Post on 13-Dec-2014
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04/10/23 1
Control Loop Foundation for
Batch and Continuous Control
GREGORY K MCMILLAN
use pure black and white option for printing copies
04/10/23 2
Presenter
– Greg is a retired Senior Fellow from Solutia Inc. During his 33 year career with Monsanto Company and its spin off Solutia Inc, he specialized in modeling and control. Greg received the ISA “Kermit Fischer Environmental” Award for pH control in 1991, the Control Magazine “Engineer of the Year” Award for the Process Industry in 1994, was inducted into the Control “Process Automation Hall of Fame” in 2001, and honored by InTech Magazine in 2003 as one of the most influential innovators in automation. Greg has written a book a year for the last 20 years whether he needed to or not. About half are humorous (the ones with cartoons and top ten lists). Presently Greg contracts via CDI Process and Industrial as a principal consultant in DeltaV Applied R&D at Emerson Process Management in Austin Texas. For more info visit:
– http://ModelingandControl.com
– http://www.easydeltav.com/controlinsights/index.asp (free E-books)
04/10/23 3
See Chapter 2 for more info on “Setting the Foundation”
Purchase
04/10/23 4
See Chapters 1-7 for the practical considerations of improving tuning and valve dynamics
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04/10/23 5
See Appendix C for background of the unification of tuning methods and loop performance
Purchase
04/10/23 6
See Chapter 1 for the essential aspects of system design for pH applications
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Overview
This presentation covers highlights or low lights of current loop performance and how to improve batch and continuous processes:– Pyramid of Technologies– Valve and Flow Meter Performance– Process Control Improvement Examples– Basic Control Opportunities Summary– Reactors and Column Loop Tuning– Facts of Life – Transfer of Variability for Batch– Sources of Disturbances– Transition from Basic to Advanced Regulatory Control of Batch– Online Data Analytics for Batch and Continuous Processes– Virtual Plant– Uses and Fidelities of Dynamic Process Models– What we Need– Columns and Articles in Control Magazine
04/10/23 8
Basic Process Control System
Loop Performance Monitoring System
Process Performance Monitoring System
Abnormal Situation Management System
Auto Tuning (On-Demand and On-line Adaptive Loop Tuning)
Fuzzy Logic
Property Estimators
Model Predictive Control
Ramper or Pusher
LP/QP
RTO
TS
TS is tactical scheduler, RTO is real time optimizer, LP is linear program, QP is quadratic program
Pyramid of Technologies
APC is in any technology that
integrates process knowledgeFoundation must be large and
solid enough to support upper
levels. Effort and performance
of upper technologies is highly
dependent on the integrity and
scope of the foundation (type
and sensitivity of measurements
and valves and tuning of loops)
The greatest success has been
Achieved when the technology
closed the loop (automatically
corrected the process without
operator intervention)
04/10/23 9
Loops Behaving Badly
1Ei = ------------ Ti Eo
KoKc
where:Ei = integrated error (% seconds)
Eo = open loop error from a load disturbance (%)
Kc = controller gain
Ko = open loop gain (also known as process gain) (%/%)
Ti = controller reset time (seconds)
(open loop means controller is in manual)
A poorly tuned loop will behave as badly as a loop with lousy dynamics (e.g. excessive dead time)!
Tune the loops before, during, and after any process control improvements
You may not want to minimize the integrated
error if the controller output upsets other loops.
For surge tank and column distillate receiver
level loops you want to minimize and maximize
the transfer of variability from level to the
manipulated flow, respectively.
04/10/23 10
Unification of Controller Tuning Settings
max
1*5.0
o
c KK
Where:
Kc = controller gain
Ko = open loop gain (also known as process gain) (%/%)
1 self-regulating process time constant (sec)
max maximum total loop dead time (sec)
All of the major tuning methods (e.g. Ziegler-Nichols ultimate oscillation and reaction curve,
Simplified Internal Model Control, and Lambda) reduce to the following form for the maximum
useable controller gain
04/10/23 11
Definition of Deadband and Stick-Slip
Deadband
Deadband
Stick-Slip
Signal (%)
0
Stroke (%)
Digital positionerwill force valve shut at 0% signal
Pneumatic positionerrequires a negative signal to close valve
The effect of slip is worse than stick, stick is worse than dead band, and dead band is worse than stroking time (except for surge control)
Dead band is 5% - 50%without a positioner !
