Post on 25-Dec-2015
Developing Academic Skills for Writing across the
Curriculum
Jan FrodesenUniversity of California, Santa Barbara
English Language Learner/Basic Skills ColloquiumSanta Monica College
May 6, 2011
ESL/Basic Skills and WAC What are the some of the principles of Writing
across the Curriculum (WAC)? What are the expectations of faculty regarding
their students’ preparation for college level work?
How well are students meeting these expectations?
What are the foundations of college level writing?
How can ESL/Basic Skills writing instructors help students develop their abilities to write in multiple contexts for multiple audiences and purposes?
Principles of WAC
Writing is a tool for learning Synthesizing, analyzing, applying
knowledge Students need to practice conventions
of academic disciplines Writing instruction is ongoing,
throughout students’ education Writing is the responsibility of the entire
academic community (Source: WAC Clearinghouse, Colo. State University)
California Higher Education: Language Competencies
Academic Literacy: A Statement of Competencies Expected of Students Entering California's Public Colleges and Universities (2002)Intersegmental Committee of the Academic Senates of the California Community Colleges, the California State University, and the University of California.
ICAS Academic Literacy
Reports on a survey of CCC, CSU and UC faculty about reading/writing expectations and student assessment 62% taught disciplinary courses 38% taught FYC courses
ICAS faculty survey
Faculty in all 3 segments agreed that in the process of writing, students should: discover and learn new ideas generate ideas for writing by using texts,
past experience, observations revise to improve focus, support and
organization edit to eliminate errors in grammar and
mechanics
ICAS faculty survey
All elements of academic literacy are expected of entering freshmen across all academic disciplines reading writing listening speaking critical thinking use of technology habits of mind
Faculty assessment of students’ preparation Mismatch between preparation and
needed abilities Students are best prepared to write
personal essays informal responses short answer essay questions* brief summaries of readings
* The only frequently assigned task of these four
Faculty assessment of students’ preparation
Only about one-third of students sufficiently prepared for two most frequently assigned writing tasks: analyzing information or arguments synthesizing information from several sources
83% of faculty note that students’ “lack of analytical reading skills contributes to students’ lack of success in courses.”
ICAS Habits of mind essential for college success Among the habits of mind listed are
these: sustain and express intellectual
curiosity experiment with new ideas generate hypotheses synthesize multiple ideas into a
theory
ICAS Habits of mind
identify and use rhetorics of argumentation and interrogation in different disciplines, for different purposes, and for diverse audiences
prepare and ask provocative questions
challenge their beliefs postpone judgment and tolerate
ambiguity
ICAS Habits of mind
sustain and support arguments with evidence
respect facts and information in situations where feelings and intuition often prevail
(For other habits of mind and comparisons with CA Language Standards and CERT Standards, see ICAS Academic Literacy, p. 38)
Foundations of College-level Writing
Framework for Success in Postsecondary Writing (2011)
Developed byCouncil of Writing Program
AdministratorsNational Council of Teachers of EnglishNational Writing Project
WPA Framework: Habits of Mind
Curiosity – the desire to know more about the world.
Openness – the willingness to consider new ways of being and thinking in the world.
Engagement – a sense of investment and involvement in learning.
Creativity – the ability to use novel approaches for generating, investigating, and representing ideas.
WPA Framework: Habits of mind
Persistence – the ability to sustain interest in and attention to short- and long-term projects.
Responsibility – the ability to take ownership of one’s actions and understand the consequences of those actions for oneself and others.
Flexibility – the ability to adapt to situations, expectations, or demands.
Metacognition – the ability to reflect on one’s own thinking as well as on the individual and cultural processes used to structure knowledge.
WPA Framework: Reading/writing experiences Rhetorical knowledge – the ability to
analyze and act on understandings of audiences, purposes, and contexts in creating and comprehending texts
Critical thinking – the ability to analyze a situation or text and make thoughtful decisions based on that analysis through writing, reading, and research;
Writing processes – multiple strategies to approach and undertake writing and research
WPA Framework: Reading/writing experiences Knowledge of conventions – the formal rules
and informal guidelines that define what is considered to be correct and appropriate, or incorrect and inappropriate, in a piece of writing
Abilities to compose in multiple environments – using everything from traditional pen and paper to electronic technologies.
