Post on 29-Aug-2020
MCM research
Conflict & Violence in Pubs:Design Issues
Copyright ©MCM research Limited 1992
27/28 St. Clements, Oxford. OX4 1AB
Te: (01865) 204211 Fax: (01865) 793137
Contents
Section 1 Using this report .............................................................2
Section 2 Introduction ....................................................................3
Summary 2 .....................................................................5
Section 3 Basic concepts ................................................................6
Summary 3 .....................................................................8
Section 4 Expectations and discomfort...........................................9
Summary 4 ...................................................................12
Section 5 Frustration ....................................................................13
Summary 5 ...................................................................14
Section 6 Atmosphere ..................................................................15
Summary 6 ...................................................................16
Section 7 Lighting ........................................................................17
Summary 7 ...................................................................18
Section 8 Colour and complexity .................................................19
Physiological effects.....................................................19
Visual complexity.........................................................19
Summary 8 ...................................................................21
Section 9 Psychological characteristics of colours........................22
Red ...............................................................................22
Pink ..............................................................................23
Orange ..........................................................................23
Yellow..........................................................................24
Green ............................................................................24
Blue ..............................................................................24
Purple ...........................................................................24
Grey..............................................................................24
Black ............................................................................24
Summary 9 ...................................................................25
Section 10 Interactions ...................................................................26
Summary 10 .................................................................28
Section 11 Lay-out .........................................................................29
Monitoring and open-plan designs................................29
Flow patterns ................................................................30
Pool tables ....................................................................30
Relative heights ............................................................30
Summary 11 .................................................................32
Section 12 Concluding summary....................................................34
MCM Research 1
Conflict & Violence in Pubs: Design Issues
Section 1
Using this report Any discussion of design and its effects on behaviour must,
necessarily, involve the use of some technical terms and concepts.
We have attempted to minimise the use of such terms and to give
explanations where their use is unavoidable. For some purposes,
however, readers may wish to skip the more theoretical treatments
and focus solely on the practical implications for pub design. For this
purpose we have included non-technical summaries at the end of each
section and a final summary at the end of the report. These may also
serve as handy references when considering refurbishment of specific
houses or where there is a perceived need to alter a pub’s design in
order to reduce existing levels of conflict and violence.
MCM Research 2
Conflict & Violence in Pubs: Design Issues Using this report
Section 2
Introduction Problems of conflict, aggression and violence in pubs will not be
eradicated through improved design and lay-out. It is unreasonable to
suppose that any measures, however drastic, will put an end to the
timeless macho rituals, arguments and occasional fights which have
been associated with drinking ever since the first taverns and
ale-houses opened their doors to thirsty customers. Equally, however,
it would be absurd to suggest that the design of a pub has no
influence on the mood and behaviour of people who spend time in it.
We are all deeply affected by the environments in which we live and
work, and also by those in which we spend our leisure.
Our research suggests that between 15% and 20% of all aggression
and violence in pubs can be directly attributed to factors such as:
� problems of surveillance due to inappropriate lay-out
� frustration caused by restricted flow patterns
� overly energetic decor - complexity and colour schemes
� inappropriate lighting
� discomfort due to noise, heat, furnishings etc.
In some pubs, the influence of these factors is very much above the
average, contributing strongly to levels of conflict and violence. In
other pubs, however, design features seem to have little or no effect
on the conduct of customers. Even so, the resolution of such faults is
likely to result in decreases in conflict across the range of pubs and,
more importantly, produce very significant changes in particular
houses.
It is clear, however, that design effects interact with such factors as
management skills and style, service standards, customer profile etc.
An experienced and effective manager may be able to overcome
potential problems arising from faulty design because of the skills he
employs. A less effective manager may not be as sensitive to such
issues and, as a result, experience recurring difficulties with
aggressive customers. A much more substantial decrease in levels of
violence and aggression, therefore, will be achieved if attention to
design is coupled with measures aimed at improving manager
selection and training and reducing other factors which might
contribute to higher levels of aggression.
Because design effects interact with other variables, it is clear that
there can never be a single ‘formula’ which can be applied to all
pubs. In particular, the trading style and customer profile of a given
pub will dictate the range of design criteria which should be
employed and the psychological issues which are most relevant to
consider. The issue is further complicated by the fact that even within
a narrow customer profile (defined in terms of age, socio-economic
class, lifestyle etc.) there will be considerable differences in
individual responses to features in the built environment. People
MCM Research 3
Conflict & Violence in Pubs: Design Issues Introduction
differ in their tolerance of frustration and in their reactions to noise
levels, lighting, colour schemes and overall activity levels. They also
vary in terms of their proneness to mood changes and aggressive
responses irrespective of immediate situational influences.
The complexity of the relationship between design and aggression
has prompted, in recent years, a tendency for architects and designers
to ‘play safe’. This is particularly noticeable in the use of colour in
pub refurbishment schemes. Deep red colours are largely excluded,
for sound, psychological reasons, but are often replaced with schemes
lacking intensity and saturation of any hues at all. Such ‘solutions’
reduce the potential for over-arousal of customers but introduce the
distinct possibility of under-arousal and psychological dissatisfaction
in some people. Similarly, the response to problems of surveillance
and monitoring of behaviour has often been to remove walls and
partitions and create one-bar environments. While such arrangements
allow the manager and his staff to detect potentially troublesome
behaviours at an early stage, they introduce the risk of behavioural
contagion and run counter to the desire of customers for a sense of
physical and social enclosure.
This report aims to establish a set of basic design criteria for
minimising the risks of aggression arising from environmental and
situational sources. It considers the risks implicit in certain types of
design modification and aims to establish the most appropriate point
of balance between often competing requirements and influences.
The report also aims to identify the most appropriate ways of
tailoring the environment according to the types of activity and
clientele for which it caters. The major conclusions are drawn from
existing psychological theory and research and from our own
fieldwork.
Summary 2 Between 15% and 20% of violence in pubs may be attributable to a
range of design factors.
The impact of design on violence varies from pub to pub. It might be
quite irrelevant in some but of much more significance in others.
