Post on 14-Sep-2014
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Topic 3:
The Codex Mendoza
Nahua
Mexica
Hernando Alvaro deTesosomoc
Juan de Tovar
Aztlan
Seven Cave Place
Chicomoztoc
Late Postclassic Period (1250-1519) and the Origin of the Mexica
During the Postclassic Period the Nahua began to infiltrate central Mexico. The Nahua were a peoplewho were united by a shared culture and common language. The Mexica were the last of the Nahuato migrate into central Mexico. Historians have available to them a series of sources that describe theplace of origin of the Nahua. For example, Hernando de Alvarado Tezozomoc's Cronica Mexicanaexplains , "the Mexica came from a land called Chicomoztoc, which is called house of the sevencaves, also called Aztlan."
Reading the Past
Juan de Tovar's Origen de los Mexicanos
The Indinas of New Spain, according to their histories, originate from two nations: one is callednahuatlaca which means people who explain themselves and speak clearly, in contrast to thesecond nation because during early times they were wild and dedicated themselves to hunting, thenahuatlacales called them chichimeca, which means hunters.
The chichimeca are indigenous to this land, whereas the nahuatlacales came from the north from .. . . In this land there are two provinces: one is called Aztlan, which means place of the herons,and teh other is called Teuculhuacan, which means land grandfathers are divine, in which there areseven caves from which came the seven leaders of the nahuatlacas . . . .
On the Origin of the name Mexica
. . . led by a leader named Mexi, from which the name Mexicans is derived, becaase with Mexiwith this particular ca, mexica is composed, which means the people of Mexico.
Tovar further records that the first six people to emerge and migrate to Central Mexico were the,
Xuchimilcas (gente de las sementeras de flores)
Chalcas (gente de las bocas)
Tepenecas (la gente de la puente)
Culhuas (gente de la torutura/corva)
Tlalhuicas (hacia la tiera)
Tlaxcaltecas (gente del pan).From the seventh cave emerged the Mexica (gente de Mexico).
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Altepetl
Tlatoani
Scholars generally agree that the first of the "Atzlan Migrants" reached central Mexico by c. 1200 CEor even earlier.
Figures 1/2: Historia Tolteca Chichimeca (c. 1550) and Mexica Migration
With time, a common Nahua culture was established in the central Mexico. As one historian hasnoted, "Central Mexico became the arena for a dynamic system of interacting city-states." Thesecity-states, or altepetl ("polities consisting of a single capital city and a surrounding territory offarmland and smaller settlements"), were ruled by tlatoani.
Table 1: Altepetl Organization
Altepetl(Sovereign State)
Center of organization of the Nahua worldheaded by dynastic ruler called Tlatoani.
|
Calpolli(Subunits of Altepetls)
Altepetls were made up of 4-7 Calpolli
|
Wards(Subunits of the Calpolli)
Wards were made up of 20-100 Householdsand were headed by a “leader”
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Annals ofCuauhtitlan
Figure 3: Map of Lake Texcoco
Sources indicate that during this early period of development, there was constant warfare among thevarious altepetl as there appeared to be no dominant power. With time however, the Nahua absorbedmost of the cultures indigenous to the Valley of Mexico and became to dominant culture in thisregion.
The founding of the Empire of the Triple Alliance
As previously noted, the Mexica were the last of the Nahua to enter central Mexico. Sources recordthat the god Huitzilopochtli guided the Mexica migration through many territories. The Annals ofCuauhtitlan (c. 1570), preserved in the Codex Chimalpopoca, is one source that documents thesemigrations. Below is a selections from this source. Note that Mexitin = Mexica.
Reading the Past
Annals of Cuauhtitlan
1 Rabbit [1090]. The Mexitin (Mexica) set out from Aztlan.
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Huitzilopochtli
Tenochtitlan
Tlatelolco
Tezozomoc
Tepeneca
6 Reed [1095]. In that year the Mexitin reached Tepetlimonamiquiyan [Where Mountains ComeTogether].
8 Rabbit [ 1110] was when the Mexitin arrived in Coatlyayauhcan.
9 Reed. 10 Flint. 11 House. 12 Rabbit [1114] is when the Mexitin arrived at Zacatepec
4 Reed. 5 Flint. 6 House. 7 Rabbit [1122] is when the Mexitin arrived at Coatepec.,
5 Rabbit [1146]. The Mexica reach Tollan.
8 Flint [1240]. In that year the Mexitin, when they had already caused much annoyance, weresurrounded in battle at Chapoltepec. And those who made war on them were the Colhuaque,Azcapotzalco, the Xochimilca, and the Coyohuaque.
The Mexica migration came to an end when Tenochtitlan (c. 1325/1345) was founded. It wasestablished on an island at Lake Tetzcoco. A few years later, an adjacent community namedTlatelolco would be founded.
In 1372, the Mexica received their first tlatoani with the ascension of Acamapichtli (r. 1372-96).
Figures 4/5: Founding of Tenochtitlan and Spanish Map
About c. 1371, Tezozomoc (Tezozomoctli) became ruler of the Tepaneca. Written sources portrayhim as pragmatic ruler who lead Tepaneca expansion in central Mexico. His aggressive policy ofexpansion would initiate conflict in the region, a conflict that is documented in the Annals ofCuauhtitlan.