(Framework for Success in Postsecondary Writing, Council of
Writing Program Administrators, 2011 <http://wpacouncil. org/framework>)
Current trends in first year composition (FYC) Analysis of rhetorical situation (in reading and
writing) Teaching for transfer/writing-about-writing;
metalinguistic knowledge about writing/ rhetoric
Writing across the curriculum & genre awareness
Multiple literacies and new media Public writing (for real audiences) Collaborative writing/tasks (Ferris, 2011, TESOL Conference)
Developing skills in multiple literacies So back to the last of the questions I
raised, which could be elaborated as follows: Given the varied and complex reading
and writing demands across the curriculum for even first-year college students, how can ESL and Basic Skills writing teachers/classes support their academic literacy development?
Developing WAC proficiency
Teaching students to “read like writers” Acknowledge reading for content first Show students how to ask questions
about the texts they read in your classes and others (including their own papers)
Genres and “macrostructures” Organizational features Grammar and vocabulary
Reading like a writer: Genre types Essay Critique Case study Lab report Book review Methodology,
recount
(Adapted from Gardner, 2010 in Schmitt, 2011)
Research report Problem-solution Literature survey Narrative recount Design specs
Reading like a writer: Genre features
What is the main purpose of this text? What is the context of the piece of writing?
Who is the intended audience?What expectations does the
intended audience have of this kind of text?
Reading like a writer
Organizational features What are the main parts of the text? Are
they explicitly signaled with headings? Where is the thesis or controlling idea of
the text? Why does the writer start each new
paragraph? How long, on average, are the paragraphs?
Reading like a writer
Organizational features: Language What transition words (e.g., first, in
addition, thus, however) are used and where are they located (At the beginning of the sentence? Somewhere in the middle?)
What words or phrases are used to emphasize the key ideas?
Reading like a writer
Organizational features: Language What types of reference words (e.g. this
solution, such problems, these protocols) are used to create links between parts of the text?
What classifier words (e.g., analysis, drawbacks, improvements, objections, reasons) are used to summarize ideas?
Reading like a writer
Other language features Does the writer use a formal or informal
style? What vocabulary or grammar structures characterize this style?
Consider sentence length. Why has the writer used long sentences? (What ideas connect to earlier ones? Which ideas are subordinated to other ideas in the sentence?) If there are especially short sentences, what purpose do they serve? (e.g., to emphasize a point, introduce a new idea)
Reading like a writer
Other language features, continued How are verb tenses used in different
parts of a paper, such as a research report?
When is the passive voice used and for what reasons (e.g., to put focus on a topic)
Reading like a writer
Other language features, continued What modal verbs (may, might, could,
etc.) does the writer use to qualify or “hedge” claims?
What prepositions are used after particular verbs? (e.g., control for, communicate with, prevent from)
Suggestions for “reading like a writer” tasks
Select texts that are used for your paper assignments
Choose features that are dominant in the text (e.g. good examples of connecting words and phrases, use of modal verbs or quantifiers such as many, most to qualify statements)
Provide a handout/display of questions for students to answer
Limit the task time and questions for effective focus
Demonstrating habits of mind
Linda Adler-Kassner’s UCSB Writing 2LK: “Historical Literacy and Writing Choices”
“As you sit in History 17B, you might think you’re just learning about some important elements of American history. But in fact, especially through the writing and reading in the course, you’re also being introduced to the ways that historians work”
One writing strategy goal of Writing 2LK: Critical reflection: Analyzing the ways in which you conduct analyses of writing and reading: Considering how, where, and why you make choices in writing that you do.
Demonstrating habits of mind
Excerpts from a freshman Writing 2LK paper: “In order to write this paper it is crucial to
understand that literacy practices are not universal. Within different disciplines there are specific expectations…”
“With Professor X’s teaching in mind, I aimed to create a thesis that answered the prompt as directly as possible. This proved to be problem for me. My thesis went too in depth and failed to effectively illustrate my argument.”
Developing rhetorical skills
Rhetorical strategies: Students need multiple opportunities for instruction and practice in areas such as the following: Interpreting writing assignments Using sources appropriately and
effectively Topic development strategies: summarizing, comparing, defining,
describing, evaluating, etc.
Rhetorical skills: Interpreting writing assignments Understanding the purpose and
audience for an assignment Interpreting the directives (e.g., verbs
that instruct what the student should do: analyze, describe, discuss, explain, justify)
Understanding what is required for evidence to support a thesis
Rhetorical skills: Using sources appropriately
Prompt used by UCSB CLAS tutorial center for writing workshop:History 4B:
How did medieval kings inspire loyalty? Use two of the following primary source texts on which to base your answer: The Song of Roland; “Magna Carta;” The Life of Saint Louis.