Design problems might only become apparent after a change of
management. Experienced and effective managers can often
overcome design problems while for less effective managers these
additional problems lead to a lack of coping.
There is no single design formula which can be applied to all pubs.
While there are certain principles which need to be considered in all
cases, the trading style, typical clientele, location and basic physical
features of the pub will dictate different treatments.
“Playing safe”, in design terms, is not always a satisfactory solution.
By removing all the features which have the potential, in some
circumstances, to increase aggressive feelings, we may end up with
MCM Research 4
Conflict & Violence in Pubs: Design Issues Introduction
interiors which are so bland and unappealing that nobody wants to
spend any time in them.
This report identifies the critical design issues which are relevant to
new developments, refurbishment schemes and ‘trouble-shooting’ in
pubs which have recurring problems of conflict and violence.
MCM Research 5
Conflict & Violence in Pubs: Design Issues Introduction
Section 3
Basic concepts For pub design, or any other environmental factor, to have an effect
on a person’s psychological state or behaviour, it must first be
perceived and interpreted. In other words, a particular meaning must
be given to the signals which an individual receives from his or her
situation. This process of interpretation is largely unconscious, but we
are able to act as social persons only by virtue of our ability to render
meaningful the contexts in which we find ourselves. Walk into any
pub and immediately you sense an ‘atmosphere’ of the place - the
kind of people who use it, the patterns of behaviour and social
interaction which you expect to take place inside -even if the pub is
empty. Such initial impressions, of course, are not always accurate,
but we find it very difficult to be at ease in any environment without
at least some basic understanding of where we are and what to
expect.
This process of interpreting the surroundings is the only way in which
the built environment can have any effect at all. It is even a necessary
stage when certain features directly effect our physiological reactions.
The colour red, for example, is known to increase levels of arousal in
people. As we note in the section Colour and complexity in this
report, blood pressure rises, respiration rates increase and this, in turn,
creates the conditions for changes in psychological states and mood.
This increased arousal, however, can have very different effects. In
some circumstances it can produce aggressive feelings, while in
others it can lead to increased sexual urges (which is why most
brothels are decorated in red).
The relationship between the environment and behaviour is
summarised, rather crudely, in Figure 1.
This basic approach warns us against some of the more simplistic
assumptions concerning environmental effects. Take, for example,
theories which relate to the effects of density and crowding on human
behaviour. Some writers suggest that overcrowding leads to increased
aggression, hostility, mental disturbance and numerous other negative
effects. In some circumstances this, indeed, might be the case. But it
depends on how we interpret the overcrowding. If we see it as
unavoidable and unwelcome, we will react negatively. In some
situations, however, we positively enjoy the sensation of crowding -
MCM Research 6
Conflict & Violence in Pubs: Design Issues Basic concepts
Figure 1.
Signals �Physical features of theenvironment, decor,colour etc.
Perception �Recognition andattribution of meaningto physical features
BehaviourResponses tomeanings attached tophysical features
such as at a football game or a New Year’s Eve celebration. Even on
public transport we are prepared to suspend our claims to personal
space without any seriously deleterious effects.
Noise levels can similarly be interpreted in different ways. When
trying to conduct an intimate conversation, loud music can be
intrusive and produce intense irritation. In the context of a disco,
however, the same level of sound might be seen as feeble and lacking
in excitement.
MCM Research 7
Conflict & Violence in Pubs: Design Issues Basic concepts
Summary 3 Be wary of very simplistic ideas about the links between design
features and violent behaviour. The relationship is often indirect.
Physical features do not, in themselves, cause aggression - it depends
on how people perceive and react to them.
Some people may get very aggressive in highly stimulating rooms or
as a reaction to loud noise levels. Others, however, may feel quite
comfortable in such environments. Some people can show aggression
if they expect a stimulating environment but find it totally lacking in
excitement.
All design considerations must take into account the intended or
projected customer profile and the various expectations which those
customers will have.
MCM Research 8
Conflict & Violence in Pubs: Design Issues Basic concepts
Section 4
Expectations anddiscomfort
The significance and meaning attached to any feature in the
environment will vary according to the expectations which
individuals have about a given situation. For example, consider a
particular pub which is known to be very crowded on weekend
evenings. Because customers have prior knowledge about the
crowding they are more likely to tolerate the lack of space, slow
service, smoky atmosphere etc. than if they were in an environment
where the problems were not anticipated. Indeed, it is clear that in
many city-centre pubs around the country the ‘packed’ effect is what
draws other customers in.
Problems arise when customers anticipate one kind of atmosphere in
a pub but are confronted by something which is quite different. It is
here that certain design features become quite important. The
messages of the facade of the building are of particular relevance.
The outside of a pub conveys certain information. By looking at the
outside, we create a mental picture and a set of expectations regarding
the interior, service standards, range of products, comfort and
management style. Where the facade signals are consistent with what
customers experience inside, there should be relatively few problems,
even if these experiences are not entirely positive. It is when the
facade leads us to expect, say, a comfortable lounge with a range of
food and ‘up market’ drinks, but the reality is a loud, basic bar with
few amenities, the likelihood of frustrated responses is increased.
Similarly, customers in working clothes might enter a pub with a
relatively scruffy facade and feel uncomfortable when they find plush
upholstery and a ‘yuppie’ style of products and management.
Even more serious problems are likely to result when the signals of
the facade and the interior have an inherent ambiguity. In these cases
there are no clear expectations at all. This can happen when a pub is
really neither one thing nor the other. It may have some very smart
features, but also some very worn and scruffy ones. From a newly
decorated lounge one may visit almost Dickensian lavatories. Antique
beams and similar decorative features may be accompanied by loud
music systems, video displays and a lack of products most usually
associated with ‘olde worlde’ pubs.
The need, then, is for a consistent set of signals within a pub and in
terms of the relationship between the exterior and the interior. This,
in turn, suggests that piecemeal refurbishment schemes, which upset
this consistency, may be significantly counter-productive. Indeed, in
some cases, it might be best to do nothing at all rather than give a pub
a modest facelift.
This conclusion derives not merely from our research in pubs around
the country but also, indirectly, from some basic psychological
MCM Research 9
Conflict & Violence in Pubs: Design Issues Expectations and discomfort
research regarding the effects of unanticipated discomfort on human
behaviour.