Stick-slip causes a limit cycle for self-regulating processes. Deadband causes a limit cycle in
level loops and cascade loops with integral (reset) action. If the cycle is small enough it can
get lost in the disturbances, screened out by exception reporting, or attenuated by volumes
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Controller Output (%)Saw Tooth Oscillation
Controlled Flow (kpph)Square Wave Oscillation
Saw Tooth Flow Controller Output Limit Cycle from Stick-Slip
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Manipulated Flow (kpph)Clipped Oscillation
Controller Output (%)Rounded Oscillation
Controlled Level (%)Saw Tooth Oscillation
Rounded Level Controller Output Limit Cycle from Deadband
04/10/23 14
Identification of Stick and Slip in a Closed Loop Response
Time ( Seconds )
Stroke %
53
53.5
54
54.5
55
55.5
56
56.5
57
57.5
58
58.5
59
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800
3.25 Percent Backlash + Stiction
Controller OutputFlow
Dead band ispeak to peakamplitude forsignal reversal
slip
stick
The limit cycle may not be discernable due to frequent disturbances and noise
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Response Time of Various Positioners(small actuators so slewing rate is not limiting)
Response time increase dramatically for steps less than 1%
04/10/23 16
Control Valve Facts of Life
Pneumatic positioners are almost always out of calibration Most tests by valve manufacturers for stick-slip are at 50% with loosely
tightened stem packing to minimize seating, sealing, and packing friction Without a representative position feedback in the control room, it is anybody’s
guess what the valve is doing unless there is a low noise sensitive flow sensor Not all positioners are equal. Pneumatic positioners, especially the spool or
single amplification stage low gain ones will increase the valve response time by an order of magnitude (4 -> 40 sec) for small changes in controller output
All valves look good when checking positions for 0, 25, 75, and 100% signals Valve specs do not generally require that the control valve actually move The tighter the shutoff, the greater the stick-slip for positions less than 20% Smart positioner diagnostics and position read back are lies for actuator shaft
position feedback of rotary type isolation valves posing as throttling valves particularly for pinned rather than splined shaft connections due to twisting of the shaft. Field tests show stick-slip of 85 in actual ball or disc movement despite diagnostics and read back indicating a valve resolution of 0.5%
The official definition of valve rangeability is bogus because it doesn’t take into account stick-slip near the seat. Equal percentage valves with minimal stick-slip (excellent resolution and sensitivity) generally offer the best rangeability
Top Ten Signs of a Valve Problem
(10) The pipe fitters are complaining about trying to fit a 1 inch valve into a 10 inch pipe.
(9) You bought the valve suppliers’ “monthly special.”
(8) A butterfly disc won’t open because the ID of the lined pipe is smaller than the OD of the disc.
(7) The maintenance department personally put the valve on your desk.
(6) A red slide ruler was used to size a green valve. (5) Your latest valve catalog is dated 1976.(4) The maintenance department said they don’t
want a double seat “A” body. (3) The valve was specified to have 0% leakage for all
conditions including all signals.(2) The fluid field in the sizing program was left as
water.(1) The valve is bigger than the pipe.
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Flow Meter Performance
Type Sizes Range Piping Interferences Reproducibility
Coriolis ¼ -8” 100:1 1/1 solids, alignment, vibration 0.1% of rate Magmeter ¼-78” 25:1 5/1 conductivity, electrical noise 0.5% of rate Vortex ½-12” 9:1* 10/5 profile, viscosity, hydraulics 1.0% of span Orifice ¼-78” 4:1 10/5 profile, Reynolds Number 5.0% of span
* - assumes a minimum and maximum velocity of about 1 and 9 fps, respectively
Coriolis flow meters via their accurate density measurement offer
direct concentration measurements for 2 component mixtures and
inferential measurements for complex mixtures.
