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Descriptive Grammarof English
Part 1:Phonetics
and Phonology
dr Iwona Kokorniak
(with contribution from dr Jarosław Weckwerth)
20th December 2008
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Allophones: Examples to consider
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Allophones: Examples to consider
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Allophones: Examples to consider
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Allophones: Examples to consider
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Allophones: Examples to consider
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Allophones: Examples to consider
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Allophones: Examples to consider
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Allophonic processes
Different allophones of the same phonemeUsually within the word, but also across word boundaries
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Casual speech (fast speech) processes
= phonostylistic processesSpeakers tend to make their pronunciation easier and fasterOn the phonostylistic levelThis involves the change of phonemesDifferent phonemes as a result Not just different realizations of phonemes (=allophones)
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Casual speech processes
AssimilationPlace of articulation(Manner of articulation)(Voicing)
ElisionLiasion
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Surprises of connected speech: Polish
grat /græt/ grad /græd/
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Surprises of connected speech: Polish
t b
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Surprises of connected speech: Polish
t b
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Surprises of connected speech: Polish
t b
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Surprises of connected speech: Polish
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Assimilation
A phoneme may be realised differently as a result of being close to some other phoneme belonging to a neighbouring word
Principle the same as in coarticulationBut results in phonemic change
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Assimilation
In Polish, mainly voicing assimilation
From right to left – regressive assimilation
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Regressive assimilation
regressive/ anticipatory assimilation - if Cf (consonant final) becomes more like Ci (consonant initial) then we have to do with progressive assimilation;The influence comes from Ci: Cf │< Ci
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Progressive assimilation
progressive/ perserverative – if Ci (consonant initial) becomes more like Cf (consonant final) then we have to do with progressive assimilation; influence comes from Cf │>Ci
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Assimilation
We distinguish assimilation of:
place of articulationmanner of articulationvoicing
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Assimilation: Polish
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English assimilation
Huge problem: English doesn’t have much voicing assimilation
It prefers place assimilation
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Polish English
t b
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Polish English
t b
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Polish English
t b
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Polish English
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Polish English
NO!
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English assimilation
t b
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English assimilation
t b
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English assimilation
t b
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English assimilation
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t k
English assimilation
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t k
English assimilation
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t k
English assimilation
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English assimilation
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d b
English assimilation
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d b
English assimilation
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d b
English assimilation
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English assimilation
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English assimilation
d g
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English assimilation
d g
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English assimilation
d g
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English assimilation
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English assimilation
d m
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English assimilation
d m
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English assimilation
d m
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English assimilation
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English assimilation
n b
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English assimilation
n b
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English assimilation
n b
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English assimilation
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English assimilation
Regressive = anticipatory (right to left)
Voicing and manner don’t change, only the place of articulation does
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English assimilation
Alveolar plosive and nasal sounds (t d n)
Change their place of articulation
To that of the following sound – velar or bilabial
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English assimilation
/t/ > /p/ before /p, b, m/e.g.:
that personsat boldlyfat mouse
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English assimilation
/t/ > /k/ before /k, g/e.g.:fat kingsmart girl
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English assimilation
/d/ > /b/ before /p, b, m/e.g.: bad personbad boybad mother
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English assimilation
/d/ > /g/ before /k, g/e.g.: bad king bad girl
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English assimilation
/n/ > /m/ before /p, b, m/e.g.: sun bed sun protector sun movement
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English assimilation
/n/ > /ŋ/ before /k, g/e.g.:run quicklyrun gracefully
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Danger
Different from Polish!
Polish changes voicing
English tolerates voiced + voiceless clusters
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Polish English
s b
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Polish English
s b
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Polish English
s b
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Polish English
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Polish English
NO!
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English assimilation
s b
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English assimilation
Nothing to do hereWhy?
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This is why
Is there a bilabial fricative in English?No.There’s nothing that the /s/ sound could change to here
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English assimilation: fricatives
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English assimilation: fricatives
Alveolar fricatives /s z/ can change only to post-alveolar fricatives/s z/ >/ʃ ʒ/But no change in voicing!!!/s/ > /∫/ before /∫, t∫, d, j//z/ > /ʒ/ before /∫, t∫, d, j/
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English assimilation: fricatives
/s/ > /∫/ before /∫, t∫, d , j /E.g. this church
/z/ > /ʒ/ before /∫, t∫, d ,j/ E.g. these churches
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English assimilation: fricatives
It is an optional process in connected speech
More frequent in less formal situations
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Coalescence: A special case
would you?
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Coalescence
A radical process of assimilationAlveolar plosive /t d/ or fricative /s z/Followed by /j/1st step: post-alveolar affricate or fricative + /j/2nd step: /j/ disappears
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Coalescent assimilation
Frequent phrases with ‘you’:what you, could you, did you
But may also appear with other cases of /j/:this year, bad Europe, is young, what use, etc.