Discomfort can be defined in a variety of ways. Psychologists
typically consider factors such as heat and noise, but to these can be
added quality and availability of furnishings, cigarette smoke levels -
even toilet facilities. The research shows that as discomfort increases,
there is a corresponding change of mood in those who experience it.
In a number of cases, these mood changes increase the probability of
aggressive responses. These responses may arise indirectly as a result
of ‘stimulus overload’, (decline in helpfulness toward others or
antipathy to strangers). They can also arise because of triggered
frustration (see next section). However they are mediated, the
aggressive responses are much more likely to occur if the levels of
discomfort are unexpected.
A rather surprising effect occurs, however, when levels of discomfort
rise above the moderate level and become more extreme. From
Figure 2, which shows the theoretical association between discomfort
and aggression, we can see that aggression declines as discomfort
rises towards a maximum.
This can be explained in terms of people feeling powerless to change
their environment in highly uncomfortable conditions and simply
‘giving up’ rather than being aggressive. A customer faced with such
conditions is more likely to leave than to start a fight. Again,
however, it is when the high levels of extreme discomfort are
anticipated that this lack of aggression will be manifest. The
discomfort, for example, may have built up progressively over the
evening and therefore cause little surprise. Alternatively, a pub may
already be known to be a highly uncomfortable pub, but attracts
customers for other social or personal reasons.
Given that moderately uncomfortable conditions appear to cause
more problems of aggression than those which are extremely
uncomfortable, we again see implications for refurbishment policies.
A pub which is in the ‘High’ category poses particular problems for
the designer and the company who do not wish to invest too heavily
in its refurbishment. The temptation is to apply a relatively cheap
‘face-lift’ involving little more than redecoration and renewal of
some furnishings. It is our view, however, that this can often shift a
pub from the ‘High’ discomfort to the ‘Moderate’ discomfort
category, and an increase in aggression is a possible outcome.
Avoidance of aggression is likely to be achieved only by refurbishing
to a standard which brings a pub into the ‘Low’ discomfort category.
MCM Research 10
Conflict & Violence in Pubs: Design Issues Expectations and discomfort
Summary 4 Discomfort can be defined in terms of inadequate or uncomfortable
seating, high noise or heat levels, overcrowding etc.
The relationship between discomfort and aggression, however, is a
little unusual and it depends, to a large extent, on the expectations of
customers. If they anticipate discomfort, they are less likely to
become aggressive than if the discomfort is unexpected.
For this reason it is essential that the outside of the pub gives an
accurate picture of what to expect inside. If the facade suggests a
comfortable, quiet and up-market setting, but the interior is shabby,
noisy and distinctly down-market, customer frustration can be
expected.
In addition to these considerations, aggression is likely to be
experienced not in the most uncomfortable pubs but those which are
in the ‘moderately uncomfortable’ category. Great care must be taken
in refurbishment schemes to prevent pubs which are currently very
uncomfortable becoming just moderately uncomfortable by applying
a low-cost face-lift. Such schemes are likely to result in increased
conflict and violence.
The only safe option in the case of pubs with a very high level of
discomfort is to transform them so that they lie at the opposite end of
the scale and have very little discomfort. Otherwise it would be best
to leave them alone.
MCM Research 11
Conflict & Violence in Pubs: Design Issues Expectations and discomfort
Section 5
Frustration A major theoretical perspective in the psychology of aggression and
violence concerns the role played by frustration. Frustration, in this
context, is defined as interference in goal-directed activity. In other
words, frustration occurs when individuals are prevented from
achieving what they want, or what they expect, because certain
obstacles are placed in their path. The state of frustration does not, in
itself, lead to aggressive responses. Rather, it produces a ‘readiness
for aggression’ which, if triggered by some stimulus or event, can
result in overtly aggressive behaviour.
The triggers of frustration can be seemingly trivial stimuli which, in
the absence of frustration, would arouse little or no hostility.
Numerous experiments have shown that the mere presence of objects
associated with violence, such as weapons, can act as effective
triggers.
In the context of pub violence and aggression, this approach has
considerable relevance. Many sources of frustration can be present in
poor service or inappropriate management style. Equally, high levels
of frustration can derive from design features and aspects of the pub
environment. Lack of seating, jostling caused by poor flow patterns,
inappropriate noise and lighting levels, insufficient bar counter space
etc. can have cumulative effects on levels of frustration among
customers. Potential triggers are equally evident in many pubs.
While abrasive management style may be the most common reason
for frustration turning into aggression, hostile stimuli in the pub
environment may have a similar effect. Aggressive notices, for
example, such as ‘Do not ask for credit as a smack in the mouth often
offends’, may seem trivial and even amusing. To a highly frustrated
customer, they can be like a ‘red rag’ to a bull.
Certain features in the design may also act as ‘reminders’ of violence.
While we do not subscribe to the view, expressed by one
psychologist, that pictures of rural hunting scenes will trigger
frustration because of their aggressive content, other ‘decorative’
components might be more influential. The tendency of some
publicans to keep cudgels or truncheons on display behind the bar,
for example, may be very counter-productive. The use of antique
weapons and militaria as decorative features also gives cause for
some concern.
MCM Research 12
Conflict & Violence in Pubs: Design Issues Frustration
Summary 5 Frustration arises when customers are prevented, in one way or
another, from achieving what they want or what they expect to
obtain. This frustration, if triggered in some way, can , and often
does, result in conflict and violence. Up to 45% of aggressive
incidents in pubs may be due to frustration.
There are many sources of frustration in pubs which are directly
linked to design factors - insufficient bar serving areas, resulting in
delays and jostling; poor lay-out, resulting in physical contact
between customers; inappropriate heat, sound and light levels; poor
quality fittings which are easily damaged, resulting in further damage
to customers’ clothing, spillage of drinks etc.; fittings in lavatories
which are easily vandalised or damaged, resulting in discomfort to
customers; inappropriately sited AWPs, cigarette machines, pool
tables etc., resulting in irritation to seated customers.