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Neutralizer Control – “Before”
Static Mixer
AC 1-1
Neutralizer
Feed
Discharge
AT 1-1
FT 1-1
FT 2-1
AC 2-1
AT 2-1 FC
1-2
FT 1-2
2pipe
diameters
ReagentStage 1
ReagentStage 2
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Nonlinearity and Sensitivity of pH
pH
Reagent FlowInfluent Flow
6
8
Good valve resolution or fluid mixing does not look
that much better than poor resolution or mixing due
amplification of X axis (concentration) fluctuations
Reagent ChargeProcess Volume
or
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Neutralizer Control – “After”
Static Mixer
AC 1-1
Neutralizer
Feed
Discharge
AT 1-1
FT 1-1
FT 2-1
AT 2-1
FC 1-2
FT 1-2
ReagentStage 1
ReagentStage 2
FC 2-1
AC 2-1
20pipe
diameters
f(x)
FeedforwardSummer RSP
SignalCharacterizer
*1
*1
*1 - Isolation valve closes when control valve closes
04/10/23 22
Distillation Column Control – “Before”
FC 3-4
FT 3-4
FC 3-3
FT 3-3
LT 3-1
LC 3-1
TE3-2
TC 3-2
LT 3-2
LC 3-2
Distillate Receiver
Column
Overheads
Bottoms
Steam
Feed
Reflux
PC 3-1
PT 3-1
Vent
Storage Tank
Feed Tank
Tray 10
Thermocouple
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Nonlinearity and Sensitivity of Tray Temperature
Tray 10
Tray 6
Distillate FlowFeed Flow
% Impurity
Temperature
OperatingPoint
Measurement Error
Measurement Error
Impurity Errors
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Distillation Column Control – “After”
FC 3-2
FT 3-2
FC 3-4
FT 3-4
FC 3-3
FT 3-3
FC 3-1
FT 3-1
LT 3-1
LC 3-1
TT3-2
TC 3-2
FC 3-5
FT 3-5
LT 3-2
LC 3-2 RSP
RSPRSP
Distillate Receiver
Column
Overheads
Bottoms
Steam
Feed
Reflux
PC 3-1
PT 3-1
Vent
Storage Tank
Feed Tank
Tray 6 f(x)
Signal CharacterizerRTD
FT3-3
FT3-3
Feedforward summer
Feedforward summer
04/10/23 25
When Process Knowledge is Missing in Action
2-Sigma 2-Sigma RCASSet Point
LOCALSet Point
2-Sigma 2-Sigma
Upper LimitPV distribution for original control
PV distribution forimproved control
Extra margin when “war stories” or mythology rules
value
Benefits are not realized until the set point is moved!(may get benefits by better set point based on process knowledge even if variability has not been reduced)
Good engineers can draw straight lines
Great engineers can move straight lines
Top Ten Ways to Impress Your Management with the Trends of a Control System
(10) Make large set point changes that will zip past valve dead band and local nonlinearities
(9) Change the set point to operate on the flat part of the titration curve
(8) Select the tray with minimum process sensitivity for column temperature control
(7) Pick periods when the unit was down(6) Decrease the time span so that just a couple data
points are trended(5) Increase the reporting interval so that just a
couple data points are trended (4) Use really thick line sizes(3) Add huge signal filters(2) Increase the process variable scale span so it is at
least ten times the control region of interest(1) Increase the historian’s data compression so that
most changes are screened out as insignificant
04/10/23 27
Basic Opportunities in Process Control
Decrease stick-slip and improve the sensitivity of the final element (Standard Deviation is the product of stick-slip, valve gain, and process gain)
Use properly tuned smart positioners, short shafts with tight connections, and low friction packing and seating surfaces to decrease valve slip-stick and dead band (do not use isolation valves for throttling valves)
If high friction packing must be used, aggressively tune the smart positioner Improve valve type and sizing and add signal characterization to increase
valve sensitivity Use variable speed drives where appropriate for the best sensitivity
Improve the short and long term reproducibility and reduce the interference and noise in the measurement (Standard Deviation is proportional to reproducibility and noise)
Use magnetic and Coriolis mass flow meters to eliminate sensing lines, improve rangeability, and reduce effect of Reynolds Number and piping
Use smart transmitters to reduce process and ambient effects Use RTDs and digital transmitters to decrease temperature noise and drift
04/10/23 28
Basic Opportunities in Process Control
Reduce loop dead time (Minimum Integrated Error is proportional to the dead time squared)
Decrease valve dead time (stick and dead band) Decrease transport (plug flow volume) and mixing delay (turnover time) Decrease measurement lags (sensor lag, dampening, and filter time) Decrease discrete device delays (scan or update time) Decrease analyzer sample transport and cycle time
