Post on 27-Dec-2015
Geert Hofstede
• Dutch social anthropologist
• Obtained attitude data from IBM worldwide in late 1970s
• Factor analysed and looked for factors which differentiated nationalities
• Data on 50 countries, but only sufficient N for 40 in first book
Geert Hofstede• Originally four main factors
– Masculinity femininity• Ambition and desire to achieve versus social concern
and interpersonal relationships
– Power distance• Amount of power that can be wielded
– Uncertainty avoidance• inflexibility
– Individualism- collectivism• Help and commitment versus high personal achievement
• and later added [in 1990s]– LT-ST orientation [Confucian dynamism]
Geert Hofstede
• Issues:– Study was based in 1970s and many
countries have changed a lot since then- has this affected their orientation?
• Eastern European changes• Some developing countries are now developed• Others have changed politically- e.g. South
Africa
Geert Hofstede
• Issues:– All countries will have changed anyway in
nearly 30 years– Changes in technology and global
communication– Migration of peoples– Are cross-cultural differences still as
pronounced?
Geert Hofstede
• Issues:– This study put cross-cultural differences into the
mainstream rather than “error variance” in other studies
– Encouraged other theorists, e.g. Trompenaars– Recent developments with studies all over the
world have increased considerably the number of countries that have been mapped
Examples of other theories: [a] Trompenaars 7 factors:
• Universalism versus particularism– Work relationships mixed with personal ones
• Individualism versus collectivism• Affective versus neutral culture• Specific versus diffuse relationships
– Distinct relationships versus diffuse ones
• Achieving versus ascribing status– Earned through achievement or recognised e.g. seniority/age
• Perception of time– Sequential [monochronic] or parallel [polychronic]
• Relating to nature
Example [b] GLOBAL project • Assertiveness
• Future orientation
• Gender egalitarianism
• Humane orientation
• Institutional collectivism
• In-group collectivism
• Performance orientation
• Power distance
• Uncertainty avoidance
Two more factors that are interrelated.• Time perception
– Polychronic or cyclical [e.g. southern Europe, China, Japan]
– Monochronic [e.g. northern Europe, US]
• Context– High means that perception of what is said
is taken in context, including NVCs– Low means words are interpreted literally
Other dimensions from indigenous social psychology• China
– Confucian values• Filial piety• Industriousness• Giving and protecting face
– Guanxi• Social networking crucial to business relationships
– Ren ching• Respectful exchange of gifts, favours and obligations
Other dimensions• Japan
– Amae and respect• Reliance and dependence upon indulgent love of an
older person
– Kanban• Concept of whole transcending sum of parts
– Ringi• Upward communications and decision making
– Sacred treasures- • life time employment, seniority, enterprise
unions/families
– Harmony and cooperation [‘wa’]– Gakureki Shakai
• Social system attaching value to education
Other dimensions
• Africa– Cognitive tolerance– Not on seat– Africa time– Indaba [Malawi]– Ubuntu [Malawi]– Tribal loyalty– Power and respect based on experience– Managers ‘right to manage’
Other dimensions
• Several cultures resent ‘intrusiveness’ of western values, western research methods, e.g.– Philippines– Sub-Saharan Africa
Other dimensions
• Latin American countries: emphasis on– Respect– Family– Hierarchy– Honour– Affiliative obedience– Cultural rigidity– Machismo– Sympatia
Other dimensions
• India– Detachment as a coping mechanism,
therefore working hard is unrelated to success or failure
– Ingratiation techniques to advance personal goals within hierarchical collective context
• [similar to parts of western Africa]
Example area1 : Expatriate workers
• Qualities for success hard to define, e.g. Brislin [1981]– Cognitive ability– Task orientation– Tolerant personality– Strength of personality, include self esteem– Relations with others, include empathy– Potential to benefit from cross-cultural experience,
including openness to change
Expatriate worker qualities• Mendenhall and Oddou [1985]
– Self-orientatedness• Self esteem, Self confidence, Mental adjustment
– Other orientatedness• Ability to interact and develop relationships
– Perceptual factors• Empathy, being non-judgemental
– Cultural toughness• Ability to adjust to very different culture
Expatriate training
• Hofstede suggests:– Awareness– Additional knowledge– skills
• Training methods– Cultural assimilators– Cultural analysis systems– Contrast [American] method train in opposites
Expatriation success or failure measures
• Expatriation satisfaction and rate of early returns• Expatriate adaptation and adjustment• Expatriate job performance• Determinants of above include
– Adjustment of spouse and family– Developing specific coping strategies– Accurate understanding of rules, customs, behaviours
and attributions– Being able to tolerate cultural differences with which
Expatriate may totally disagree
Example 2 : Theory Z
• Application of Japanese management principles to American & British businesses
• Long term focus• Zero tolerance• Personal responsibility for self-development• Positive attitudes to seniority• Teamwork rather than individual achievement• Commitment and trust• Quality and pride• Multi-skilling
Example 3: R & S
• Issues include:– Gender inequalities, especially in ‘masculine’
societies [e.g. poorer promotion prospects for women in Japan, France, etc]
– Specific types of favouritism, but not considered nepotism in some cultures, e.g.
• China• India• Sub-Saharan Africa
Example 3: R & S
• Differences in emphasis on methods, e.g.– Assessment Centres and Biodata– Graphology– References
• And in selection criteria– Team member opinions– Same tribal group– Word of mouth