Existing sources of frustration can easily be observed if one spends
an evening as a customer in a particular pub. The solutions can often
be simple and cost-effective.
Customer frustration is most often triggered by abrasive management
styles. Other triggers, however, can be simple reminders of violence
which are present in the decor, such as guns, militaria, wooden clubs
etc. Such decor items should be removed wherever possible.
Some of the signs and notices which are displayed by licensees can
also trigger frustration - especially those which are (jokingly)
offensive. All notices in pubs, which convey instructions to
customers, should be professionally produced, clear, polite and
non-aggressive.
MCM Research 13
Conflict & Violence in Pubs: Design Issues Frustration
Section 6
Atmosphere The atmosphere of a pub is a very elusive and unquantifiable
phenomenon. From personal experience, however, it is clear that we
all make assessments of the ‘mood’ or ‘ambience’ of pubs and our
attitudes, moods and behaviour within the pub are strongly influenced
by such judgements. While it is impossible to design-in a specific
atmosphere, it is important to avoid features which might contribute
(indirectly) to aggressive moods and behaviour.
We have noted in the previous section how abrasive signs and notices
can act as triggers of frustration. They can, of course, also contribute
to a more generally aggressive atmosphere – one where belligerent
and violent behaviour is not out of place. The presence of other
aggressive symbols (pictures, objects on display, content of music
and video systems etc.) can also doubly act as triggers and as
negative influences on ambience.
This issue is particularly important because of the psychological
effects of alcohol consumption. Drinking produces a number of
changes, ranging from disinhibition to impaired cognitive
functioning. The behavioural effects, however, (ie. what people
actually do when they have had a few drinks) are strongly related to
situational factors. Among these are signals from the immediate
environment which may or may not be conducive to aggressive
behaviour. When the atmosphere is such that there are feelings of
aggression ‘in the air’, drinking is likely to be associated with
fighting. Where such feelings are absent, the effects of alcohol are
more likely to lead to increased sociability and positive social
behaviour.
Some contributors to the atmosphere are, of course, outside the
control of designers. Perhaps the most significant influence comes
from the style of management within the pub. Even so, reducing
aggressive signals in the design, decor and facilities can have a
significant impact on routine patterns of interaction. In addition to
ensuring that all signs and notices have a polite, professional quality,
there also needs to be a general concern for appropriate lighting,
colours, surfaces, and degrees and styles of ornamentation. These are
discussed in subsequent sections.
MCM Research 14
Conflict & Violence in Pubs: Design Issues Atmosphere
Summary 6 While the ‘atmosphere’ of a pub is often difficult to predict or create
through design every attempt should be made to exclude potentially
hostile or aggressive elements which might negatively influence the
atmosphere.
This is important because the effects of alcohol depend very much on
the general ambience in which it is consumed. The content of music
and video in a pub, for example, can easily alter the moods of
inebriated customers and should, therefore, be carefully selected.
Lighting, colour, reflectivity of surfaces and levels of ornamentation
can also contribute directly to overall atmosphere, and hence to the
behaviour of customers. These are considered in the following
sections.
MCM Research 15
Conflict & Violence in Pubs: Design Issues Atmosphere
Section 7
Lighting Levels and colours of artificial lighting within a pub are central to the
creation of an appropriate atmosphere. Quite simply, agreeable
moods are more likely to be established when people look good. In
some pubs the lighting is such that the faces of customers appear
almost ghostly because of the colours of shades and even the bulbs
themselves. Bright, dazzling lights present in some pubs create
irritation while in other houses we have found lighting levels so low
that it is almost impossible to monitor and control the behaviour of
customers effectively. Strongly tinted lights near the serving areas
can make it very difficult to discriminate between, say old-style 5p
and £1 coins, providing a basis for arguments and disputes.
To create ‘flattering’ lighting, within the normal range of illumination
appropriate to pubs, involves following a simple principle
(Kruithof’s) which many designers, unfortunately, seem to ignore. In
relatively low levels of illumination, normal skin tones and
appearances are created by the addition of light tints ranging from
pink to yellow. With higher levels of illumination the same effect is
achieved using ‘cooler’ colours such as blue. In all cases, however,
the added tints are relatively small and give the effect of ‘normal’
rather than coloured lighting.
This principle, in itself, provides the basis for a ‘friendly’
environment. The mood of the interior can be further enhanced by the
addition of directional lighting. This creates a degree of variation
between light and shade and is important in defining spatial
separation within the pub.
As we note in the section on lay-out, there is a need to break up large,
open areas into smaller units which are more conducive to
small-group social interaction. Directional lighting, which creates
pools of light interspersed with less brightly illuminated areas, can
aid this process very significantly by creating psychological divisions
between areas and the people within them.
A further important aspect of lighting within a pub is the degree of
control which a manager can exercise over it. Effective managers
understand the need to ‘wind down’ customers towards the end of
evening sessions and to provide clear messages regarding closing
time. Manipulation of lighting is often useful in this context. Some
managers dim the lights while others increase the brightness. In either
case, customers are aware that a change is occurring. In all lighting
installations, therefore, it is advisable for sufficient switches and
dimmers to be easily available to managers for this purpose.
MCM Research 16
Conflict & Violence in Pubs: Design Issues Lighting
Summary 7 Lighting in pubs should be designed so that facial colours of
customers appear normal and the light generally flatters their
appearance. If customers think they look good their mood, and
behaviour, should also be good. For this reason strongly tinted lights
should be avoided.
Where relatively low levels of lighting are appropriate to the setting,
light tints ranging from pink to yellow should be used. In settings
with relatively high illumination, slightly cooler, blue tints should be
used.
Lighting around the serving areas should be neutral so that colours of
products, coins etc can easily be judged.
Extremes of lighting, ranging from dingy to dazzling should be
avoided. It is often very useful, however, for a manager to be able to
control light levels to cater for varying customers’ needs, the time of
the evening etc. A bank of dimmers and switches should be provided
for this purpose.
MCM Research 17
Conflict & Violence in Pubs: Design Issues Lighting
Section 8
Colour andcomplexity
When we refer to colour we usually emphasise its particular hue - ie.
the wavelength of light which is reflected from the coloured surface.