Tune the controllers (Integrated Error is inversely proportional to the controller gain and directly proportional to the controller integral time)
Add cascade control (Standard Deviation is proportional to the ratio of the period of the secondary to the process time constant of the primary loop)
Add feed forward control (Standard Deviation is proportional to the root mean square of the measurement, feed forward gain, and timing errors)
Eliminate or slow down disturbances (track down source and speed) Add inline analyzers (probes) and at-line analyzers with automated
sampling since ultimately what you want to control is a composition Optimize set points (based on process knowledge and variability)
To realize the benefit of reduced variability, often need to change a set point
04/10/23 29
Reset Gives Them What They Want
SPPVOut
52 44 ?
TC-101Reactor Temperature
steam valveopens
watervalveopens
50%
Proportional and rate action seethe trajectory visible in a trend! Both would work to open the water valve to prevent overshoot.
Reset action integrates the numeric difference between the PV and SP seen by operator on a loop faceplate Reset works to open the steam valve
Reset won’t open the water valveUntil the error changes sign, PVgoes above the set point. Reset has no sense of direction.
set point (SP)
temperature
time
PV
Should the steam or
water valve be open?
04/10/23 30
Reactor and Column Loop Tuning
Most reactor and column composition, gas pressure, and temperature loops have too much integral action (reset time too small), not enough proportional action (gain too small), and not enough derivative action (rate time too small). Rate time should be 0.1x process time constant or 0.1x reset time with a
minimum value of sensor lag time. Rate action is essential for exothermic reactors that can runaway
Often these loops are “near integrators” due to a large process time constant . Batch processes often have “true integrators” because of a lack of self-regulation (no steady state). Whether “near integrators” or “true integrators”, these loops require much more gain action to impose self-regulation and provide pre-emptive action. There is a window of allowable gains where too low of a controller gain will result in slow rolling oscillations from reset. (controller gain) * (controller reset time) > 4 / (integrating process gain)
04/10/23 31
Modeling and Control Facts of Life
“Timing is Everything” In life, business, and process control (especially feedforward)
“Without Dead Time I would be Out of Job” If the dead time was zero, the only limit to how high you can set the
controller gain or how tight you can control is measurement noise Unlike aerospace, the process industry has large and variable time delays and
time lags from batch cycle times, vessel mixing times, volume residence times, transportation delays, resolution limits, dead band, and measurements
Total dead time is sum of time delays and all time lags smaller than largest Best possible integrated absolute error is proportional to dead time squared
04/10/23 32
Modeling and Control Facts of Life
Models (experimental or theoretical) allow you to take the blindfold off Models convey process knowledge and provide insight on what has changed and
what should be improved (e.g. largest source of dead time) “War stories rule” where there are no models “Mythology rules” where there are no models “Benefits are hearsay” where there are no models
Nonlinearity is a reason to build models rather than avoid models Unless you want job security for constantly retuning controllers. Also, implied in
most techniques is some model (e.g. reaction curve method) Tight control greatly reduces the operating point nonlinearity (e.g. pH) and
secondary flow loops eliminate the valve nonlinearity for higher level loops Signal characterization on the controller output (based on a model of the
installed valve characteristic) greatly reduces the valve nonlinearity
04/10/23 33
Speed of Various Sources of Disturbances(Speed Kills)
Process Flow (fast) Gas pressure (fast) Liquid Pressure (very fast) Raw Materials (slow) Recycle (very slow) Temperature (slow) Catalyst (slow) Steam (fast) Coolant (fast)
Equipment Fouling (slow) Failures (fast)
Environmental Day to Night (slow) Rain Storms and fronts (fast) Season to Season (very slow)
A loop can catch up to a slow
disturbance. Liquid pressure
Is the fastest upset (travels at
the speed of sound in liquid).
