Working with the mass media in crisis

David Alexander University College London

Major emergencies and the mass media

• emergency managers cannot afford to ignore the mass media

• mass media culture reflects the dominant political and cultural instutitions which created the media and which continue to influence them.

Impact of disaster Time

Deficit Surplus

Excess of information

Information critical

but lacking

Shortage of information

Types of news in disaster:-

• descriptions of events and situations

• human interest stories - plight of the survivors - heroism of rescuers - fortitude of victims

• political reactions to the disaster

• links to other problems (for example, crime)

• vox populi.

• what the authorities say

Sources of news in a disaster:-

• journalists at the site

• journalists at the nearest centre of government

• press agency reports

• official communiqués.

What do the mass media and the general public want to know?

• what has happened?

• where and when?

• who is or was involved?

• what caused the situation?

• what can be done to put things right?.

• why did it happen?

• how serious is the damage?

• what safety measures are being taken?

• whose fault is it?

• who wil take the responsibility for what happened?

• what should be said to victims, survivors, and people at risk? .

• has anything similar happened in the past?

What do the mass media and the general public want to know?

The mass media in disaster:-

• 24-hour coverage

• they need press conferences and constant supply of information

• they need a point of reference

• they need access to a senior official

• the look for observation points; their approach is invasive.

The "targets" of the mass media:-

• witnesses

• injured people

• survivors

• people in mourning

• "heroes and villains".

News is....

• perishable - its value changes every day

• a kind of "frame of reference" for emergency personnel

• a mirror but also a product of the prevailing social reality

• a mirror of the event, but not of its causes.

The news value of a disaster is determined by:-

• its geographical location

• distance (a nearby or distant event)

• the type of event (disaster agent)

• the difficulty of collecting information

• the context of other news stories that are current at the same time.

• the probable level of interest on the part of viewers, listeners or readers

The importance of the story is determined by:-

• rank in government or other hierarchy

• impact on the nation or on national interests

• impact on a large number of people

• significance for the past and for the future.

Journalists' criteria for choosing or emphasising a news story:-

• level of human interest

• novelty ('fresh' or 'stale')

• equilibrium (story, subject, geography, political aspects)

• quality of the story (actions, rhythm, completeness, clarity).

Some styles of television journalism:-

• sensationalist: reports that "threaten viewers with terrible things"

• factual: reports that "render terrible things manageable"

• didactic: reports that "demystify terrible things"

• philosophical: reports that "mix wisdom with resignation".

The process of communication between the mass media and the general public is

powerful but imprecise.

Negative aspects of the mass media in disasters:-

• reports of disaster tend to be unsustained and unsystematic

• the sense of responsibility is lacking

• prejudice, sensationalism, negligence

• political bias

• errors about the presence of panic and chaos.

• a chronicle of rumour and "myths"

• ethnocentric bias

• information on risk is not given

• the media do not encourage people to reduce their own risks

• discrepancies between reports of disasters at home and abroad

• the media are mainly interested in the short term aftermath of disasters not in the long term.

Negative aspects of the mass media in disasters:-

• lack of objectivity or of neutrality

• every day there has to be new news

• news value of disaster has nothing to do with its seriousness: the probable level of interest on the part of the readers/ viewers/listeners is more important

• officials and the public do not have much faith in the ability of journalists to report disasters responsibly and accurately.

Negative aspects of the mass media in disasters:-

The example of a flood affecting a city....

• the opposition newspaper reports that the government have failed to manage the situation (but offer no evidence)

• the pro-government newspaper derides the recovery plan proposed (but never tested) by the opposition party

• foreign mass media are not interested in the plight of victims and survivors

• domestic mass media concentrare exclusively on political and human interest aspects of the disaster.

Limitations of disaster reporting:-

• visits by journalists to the disaster area tend to be short and hasty

• journalists may not understand local language, culture and customs

• news may be filtered by the perceptions of people who are interviewed and of the journalists themselves

• reality is distorted to the angle which seems most interesting to, readers, viewers or listeners.