Rhetorical skills: Using sources appropriately
The thesis for a paper is not to be found in the sources; it derives from the sources.
Prompts often take understanding source content for granted
For the History 4B prompt, students need to look for patterns, tensions
contradictions in the sources-Jeff Landeck UCSB CLAS tutor
Rhetorical skills: Using sources appropriately
Questions to ask for developing a thesis from sources: What kinds of “conversations” about the
topic are going on in the source texts? What did you (the student) learn from
these conversations? (from Margi Wald, UC Berkeley)
Developing language skills
Needed for all writing across disciplines Awareness of formal and informal
register differences Academic vocabulary development Paraphrasing skills: Vocabulary and
grammar Creating connections between ideas
(cohesion): reference words, logical connectors, classifier words
Informal register Text examples from PBS Digital Nation transcript
These young teenagers on the phones and on the computers. Like when I was growing up, it wasn’t like that.
So it really hit me one night not that long ago… And I don’t know it just kind of snuck up on us.
The point is to be our most creative selves, not to distract ourselves to death.
He’s pretty confident that his multitasking is successful.
There’s always gains and losses. But [these students] have done themselves a
disservice by drinking the Kool-Aid and believing that a multilearning environment will best serve their purposes.
(Frodesen, 2011)
Informal register: Sample tasks
Using a text that has informal vocabulary/grammar: Underline examples of informal register; ask
students to: 1) delete words that don’t need to be there (e.g., filler words like, just); 2) provide more academic words or phrases for others.
Ask students to identify fragments and expand them (Choose ones that can be reasonably expanded)
Look at conversational vs. stylistic repetition in writing
Ask students to find more examples of informal words, phrases and grammatical structures
Assign students to look up informal expressions on the internet for homework (e.g., “drinking the Kool-Aid) and give brief reports on their meanings.
Academic vocabulary: What you need to ‘know’ about a word Nation’s list: collocation, derivatives/word
forms, connotation, grammatical environment Researchers are quite interested about the
relationship between socio-economic class and educational success. (Longman)
It is important to recognition this relationship. (Longman)
For my interview project, I interrogated four students, two US-born immigrants and two born abroad. (Longman)
The high cost of tuition dwindled the student’s savings. (Longman, COCA).
(Source: Wald, 2011)
Academic vocabulary: Summarizing
Identifying organizer classifier words for summary: What is the author doing at various points in
providing examples or details?
Do they represent reasons, advantages, problems, solutions, clarifications, objections etc.?
These classifier words help to organize the larger chunks of a text, including the text as a whole
Classifier words that organize texts (typically general academic words) may often be used to summarize what the author does:
Storch points out a number of problems with our current textbook purchase system.
Expressing causal relationships
Fossil fuels are harmful to our environment because they increase global warming and they are not renewable.
Fossil fuels are harmful to our environment, so scientists are working to find and develop alternative energy sources.
Eventually, supplies of fossil fuels will be depleted. Therefore, scientists are working to find and develop alternative energy sources.
Expressing causal relationships
There is much debate surrounding the use of nuclear energy. Nuclear power plants emit relatively low amounts of carbon dioxide (CO2). Given the low emissions of green house gases, the creation of nuclear power contributes very little to global warming, unlike fossil fuels, whose emissions are seen as responsible for climate change. Also, one power plant can generate a substantial amount electrical energy. With such high yield, nuclear energy is considered efficient and profitable.
However, any people reject nuclear energy as an option because of safety concerns. First, nuclear waste can be extremely dangerous and must be carefully stored over many years, resulting in high costs. Also, accidents in nuclear power plants can lead to serious consequences for human and natural life. In light of these potentially devastating outcomes, many people question the viability of nuclear energy as an alternative to fossil fuels.
(Sample based on Flowerdew, 1998; Gillett, 2009; Schleppegrell, 2004)
Developing vocabulary: Sample tasks Task 1
In each list below are four verbs that express a causal relationship. One word’s meaning differs significantly from the other three. Circle the word whose meaning is significantly different.