04/10/23 34
Speed of Various Sources of Disturbances(Speed Kills)
Valves Stick-slip (fast) Split Range (fast) Failures (very fast)
Measurements Noise (very fast) Reproducibility (fast) Failures (very fast)
Controllers Feedback Tuning (fast) * Feed forward Timing (fast) Interaction (fast) Failures (very fast)
* Most frequent culprit is an oscillating level loop primarily due to excessive reset action
04/10/23 35
Speed of Various Sources of Disturbances(Speed Kills)
Market* Rate changes (fast) Product transitions (fast)
Operators Manual operation (fast) Sweet spots (fast) Inventory control (fast)
Discrete On-off control (very fast) Sequences (fast) Batch operations (fast) Startup and shutdown (very fast) Interlocks (very fast)
*For minimized inventory, changes in market demand can result in
fast production rate changes and product grade or type transitions
04/10/23 36
Batch Control
Reagent
Optimum pH
Optimum Product
Feeds Concentrations
pH
Product
Optimum Reactant
Reactant
Reactant
Variability Transfer from Feeds to pH, and Reactant and Product Concentrations
Most published cases of multivariate statistical process control (MSPC) use the process
variables and this case of variations in process variables induced by sequenced flows.
04/10/23 37
PID Control
Optimum pH
Optimum Product
Feeds Concentrations
pH
Product
Reagent
Reactant
Optimum Reactant
Reactant
Variability Transfer from pH and ReactantConcentration to Feeds
The story is now in the controller outputs
(manipulated flows) yet MSPC still focuses
on the process variables for analysis
04/10/23 38
Optimum pH
Optimum Product
Feeds Concentrations
pH
Product
ReagentOptimum Reactant
Reactant
Reactant
Time Time
Variability Transfer from Product Concentrationto pH, reactant Concentration, and Feeds
Model Predictive Control
Model Predictive Control of product concentration batch profile uses slope for CV which makes the integrating response self-regulating and enables negative besides positive corrections in CV
04/10/23 39
feed A
feed B
coolantmakeup
CAS
ratiocontrol
Example of Basic PID Control
reactor
vent
product
condenser
CTW
PT
PC-1
TT
TT
TC-2
TC-1
FC-1
FT
FT
FC-2
TC-3
RC-1
TT
CAS
cascade control
Conventional Control
04/10/23 40
feed A
feed B
coolantmakeup
CAS
ratio
CAS
Example of Advanced Regulatory Control
reactor
vent
product
maximum productionrate
condenser
CTW
PT
PC-1
TT
TT
TC-2
TC-1
FC-1
FT
FT
FC-2
<
TC-3
RC-1
TT
ZC-1
ZC-2CAS
CAS
CAS
ZC-3 ZC-4<
Override Control
override control
ZC-1, ZC-3, and ZC-4 work to keep their respective
control valves at a max throttle position with good
sensitivity and room for loop to maneuver. ZC-2
will raise TC-1 SP if FC-1 feed rate is maxed out
04/10/23 41
Function Blocks for Online Data Analytics
Function blocks developed to support on-line batch and continuous analytics– PCA Block– PLS Block– Analyzer Block
04/10/23 42
Analyzer Block for Online Data Analytics
History Collection of Lab and Spectral Analyzer Data
Controller
ModuleLab Results
Analyzer Block
Historian Operator Station
Off-line Modeling
OtherData
Processing of Sample Data for Use in Analytics
04/10/23 43
Dynamic Time Warping for Online Batch Data Analytics
Reference trajectory
Trajectory to be synchronized
Synchronized trajectory
04/10/23 44
Advanced Control Modules
Process Models(first principal
and experimental)
Virtual Plant
Laptop or Desktopor Control System Station
Virtual Plant Setup
This is where I hang out
04/10/23 45
Virtual Plant Integration
Dynamic Process Model
OnlineData Analytics
Model PredictiveControl
Loop MonitoringAnd Tuning
DCS batch and loopconfiguration, displays,
and historian
Virtual PlantLaptop or DesktopPersonal Computer
OrDCS Application
Station or Controller
Embedded Advanced Control Tools
EmbeddedModeling Tools
Process Knowledge
04/10/23 46