• headlines must be different every day

• publicising a disaster may contribute to the "convergence reaction"

• negative reports can diminish the credibility of emergency response officials.

Limitations of disaster reporting:-

Some "myths" propagated by journalists:-

• collapse of the social order, prevalence of panic and disorderly flight

• psychological dependency of survivors

• competition for resources

• looting

The mass media love to portray disasters as unpredictable, abnormal events that happen abruptly and without warning.

Positive aspects of the media in disaster:-

• most journalists want to report with accuracy and objectivity

• they are usually happy to collaborate with the authorities and help give out good information to people who need it

• they can be made to see their own role in disaster management.

Journalists can be convinced to....

• report information on the seriousness, extent, diration and effects of disaster

• document the progress of rescue and recovery operations

• help educate the public to help prepare them for future disasters

It helps to create a pool of accredited journalists.

Understanding the mass media....

• radio needs information very quickly

• television needs a strong visual impact and a sense of immiediacy

• newspapers need a deeper understanding of the situation and appropriate graphic material.

Science and the mass media:-

• scientists supply information that is "hard", accurate and objective

• this information can be useful to the public when it is interpreted in the right way

• scientific information reduces the incidence of rumour, exaggeration and bad management

• use of scientific information needs development of mutual understanding between journalists and scientists.

But....

• disagreement between scientists can have a negative effect on reporting

• journalists may try to dramatise science to make it seem more interesting

• journalists are not always able to distinguish real scientists from charlatans

• interruptions by journalists can interfere with scientists' work.

Mutual antipathy

or collaborative relationship?

Representatives of the mass

media

Editorial independence and freedom

Sales and ratings;

reputation; revenue from advertising

Emergency and disaster managers

Obligation to inform the public

Public information centres; warnings

and alerts; informing the

relatives of victims

In a crisis the public will need:-

• essential details of the incident (where, when, who, how, etc.)

PRACTICAL ASPECTS

• to know the possible effects on public health and safety

• advice on how to react and what measures to take

• to be reassured.

• a well-designed system to receive information rapidly from civil authorities, emergency services and other organisations

• immediate telephone contact with the appropriate authorities

• a vantage point at the incident site.

PRACTICAL ASPECTS

In a crisis the mass media will need:-

Vantage point at an incident.

In a crisis the public will want to know:

• practical details, such as effects on transportation, what precautions to take, etc.

• a number to call for information and confirmation

• the official version of events, supplied by a spokesperson.

PRACTICAL ASPECTS

Emergency managers

Special groups

Vulnerable groups

Journalists Pool of

accredited journalists

Involving the public and the mass media:-

Civil protection services

General public Mass media

Field exercises

Publicity campaigns

Interviews and information

Volunteer groups

Civil protection press office

Information flux

A model of mass media response to disasters (Scanlon and Aldred 1982)

• when the mass media hear about an incident, the immediately try to obtain information and send journalists

• the media use their own archives to enrich their articles and reports

• information collected by the media is shared between one channel and another

• the media seek to put the news into their own model of events.

• the media want press conferences in order to record official declarations about the situation

• the different media behave differently: radio, newspapers, television

• there may be differences between local and foreign media, which form a separate group

• local resources (communications, transport and accommodation, will be used by the mass media.

A model of mass media response

• the mass media work in cycles, with highs in the dramatic moments and lows when there is not much to report

• in a major disasters journalists share the information that they collect

• however information has been collected, the media will not publish it if it is considered to be harmful

• the media will obey official requests to suppress certain information.

A model of mass media response

Diffusion of information

Perceptual filter

Cultural filter

Emergency not decoded

Emergency decoded

Ignorance

Images of reality

Symbolic constructions

Enlightenment

Conclusions

• in disasters information is a primary resource for all participants

• the information technology revolution is being followed by a revolution in how information is distributed and verified

• the great challenge is to find common values between journalists, professionals and the general public.

Information - caveat emptor!

• free flow of information in networks can lead to the flow of wrong information; quantity increases - quality diminishes

• the abstract nature of modern communication increases the risk of serious misunderstanding

• emphasis is changing from managing crises to managing reputations during crisis situations.

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