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Assimilation of manner of art.
Assimilation of mannerOnly in really fast speech
in the
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Assimilation of manner of art.
Usually affects /δ/ in unstressed words
An example of progressive/perserverative assimilation (left to right)
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Assimilation of voicing
Very rare in English
Only for a few fixed phrases
E.g. have to, of course
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Assimilation of voicing
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Elision
Another phonostylistic processSounds are elided = deleted
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Elision = deletion
Consider:
wszystko
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Elision
first cat
bold man
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Elision
Alveolar plosive /t d/ elision
The most frequent
Quite similar to Polish
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Alveolar plosive elision
An alveolar plosive may be deleted
At the end of a syllableAfter a consonant of the same voicing If another consonant follows (but
not /h/)
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Alveolar plosive elision
In other words, elision is common:
a voiceless continuant + /t/ followed by a word with an initial consonant /st, ft, ∫t/ + consonant e.g.: ‘next day’, ‘just one’,
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Alveolar plosive elision
a voiced continuant + /d/ followed by a word with an initial consonant/nd, ld, zd, ðd, vd/ + consonante.g.: ‘bend back’
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Alveolar plosive elision
word final clusters voiceless stop/affricate +/t/: /pt, kt, t∫t/voiced stop/affricate +/d/: /bd, gd/ may lose the final alveolar stop when the following word has an initial consonant, e.g. ‘helped me’, lagged behind’, ‘judged fairly’
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Alveolar plosive elision
sequence /-skt/ /k/ rather than /t/ is often elided e.g.’ risked prison’
>
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Alveolar plosive elision
The only cue to the presence of elided stops in medial position the total duration of closure as there’s the lack of release of the stop
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Danger!
last night
locked door
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Why?
Consider: jabłko
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Elision + assimilation
is wrong!
Why?Polish doesn’t allow voiced + voiceless clustersAs opposed to English
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Elision + assimilation
Therefore,
Elision creates a context for assimilation
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Danger!
Consider:must be
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Danger!
Compare:las był
Mind: this is obligatory in Polish
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Polish English
WRONG!!!
English does not permit this kind of voicing assimilation
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/h/ elision
the loss of /h/ in pronominal weak forms
e.g. ‘him, his’ and other consonantal elisions typical of weak forms
auxiliary ‘have’: could have
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/h/ elision
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Elision of /ə/
weak vowels are dropped in casual speech, especially /ə/initial /ə/ is often elidedparticularly when followed by a continuant and preceded by a word-final consonante.g. ‘not alone’ [not `ləυn], ‘he was annoyed’
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Elision of /ə/
When final /ə/ occurs with following linking /r/ and word initial vowel, /ə/ may be elided, e.g.‘father and son’
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Elision of /ə/
When a weak vowel precedes /w, l, r/ then the vowel is deleted and the next consonant will become syllabic.am
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Connected speech
Assimilation and elision are phonostylistic processesBecause they depend on the style of speakingFormal vs. Informal(Remember: voicing assimilation is obligatory in Polish)
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Connected speech
But there are also other processes in connected speechE.g. linking and intrusive R (examples of liaison)And weak forms
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Rhoticity
Standard British English, Australian, New Zealand etc.are non-rhotic
/r/ pronouncedonly before a vowel
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All varieties
right /raɪt/pride /praɪd/bury /'beri/
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Non-rhotic varieties
car /kɑː/stored /stɔːd/word /wɜːd/
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Liaison – Linking R
British English – a non-rhotic varietyIt retains word-final post-vocalic /r/ as a linking form when the following word begins with a vowel and where ‘r’ occurs in the spellingThus, spelling justification needed for linking /r/
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Linking R
far out /fɑːr aʊt/4-8 /fɔːr eɪt/
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Intrusive RBy analogy to linking R......in non-rhotic varieties only/r/ may be pronounced if
/ɑː ɜː ɔː ə/
are followed by a vowel
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Intrusive R
there is no spelling justification for /r/ to appear
law and order /lɔːr ənd ɔːdə/
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Intrusive R
a spa in the UK /spɑːr ɪn/drawing /drɔːrɪŋ/
the idea is /aɪdɪər ɪz/
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Linking J
In vocalic junctures - where the first word ends in / i: ı eı aı oı/ another word starts with a vowela slight linking / j / may be heard between two vowels, e. g. my arms
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Linking J: Zoom
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Linking J
not sufficient to be equated with phonemic /j/, e.g. ‘my ears’ vs. my years
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Linking W
linking [ w ] may be heard between a final /u: υə aυ/ and a following vowele.g. ’two-eyed’, ’too wide’
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Casual speech processes
AssimilationRegressive vs. ProgressiveOf place of articulation vs. Manner or
art. Vs. voicing
ElisionLiaison