHallofFame,in1987.

Butovertimeherdrinkinghasgottenoutofcontrol,saypals.

WHICHISTHEHEADLINE?

this?

ARETHA FRANKLIN DRINKINGHERSELF INTO THE GRAVE

orthis?

FRIENDS FEAR:

ARETHA FRANKLIN DRINKINGHERSELF INTO THE GRAVE

TheCall-OutsCall-out:

“Gladysisespeciallydevastated-- atherwit’send.”

Text“Gladysisespeciallydevastatedattheextentofherfriend’sdrinkingandshe’satherwit’sendtryingtogethertostop.”

LosAngelesTimesNov.30,2001

Soul singer Aretha Franklin has filed a $50-million lawsuit against American Media Inc., the publisher of the Star tabloid magazine, claiming she was defamed by an article that said she abuses alcohol.

The lawsuit stems from a … story headlined "Aretha Franklin Drinking Herself into the Grave," which said that the Queen of Soul had an alcohol problem that caused her to cancel a host of concert appearances, and posed a threat to her career and health.

Overallconclusionbylinguisticsexpert

TheStar articleconveysaclearandstrongimpressionthatArethaFranklinhasaseriousdrinkingproblem,whichthreatenshercareerandherlife.Themessageisintroduced,framed,andunderscoredinthearticle’sheadlineandarticulatedthroughoutinthecontent.

TherepeateduseofphrasesandexpressionsthatcontributetotheoverallimpressionthatArethaFranklinhasaseriousdrinkingproblemindicatesthatsuchanimpressionwasconveyeddeliberatelyandpurposefully.

Speecheventsandtheirspeechactsarecontextdependent.

Interpretationreliesonculturalknowledge.

Interpretationoftenindirect—butcleartoordinaryhearersandreaders.

Otherspeechevents(genres,registers)andtheirspeechactsalsocontextdependent.

Interpretationreliesonculturalknowledge.

Interpretationoftenindirect—butcleartotheordinaryspeaker.

AnApology?

FeaturesofApologiesandNon-Apologies

ApologyUsesexplicitverbofapologyTakesresponsibilityOffersanaccountOfferstorepairsituationOfferspromiseofforbearanceUsesintensifyingexpressionsExpressesconcernforhearer

Non-apologyFailstoadmitwrongdoingImpliesotherpartythinskinnedBelittlesotherpartyShiftsblame(I’msorryif…)ClaimstobeunawareactionswereinappropriateAppearstoapologizeunderduress

1. QueenofSoulArethaFranklin- who’smadeacareerperformingbreathtakingsongsabouttheaffairsoftheheart– alsoknowsathingortwoaboutnotgettingenoughR-E-S-P-E-C-T.

2. TheGrammy-winningmusiclegend,59,saysourrecentreportthatfriendsareconcernedaboutherdrinkingissimplynottrue.

3. Infact,Arethasaysshedoesn’tevendrinkatall!Shealsosaysshehasnotmissedanyconcertsduetodrinking.

4. Inastatementreleasedbyherrecordcompany,Arista,thesingingsensationsaysshewas“appalledandshocked”tohearoftheaccusationsandexplainsshecanceledoneortwoappearancesoutof50ormorethisyearforlegitimatereasons.

ARETHAWANTSRESPECT

5. Arethaexplainsshewas“extremelydisappointed”thatshecouldn’tsingthenationalanthemforPrinceAlbertofMonacoattheMercedes-BenzPolochallengekickoffinBridgehampton,NewYork,duringthesummer

6. “IhadforgottenIhadapreviouscommitment,”shesays.7. AndonValentine’sDay,she’lltakethestageatMusicHall

CenterforthePerformingArtsinDetroitwitha14-pieceorchestratoshareherincredibletalentandwell-earnedreputationasR&Bnobilitywithherhometownfans.

8. AspokeswomanforthepoloeventsaysAretha’scancellationpresentednoproblembecauseshegavethemplentyofnotice.

9. InOctoberthesoulfuldivamadeheramendstoMonaco’smonarchywhenshewowedthecrowdbytakingtheWaldorf-Astoriaballroomstageforanhourand45minutesduringthePrincessGraceFoundationUSAawardsgalainNewYork.

10. HerbenefitperformanceamonthlaterattheChicagoChildren’sMuseumhelpedraisemorethan$400,000duringtheirlavish“BeaKidAgain”benefitatNavyPier’sGrandBallroominChicago.

11. AndonValentine’sDay,she’lltakethestageatMusicHallCenterforthePerformingArtsinDetroitwitha14-pieceorchestratoshareherincredibletalentandwell-earnedreputationasR&Bnobilitywithherhometownfans.

12. Arethahasbeenoneofpopmusic’smostrespectedvoicesformorethanfourdecades,thankstoaslewofhits,includingRespect,NaturalWoman,ChainofFools,ThinkandFreewayofLove.

13. ShealsoholdstheprestigiousdistinctionofbeingthefirstwomaninductedintotheRockandRollHallofFame,in1987.

BOBMICHALS