Typical Uses and Fidelities of Process Models(Fidelity Scale 0 - 10)
Process Development Media or reactant optimization and identification of kinetics on the bench top - 10 Optimization of process conditions in pilot plant - 9 Agitation and mass transfer rates - 8* Process scale-up – 8* - assumes computational fluid dynamics (CFD) program provides necessary inputs
Process Design Innovative reactor designs or single use bioreactors (SUB) - 7 Vessel, feed, and jacket system size and performance - 6
Automation Design Real Time Optimization (RTO) - 7 Model Predictive Control (MPC) - 6 Controller tuning (PID) - 5 Control strategy development and prototyping - 4 Batch sequence (e.g. timing of feed schedules and set point shifts) – 3
04/10/23 47
Typical Uses and Fidelities of Process Models (Fidelity Scale 0 - 10)
Online Diagnostics Root cause analysis - 5 Data analytics development and prototyping - 4
Operator Training Systems Developing and maintaining troubleshooting skills - 4 Understanding process relationships - 3 Gaining familiarity with interface and functionality of automation system - 2
Configuration Checkout Verifying configuration meets functional specification - 2 Verifying configuration has no incorrect or missing I/O, loops, or devices - 1
04/10/23 48
Loops that are not islands of automation Unit operation control for integrated objectives, performance, and diagnostics High speed local control of pressure with ROUT, CAS, and RCAS signals
Engineer with process, configuration, control, measurement, and valve skills Virtual plants with increasing Fidelity (3 -> 7 chemical, 3->10 biological)
Product development, process design, real time optimization, advanced control prototyping and justification, process control improvement, diagnostics, training
Smart wireless integrated process and operations graphics Online process, loop, and advanced control metrics for plants, trains, and shifts
Yield, on-stream time, production rate, utility cost, raw material cost, maintenance cost* Variability, average % of max speed (Lambda), % time process variable or output is at
limits, % time in highest mode, % deadband, % resolution, number of oscillations Process control improvement (PCI) benefits ($ of revenue and costs)
3-D, XY, future trajectories of process and performance metrics response, data analytics, worm plots, and trends of automatically selected correlated variables
Coriolis flow meters, RTDs, and online and at-line analyzers everywhere Real time analysis via probes or automated low maintenance sample systems Automated time stamped entry of lab results into data historian Online material, energy, and component balances
Control valves with < 0.25% resolution and < 0.5% dead band
What Do We Need?
04/10/23 49
Key Points
Tune the loops Use digital positioners and throttle valves to get resolution better than 0.5% Use Coriolis and Magmeters to get accuracy better than 0.5% of rate Tune the loops Add cascade and feed forward control for disturbances Model the process to dispel myths and build on process knowledge Improve the set points Add composition control Reduce the size and speed of disturbances Transfer variability from most important process outputs Add online data analytics (multivariate statistical process control) Add online metrics to spur competition, and to adjust, verify, and justify controls
04/10/23 50
Control Magazine Columns and Articles
“Control Talk” column 2002-2008 “Has Your Control Valve Responded Lately?” 2003 “Advanced Control Smorgasbord” 2004 “Fed-Batch Reactor Temperature Control” 2005 “A Fine Time to Break Away from Old Valve Problems” 2005 “Virtual Plant Reality” 2005 “Full Throttle Batch and Startup Responses” 2006 “Virtual Control of Real pH” 2007 “Unlocking the Secret Profiles of Batch Reactors” 2008