1. (a) provoke (b) deter (c) slow (d) suppress2. (a) enable (b) induce (c) inhibit (d) promote3. (a) block (b) create (c) evoke (d) generate
Developing vocabulary: Sample tasks Task 2 The right column of the chart that follows lists verbs that
can help a writer introduce causes or sources. Many academic verbs tend to collocate (go together) with specific subjects. In the left column are some of the most frequent nouns (or types of nouns) that come before the verb, according to the Corpus of Contemporary American English.
Answer the following questions:Which verb tends to be used with nouns that hold positive meanings? Which verbs tend to be used with nouns that hold negative meanings?
Developing vocabulary: Sample tasks Nouns Verb
(+ Preposition)
problems, issues, difficulties, conflicts, complications
(a)rise from
deaths, success, differences, an increase, growth, effects, behavior, disorders
be attributed to
pleasure, benefits, income, satisfaction, value(s)
derive from
Developing vocabulary: Sample tasks
Task 3
In using reason/result verbs, you need to pay attention to the grammar of the verbs. Some verbs cannot be followed directly by a noun object: they need a preposition after them. Fill in the blanks in the following sentences by adding the correct prepositions.
1. Online music theft has played a big role ____current changes to copyright laws.
2. The mudslides were blamed ____ the destruction of more than a dozen homes.
3. His severe headache interfered ____ his ability to do well on the exam.
Connecting ideas: Reference and classifiersReference Form Noun Phrase Examples
this this critical issue
that that outdated notion
these these two competing hypotheses
those those earlier considerations
such such unjust accusations
the + noun phrase
the first topic that was discussed
another another important question
other/the other other significant factors/ the other concern
Creating connections:Classifier words
activity concept effect increase process situation
analysis conclusion effort issue program solution
approach concern evidence limitation project strategy
assumption criticism example method purpose suggestion
attitude decline explanation objective question system
behavior difference factor observation reaction technique
belief difficulty finding occurrence reason tendency
change disparity goal phase requirement topic
choice distinction idea possibility result trend
claim drawback illustration problem scenario view
Developing language skills
In sum… To develop language skills for academic
writing, students benefit from focused noticing activities followed by production tasks.
Vocabulary and grammar often interact in patterned ways; knowing words means knowing their collocations and grammatical environments
There are a number of online resources to help teachers in designing activities.
COCA: Sample expanded entry
Source information: Publication information Summer2010, Vol. 130 Issue 4, p616-631, 16p Title: College Distance Education Courses: Evaluating Benefits And Costs
From Institutional, Faculty And Students' Perspectives. Author Lei, Simon A.1 Govra, Rajeev K.1 Source: Education
Expanded context: The growth of web-based distance education has been unprecedented over the past decade and shows little or no signs of slowing down. In particular, the web-based courses appear to be an ideal platform to support higher levels of learning and knowledge construction due to its hypertext environment that has unbounded access to diverse information resources (Kanuka, 2002). Communication between students and instructors, as well as among students (peers) should always be improving. Each student needs to be identified as a separate individual; learning styles should be acknowledged and respected.
References and Resources Davis, M. Corpus of Contemporary English (COCA)
http://www.americancorpus.org/ Digital Nation transcript, PBS
http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/digitalnation Ferris, D. (2011). Expectations and challenges for L2 students
in undergraduate writing programs. Presented at International TESOL Convention, March 18, New Orleans, LA.
Framework for Success in Secondary Writing.(2011). Council of Writing Program Administrators. http//wpacouncil.org/framework.
Frodesen (2011) Everywhere you go, there they are: Mining grammar and vocabulary in source materials for academic writing tasks. Presented at International TESOL Convention, March 18, New Orleans, LA.
Gardner, S. (2010). Methodologies for mapping genre families. Paper presented at the 37th International Systemic Functional Linguistics Congress July 2010, UBC Vancouver Canada.
References and Resources Intersegmental Committee of the Academic Senates. (2002).
Academic literacy: A statement of competencies expected of students entering California’s public colleges and universities. Sacramento: Academic Senate for California Community Colleges.
Michigan Corpus of Upper-Level Student Papers (MICUSP). http://micusp.elicorpora.info/
Schmitt, D. (2011). Real-world academic writing. Paper presented at TESOL Annual Convention, March 18, New Orleans, LA.
Wald, M. (2011). Second language writers meet first-year composition. Presented at CATESOL State Conference, April 9, Long Beach, CA.
WAC Clearinghouse. Colorado State University. http://wac.colostate.edu/
Writing Center. University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill. http://www.unc.edu/depts/wcweb/