Colours, however, differ in two further important ways. Firstly, they
vary in terms of their intensity or weight. In paints, this is directly
related to the amount of pigment which is contained in the clear base.
Secondly, colours vary in terms of their greyness. These sources of
variation are defined in the British Standards codes which apply to
paints and building materials. Two colour patches may contain the
same basic pigment, but look completely different because of
differences in the amounts of pigment and grey content. The
psychological reactions to the patches will also be quite different.
These additional sources of variation in colour lead us to modify our
descriptions of them. We speak of ‘deep’ reds and ‘light’ greens, or
‘dull’ browns and ‘bright’ yellows. Such modifications are important
when considering the psychological impact of decorative schemes.
Physiological effects Many of the psychological effects of colour derive, in part, from the
neurophysiological changes which they produce. The central nervous
system, which consists of the brain and spinal cord, controls all
voluntary human behaviour. This system is kept in a state of varying
levels of readiness, or arousal, by a part of the brain known as the
ascending reticular activating system, or ARAS. External sources of
stimulation give rise to increased activity in the ARAS (phasic
arousal), and information coming from visual signals plays a
significant role in this context. Repeated phasic arousal produces
more gradual changes in the activity of higher brain centres in the
cortex - the part of the brain responsible for interpretation of
incoming information. This is known as tonic arousal and directly
results in changes in emotional state.
Since the 1940s it has been known that different colours produce
different levels of both phasic and tonic arousal. Colours with long
wave-lengths (red) create higher levels of arousal than those with
short wave-lengths (blue / green). Such changes, however, are usually
quite temporary. While exposure to red may, initially, lead to higher
levels of arousal, as measured in terms of brain activity, heart rate,
respiration etc., after prolonged exposure arousal levels may fall to
below normal. This is often due to the lack of complexity in
single-colour environments.
Visual complexity It is possible to describe built environments in terms of where they lie
along a continuum of unity to complexity. At the unity end, we have
settings which lack any variety, and are lacking in stimulation. At the
complexity end are settings which are extremely ‘busy’ and contain
many different elements. These tend to produce high levels of
stimulation and create a sense of uncomfortable distraction.
MCM Research 18
Conflict & Violence in Pubs: Design Issues Colour and complexity
In terms of physiological reactions, the contrast between the
complexity and unity poles is similar to that between red and
blue/green colours. Highly complex environments increase
respiration, blood pressure, heart rate and muscle tension.
Environments which significantly lack complexity produce low
levels of arousal. This under-stimulation, however, can have
deleterious effects on mood and behaviour. While highly complex
settings are often experienced as stressful and aggravating, the
uniform settings can be equally irritating, make concentration
difficult and, in some circumstances, can also generate aggressive
responses. Bare, white rooms, for example, can be as unsettling as
those which contain large amounts of saturated colours and energetic
patterns.
MCM Research 19
Conflict & Violence in Pubs: Design Issues Colour and complexity
Summary 8 Colour can effect behaviour because it produces small changes in the
nervous system. Generally, reds lead to increased activity in the
nervous system and result in higher heart-rate and faster breathing.
Colours at the opposite end of the spectrum, such as green and blue,
have the opposite effect.
Generally, green settings are relaxing while those which contain a lot
of red are ‘arousing’. In some cases this arousal can lead to
aggression. Although we have found higher levels of violence in ‘red’
pubs, the effect is quite small.
In addition to colour in a pub it is also necessary to consider what is
known as the ‘complexity’ of the interior. Where there is a lot of
pattern and variation the effect on customers can be similar to that
produced by red colours. When the interior is simple and contains
little in the way of patterned walls or ornamentation, the effect is
similar to that produced by greens and blues.
There is a need in any design to achieve a balance between colour
and complexity. Refer to the summary at the end of Section 10 for
more detailed design implications.
MCM Research 20
Conflict & Violence in Pubs: Design Issues Colour and complexity
Section 9
Psychologicalcharacteristics of
colours
The points made above should lead us away from the more simplistic
assumptions about the relationships between colour and human
behaviour which have recently been proposed. Nevertheless, it is
possible to outline the major associations which are normally made
with various colours and the differing responses to them which have
been in identified in psychological research. Where responses or
associations vary with the weight or greyness of a particular hue,
these are noted. It is important to understand, however, that the
findings almost always relate to the effect of isolated colours. Much
less is known about the effects of interiors which contain significant
amounts of, for example, both red and blue.
Red Standard reds, with fairly high weights and little grey are usually
perceived as stimulating. Further increases in weight produce a sense
of excitement. Perhaps because of its association with blood, red has
also been associated throughout history with medicine and healing.
(eg. Red Cross, red flannels in Ireland etc.)
In terms of psychological associations, red has both positive and
negative connotations. On the one hand, it is associated with passion,
warmth and sexuality. On the other, it conjures up images of
aggression, violence and bloody death.
Our research has shown that there is a direct correlation between the
dominance of red in pub colour schemes and levels of violence. This
is shown in Figure 3. Here we can see that both fights between
customers and assaults on managers are higher in pubs with red decor
than in those where this colour is largely absent. The interpretation of
this relationship, however, is not without problems. The majority of
the ‘red’ houses were those catering for a predominantly young
clientele - many of them being ‘venue’ or ‘sports’ type units. It is this
population of customers who contribute most to problems of
violence. It is difficult to tell, therefore, if the presence of red would
have a pronounced effect in the absence of that due to customer
profile.
Other data suggest that the effect of red is most pronounced in pubs
which experience ‘medium’ levels of conflict and violence. In pubs
which have either very low or very high levels of violence, the effect
of colour in the decor is totally insignificant. Where the levels of
violence, as indicated by the frequency of fights, are in the ‘monthly’
or ‘weekly’ categories, the effect is much more marked.
Pink Less saturated forms of red, with low grey content, tend towards pink
and evoke very different responses. Here it evokes femininity and
fleshiness and is associated with gentle, tender behaviour. Our own
research suggests that pink is also seen as a ‘clean’ colour - even
more so than pale blue - which is probably why it is most often used
MCM Research 21
Conflict & Violence in Pubs: Design Issues Psychological characteristics of colours
in bathrooms. Some researchers have suggested that pink can have a
calming effect, and the reaction of prisoners in pink cells has been
claimed to be one of reduced aggression. Such effects, however, may
be rather temporary and the colour, on its own, is unlikely to create
passivity over sustained periods of time. The use of pink can,
however, signal certain expectations of behaviour and, indeed, of
expected clientele.
Some of this research is based on the work of Wohlfarth and others,
which is often referred to as ‘Color-Psychodynamics’. Among their
claims is the assertion that a specific type of pink (Baker-Miller pink)
can significantly reduce aggressive feelings and behaviour. The
research, however, is based almost entirely on small-sample studies
in institutions for disturbed or handicapped children in the United
States and on research in penal institutions, holding cells, admissions
rooms etc. There is, as yet, no evidence that the application of
color-psychodynamics to leisure and recreation settings, and to pubs
in particular, is at all appropriate. It is also highly probable that the
use of the particular shade of pink in question would be deemed
questionable on aesthetic grounds. The nearest equivalent colour
which is easily available is Dulux 0040-R20B.
Orange The addition of yellow to red produces various shades of orange.
Such hues retain the invigorating quality of pure reds but, when less
saturated, evoke a sense of cheerfulness. While the hue might often
be rejected on aesthetic grounds, its psychological impact is generally
more positive than red and has few negative associations.
MCM Research 22
Conflict & Violence in Pubs: Design Issues Psychological characteristics of colours
Figure 3.
N per year
Frequency of conflicts in ‘red’ and ‘non-red’ pubs.
14
12
11
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0Attacks on managersFights among male
customers
Dominantly red colours
Dominantly
non-red colours
Yellow The general effect of this hue, when in a fairly saturated and pure
form, is to produce a cheerful setting. It has been associated with
spiritual and religious commitment and communication with others
(which is why, presumably, British Telecom have adopted this
colour, along with most other communications companies).
There is, however, a rather negative side to yellow. Some studies
have suggested that it can be associated with suicidal tendencies. (We
can note, anecdotally, that Van Gogh went through a very yellow
period in his art before killing himself.)
Green Psychologically, this colour produces low levels of stimulation,
leading to peaceful moods. The reason for this is partly to do with the
fact that green light focuses exactly on the retina, rather than just in
front of it or behind it as with other hues. Many studies have shown
that green, even in strongly saturated forms, produces a restful
atmosphere. The fact that theatres and TV studios have ‘green rooms’
and surgeons wear green smocks is in keeping with these findings.
Because of this, green can be used extensively in pub settings without
fear of producing negative effects. However, since green is so restful,
and is often used in environments where sustained concentration is
required, it may not meet the expectations of customers seeking
higher levels of arousal and invigoration.
One small drawback of green is that it if used in any quantity, the
reflected light makes skin tones appear rather unattractive.
Blue Blue shares some of the psychological qualities of green and, in light
forms, produces relaxing settings. In dark shades, however, the effect
can be rather intimidating and oppressive. For this reason such
colours might be avoided in order to create a ‘lighter’ mood in a pub.
Purple This is a very seldom used colour in domestic environments, except
in intimate areas, and is equally rare in public and leisure settings. In
large quantities it can disturb one’s ability to focus and may well
contribute to feelings of frustration.
Grey Recent fashion trends have coupled grey with pink to produce a
‘designer’ feel to the decor. While this might influence customer
profile, grey has little to commend it in terms of psychological
reactions. The general effect of the colour is one of boring neutrality
and innervation.
Black This produces a very odd effect in most environments. It is difficult
to perceive the true physical boundaries of rooms which contain a lot
of black. In general, the colour evokes a sense of dangerous
insecurity and is quite unsuitable for use in pubs.
MCM Research 23
Conflict & Violence in Pubs: Design Issues Psychological characteristics of colours
Summary 9 The psychological characteristics of various colours have been
outlined in this section. Even though colours never act in isolation
from other design features, these may be useful when evaluating
existing colour schemes or when designing new ones.
The section on ‘pink’ also deals with the claims of the so-called
Color-Psychodynamic school. Our view is that the effects claimed for
a particular shade of pink have been exaggerated and that the
background research has been in settings too remote from that of the
pub to have direct implications for pub design.
Because this entire section has been presented in summary form no
further summary is given here.
MCM Research 24
Conflict & Violence in Pubs: Design Issues Psychological characteristics of colours
Section 10
Interactions From the previous sections it is clear that both colour and visual
complexity are instrumental in increasing or decreasing levels of
arousal and that levels of arousal are related (at least indirectly) to the
probability of aggression. If we now consider the interaction of these
two factors we can derive a simple theoretical model which has direct
implications for pub design.
Figure 5. shows visual complexity on the horizontal axis and colour
wavelength on the vertical. Overlaid on these axes are two vectors
which indicate predicted low and high levels of aggression. If we
consider the ‘High aggression’ vector, this includes designs in the top
right quadrant where both high levels of complexity and long
wavelength colours (red) are present. It also includes designs in the
bottom left quadrant where a lack of complexity is coupled with short
wavelength colours (blue, green etc.). In these cases the low levels of
stimulation, as noted before, can have an innervating effect which can
produce irritated and aggressive responses.
The ‘Low aggression’ vector cuts through the two vectors
diametrically opposed to those of the ‘High aggression’ vector. In the
top left quadrant we find designs where the arousing effect of red is
offset by low complexity. Similarly, in the bottom right quadrant the
energising effect of high complexity is tempered by shorter
wavelength colours.
The circle around the origin of the two axes represents a theoretically
neutral region where the effects of colour (mainly browns of various
levels of grey and intensity) and visual complexity will be
insignificant.
This model translates very easily into practical design considerations.
There is, however, a further complication. This is to do with the
surfaces to which colour is applied and the surfaces from which it is
reflected. Designs which include hard finishes such as gloss paints,
metallic and glass surfaces etc. will amplify the arousing nature of
reds and add to visual complexity through reflections. The effects of
complex, red environments, for example, can be mitigated by soft
surfaces and a lack of reflection. Simple, blue interiors, in contrast,
may be made more stimulating by the presence of hard and reflective
surfaces.
MCM Research 25
Conflict & Violence in Pubs: Design Issues Interactions
Summary 10 As noted in Section 8, it is necessary to consider the issue of colour
along with other factors which may increase or decrease levels of
arousal among customers. Very high levels of arousal may lead to
conflicts and aggression. Very low levels of arousal, however, can
lead to a sense of irritation and lack of excitement among customers
which may also contribute to aggression.
To minimise the potential for violence it is necessary to achieve a
balance between three factors: colour, complexity of the decor and
the reflectivity of the surfaces within the pub.
Red colours in conjunction with high levels of pattern and a
predominance of shiny surfaces will generate the highest levels of
stimulation. A lack of strong colour accompanied by simple decor
and non-reflective surfaces will generate the lowest levels of
stimulation.
Where the overall scheme lacks much pattern, or complexity, and
where soft, non-reflective surfaces dominate, red may be used quite
safely. However, where the decor is more complex, or where there
are a number of reflective surfaces, red should be used with caution.
MCM Research 26
Conflict & Violence in Pubs: Design Issues Interactions
Figure 5.
Red
Blue
Unity Complexity
Highaggressionvector
Low aggressionvector
Neutralregion
In such cases it is generally better to opt for colours such as green or
blue, which can safely be used in fairly saturated forms, or for more
muted shades and colours such as beige.
MCM Research 27
Conflict & Violence in Pubs: Design Issues Interactions
Section 11
Lay-out Attention to pub lay-out is critical if conflict and aggression are to be
minimised. Of major concern here is the ability of a manager to
supervise all activity in his pub from one, or a limited number, of
positions. This, in turn, allows him to employ early-intervention
strategies to calm or defuse potentially difficult situations.
Monitoring andopen-plan designs
The traditional two- or three-bar designs of English pubs make such
surveillance difficult. In order to remedy this problem and, perhaps
more directly, to increase trading area, many pubs have been rebuilt
in an open-plan design. Most of these have the bar serving are at one
end or along one wall, but others feature island serving areas. In
many cases, while the problems of surveillance may be at least partly
resolved, other negative consequences are evident. These derive
principally from the lack of separation between groups of customers.
Failure to provide adequate separation within the pub can easily result
in behavioural contagion. A small incident or heated argument in one
part of the pub can easily be witnessed by those in other areas. In this
way both the mood and the behaviours present in the incident can
spread to other customers who are not directly involved.
The aim, therefore, should be to subdivide the open-plan design in
such a way as to achieve psychological separation, even if there is
only token physical division.
One very effective way of doing this is to divide small groups of
tables and/or fixed seating using mesh screens. A typical example
would be a wooden diamond lattice with, say, a 2" mesh or slightly
smaller and up to 7’ in height. These screens provide customers with
a feeling of enclosure. Although it is clearly possible to see through
them, they act as psychological barriers and function as if they were
opaque. The manager can still monitor behaviour through them but
risks of contagion are reduced. More solid partitions may be erected
where the manager is able to see directly into the enclosures from
behind the bar or from his usual position.
Open space can also be psychologically divided using changes of
decor, lighting etc. which communicate different expectations
regarding the use of such space. One part of the pub, for example,
might have brighter colours and lighting, sound system loudspeakers,
AWPs etc., indicating its use for younger customers. Another part of
the same space might have more subdued colours, lower lighting
levels, a lack of loudspeakers and a different style of tables which
indicate its use for quieter social interaction and conversation. In this
way there is likely to be less friction due to the competing interests of
groups and individuals within the pub.
Where subdivision of the open space results in ‘blind’ areas, certain
remedial steps are possible. Decorative mirrors, as opposed to
security devices, are favoured by many managers who learn to make
MCM Research 28
Conflict & Violence in Pubs: Design Issues Lay-out
use of them very effectively. When built into coherent schemes, these
mirrors do not stand out and are generally ignored by customers.
Flow patterns It goes without saying that efforts should be made to minimise
jostling and physical contact between customers in the pub. In many
popular pubs, however, this is unavoidable. Appropriate siting of
toilets, cigarette machines and other amenities can reduce this to a
minimum, but there will always be a crush on Friday and Saturday
evenings if trading is high. Effective managers compensate for this by
removing stools from the bar counter, keeping chairs out of flow
areas and generally being alert to potential problems.
From a design point of view, separation of the open space can also,
again, help to reduce conflict by limiting areas in which jostling can
occur. The partitions help to define, for example, the seating areas
and deter passage through them. In this way, groups of customers can
be isolated from movement in the rest of the pub.
Pool tables An area which requires special attention in this context is that
containing the pool table. In poor designs the table is situated so that
players are regularly interrupted by customers passing by. Since 20%
of all pub violence arises from pool playing, this is clearly highly
undesirable. In the best designs the table is positioned in such a way
that there is no need for customers to pass near the table unless they
are actually playing. Simply re-siting a cigarette machine can
improve matters greatly. When refurbishing and remodelling there is
greater scope to establish an area which is easily supervised and
which has no flow route passing through it. The area can be further
defined using a change in flooring surface, decor and lighting to
reinforce its isolation from the rest of activity in the pub.
Provision should also be made in the design for the fixing of a chalk
board and a notice board. The former can be used to ensure orderly
turn-taking on the table, thus preventing one source of disputes. The
latter should be used to display the rules of the game - an equally
frequent source of arguments.
Relative heights Many modern designs in pubs feature raised or lowered areas which,
in turn, separate and identify the function of the various spaces.
While this might have a number of beneficial consequences, there are
also some potential drawbacks which should be considered. We have
to remember that the majority of pub violence occurs when the
offender has an audience. In many cases, a fight will occur because
one individual wishes to announce to his peers that he is a ‘tough,
macho male’ and can ‘stand up for himself’. Effective managers
understand this and try to reduce the ‘audience effect’ when dealing
with offenders. Raised platforms, however, can sometimes provide a
very useful ‘stage’ for this kind of aggression.
One way of avoiding this is to define the raised spaces as being for
that section of the clientele which is least likely to cause problems.
MCM Research 29
Conflict & Violence in Pubs: Design Issues Lay-out
This, in turn, means deterring young males aged 18-25 from using
them. One might place ‘attractive’ features such as sound systems,
videos, AWPs etc in the lower areas, accompanied by a more
energetic decor. Upper areas might be more softly furnished, admit
only small groups due to fixed seating and table size and have a more
‘restful’ tone. Whatever solutions are attempted it is imperative that
pool tables are not positioned in these raised areas.
Other manipulations of relative heights within the pub can involve
raising the floor behind the bar counter. We have noted
recommendations from elsewhere that the floor should be raised by
four inches in order to facilitate supervision. It is claimed that bar
staff are more able to see waiting customers and deal with them in
their proper turn. While these may be real advantages in some pubs,
there are also some serious drawbacks to such designs. Principally,
the effect can be to make staff look more intimidating and
(metaphorically as well as literally) aloof. This, in turn, is likely to
increase the amount of conflict and negative perceptions on the part
of customers.
Our opinion is that raised floors behind bar counters are rarely
advisable except in certain types of wine bar schemes where the ‘staff
on a pedestal’ feature is part of the whole ‘up-market’ image of the
establishment. The small benefits of raised floors in ‘normal’ pubs,
such as raising the visibility of products on in the rear fittings, are
easily outweighed by the negative impact on staff-customer
interactions.
MCM Research 30
Conflict & Violence in Pubs: Design Issues Lay-out
Summary 11 There is an essential conflict in many pub designs between the need
of the manager to be able to monitor the behaviour of customers on
the one hand and on the other hand the tendency of customers to
prefer a sense of isolation from others in the pub and enclosure of
their social group.
Open-plan designs often meet the needs of the manager in this
context but fail to satisfy customers. Such designs also permit the
‘contagion’ of aggressive behaviour. A small incident becomes
highly visible in these settings and can significantly influence the
mood and subsequent behaviour of other customers elsewhere in the
pub.
Traditional two- or three-bar designs often meet customers wishes
more adequately and also limit the contagion of aggression. They
present, however, problems for the manager who is less able to detect
aggression developing and, therefore, to take early, preventative
action.
Optimal designs include the best features of both the traditional
designs and open-plan arrangements but minimise the potential
drawbacks. Such designs include an open-plan space which is divided
in such a way that groups of customers are visually, or
psychologically, separated but the manager and staff can monitor the
activities of everyone in the pub. The devices used to achieve such
separation can include solid partitions where they do not obstruct the
manager’s view, or trellis or mesh partitions where ‘blind spots’
would otherwise be created. Changes in levels of illumination or
pools of light can also provide illusions of separation and enclosure.
The flow of customers within the pub must be anticipated at the
design stage. Customers must be able to approach the bar and return
to their seats with the minimum physical contact with others,
especially those who are seated. Flows to and from lavatories,
vending and amusement machines should similarly be unobstructed.
By reducing the potential for jostling, spillage of drinks etc. many
sources of conflict can be avoided from the outset.
Pool tables, if their inclusion in scheme is thought desirable, should
be situated in a position away from customer flows. One fifth of all
pub violence arises from the use of pool tables and extreme care must
be taken to ensure that the manager is able to monitor the behaviour
of players effectively. A chalk board, for orderly turn-taking, and a
notice board to display the rules of the game should be provided.
Strong red colours, striking patterns and hard reflective surfaces
should be avoided in the pool area. The game is stimulating enough
in itself!
Raised areas or platforms in pubs should be designed very carefully
because they can provide ‘stages’ for macho behaviour. Pool tables
should never be placed on raised areas for this reason. Other features
MCM Research 31
Conflict & Violence in Pubs: Design Issues Lay-out
which might attract young males, such as AWPs etc, should similarly
not be placed in such areas.
Raising the level of the floor behind the bar counter, which is often
seen as desirable because it increases the ability of staff to see
customers who are waiting to be served, may have some drawbacks.
The raised height of staff can make them seem more dominating and
potentially hostile. We believe that the benefits of raised floors are
usually outweighed by the increased potential for staff/customer
conflict and recommend that they should not be used except in
specialised designs such as wine bars.
MCM Research 32
Conflict & Violence in Pubs: Design Issues Lay-out
Section 12
Concludingsummary
It is difficult to translate all the points made regarding the impact of
design features on levels of conflict and violence into simple
formulae which apply in all cases. The summaries given at the end of
the previous sections should be given careful attention. Below,
however, we provide an overall summary of the main areas for
consideration in the light of customer profile, trading styles, location
and physical limitations of pubs.
Monitoring and surveillance – Aim to provide unobstructed views
of all areas of the pub while retaining visual separation between
groups of customers.
Frustration – Consider all potential sources of customer frustration
which might arise from design changes or refurbishment. Avoid
elements which may act as triggers of frustration or adversely affect
the atmosphere of the pub.
Discomfort – Avoid designs which are in the moderately
uncomfortable category. Where a pub has a high degree of
discomfort, modest face-lifts are likely to increase problems of
aggression and violence.
Consistency – Ensure that the exterior and interior of the pub
communicate consistent messages to customers. Inconsistencies
between exterior and interior, and within the interior itself, can result
there being no clear rules regarding acceptable behaviour.
Colour – use colours in the interior to create a balance between
over-stimulation and soporific blandness, bearing in mind customer
profile. Potential dangers associated with the use of red can be
reduced by appropriate attention to surface textures and levels of
visual complexity.
Lighting – Ensure that lighting provides a normal or flattering effect
on human appearance. Provide flexible control over lighting levels.
Use lighting to create psychological separation in open-plan pubs.
Lay-out – Minimise the potential for jostling, and subsequent
aggression, by paying attention to projected flow patterns, obstacles
and bottle-necks within the pub.
Pool tables – Ensure that self-contained but easily supervised areas
are provided for these. Keep away from customer flow routes.
Relative heights – Be wary of increasing the floor height behind the
bar counter. Ensure that raised seating areas are not likely to become
‘stages’ for aggressive behaviour.
MCM Research 33
Conflict & Violence in Pubs: Design Issues Concluding summary