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Tenochtitlan
Tlacopan
Tetzcoco
Empire of the TripleAlliance
Moctecuhzoma
Reading the Past
Annals of Cuauhtitlan
And furthermore, the Tepaneca had caused much suffering, for they had assassinated people'srulers on a great many occasions. Tezozomoctli was the one--as well as his son Maxtlaton--whohad condemned many rulers to death. It was Tezozomoctli who, by his command, had killed theColhuacan ruler Nauhyotzin. And he had also killed the Tetzcoco ruler Ixtlilxochitzin the elder.And he had killed Pichacatzin Teuctli, ruler of Cuitlahuac Tizic. And he had killed the ruler ofTlatilolco, Tlacateotzin. And he had killed the Cuauhtitlan ruler Xaltemoctzin the elder.And hehad killed the former ruler of Tenochtitlan, Chimalpopocatzin. Maxtlaton had handed down thesentence. And he had killed the Tlatilolco ruler Cuauhtlatoatzin. Maxdaton had handed down thesentence. And he had put to flight the Tetzcoco ruler Nezahualcoyotzin, along with many of hisnobles.Their lords had suffered with them, as has been told in the year-count entries.
The threat posed by the Tepeneca prompted the altepetls of Tenochtitlan, Tlacopan and Tetzcoco toform an alliance in 1427. The defeat of the Tepaneca laid the foundations for what we refer to as theAztec Empire (Empire of the Triple Alliance), a confederation composed of these three atlepetls.
Figure 6: Empire of the Triple Alliance
The military success of the Triple Alliance against the Tepaneca opened the way for furtherconquests in central Mexico. In 1458, the Triple Alliance led by Moctecuhzoma Ilhuicamina (1440-1468), the Triple Alliance expanded beyond its immediate region into areas that would provide the
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Empire with access to valuable resources.
Figure 7: Mexica Warriors
Figures 8/9: The Conquests of Axayacatl and Ahuitzotl
Economic Strategies
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Tributary Provinces
Calpixque
Strategic Provinces
As the empire expanded, it pursued various strategies to ensure its survival. Economically, conqueredaltepetl were organized into tributary provinces to more effectively impose tribute administration,tribute collection, and record keeping
Figures 10/1/12: Tribute Lists and Numbers
A tribute quota was established for each province. Tribute was provided annually, semi-annually, orquarterly. Calpixque were responsible for collecting tribute. The Empire also promoted commercethrough state-sponsored long distance trade and by ensuring that marketplaces were held on a weeklybasis.
Political Strategies
Politically, each province created by the Empire was headed by the most prominent altepetl. Tlatoaniwere replaced by nobles sympathetic to the Empire of the Triple Alliance. Administrative positionswere created or eliminated. To promote further integration, wealth acquired from conquests wasshared.
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Tlaxcalans
Tarascans
Table 2: Mexica Tlatoani
Acamapichtli (1372-1396) Huitzilihuiti (1396-1417) Chimalpopoca (1417-1427)
Itzcoatl (1427-1440) Moctecuhzoma I (1440-1469) Axayacatl (1469-1481)
Tizoc (1481-1486) Ahuitzotl (1486-1502) Moctecuhzoma II (1502-1520)
Cuitlahuac (June-October1520) Cuauhtemoc (October 1520-August 1521)
Figures 13/14: Ranks of Priests-Warriors and
The Empire of the Triple Alliance also established strategic provinces in the outer fringes of theempire. These provinces were made up of altepetl that were treated more like allies. They were notassessed a tribute quota. Their responsibility was to provide military defense against enemies of theEmpire of the Triple Alliance such as the Tlaxcalans and Tarascans.
While efforts were made to create a formidable empire, the reality was that the empire created by theTriple Alliance was fragile.
In part, this was due to altepetl maintaining a high degree of internal integrity.
Also the Empire did not garrison troops in conquered altepetl. Efforts to maintain loyalty andalliances were accomplished through elite marriage arrangements.
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Urbanism
Social Stratification
Nobility
Figures 15/16: Reign of Chimalpopoca - Chalco Rebellion/Mexica Allies
In our next discussion we will take a closer look at the Mexica/Nahua socioeconomic world.
The Social World of the Mexica
To attain the type of urbanism that characterized central Mexico before the arrival of the Spanish,specialization and social stratification would need to be a key part of the Mexica world.
Mexica social hierarchy was rigid and defined by law and blood (status was hereditary).Scholars believe that the nobility made up 5% to 10% of the entire population.
Table 3: Mexica Hierarchy
Tlatoani = ruler of Altpetel
Tetecuhtin = high lord who were awarded estates from tlatoani
Pipiltin = regular lord who served either the tetecuhtin or tlatoani
Pochteca = merchant
Macehualtin = free commoners
Tlacotin = slaves
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Land
Labor
Tribute
Free Commoners
Calpolli
Figures 17/18: Palace and Teccalli/Teccalco (Judges)
Mexica nobility was granted control of land, labor, and tribute. The nobility were exemptfrom paying tribute, they were not required to work on the land, and they were permitted tohold public positions.
.At the base of the Mexica social hierarchy were the free commoners (macehuatlin) who made up thelargest sector of the population. These free commoners were organized into calpolli (groups ofpeasants under the control of one lord) and were required to pay tribute in the form of crops or wovencotton. Community labor/service was also required from this sector of the population.
Figure 19: Telpochcalli/Calmecac
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Telpochcalli
Calmecac
Home Education
Marriage
The Mexica had an education system in place in which both males and females participated.
The telpochcalli, or youth's house, was attended by commoners, both male andfemales.
The nobility attended the calmecac where they were prepared for leadership roles.
Home education was also provided. The image below, also taken from the Codex Mendoza,documents the tasks young males and females are taught at home.
Figure 20: Codex Mendoza
Men in Nahua society married in their late teens or early twenties while women married as early as10 to 12 years of age. It appears that marriages were arranged through matchmakers. The first part ofa wedding ceremony took place at the bride's home where an all day feast took place until the bride
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Polygamywas carried to the groom's home. The following page from the Codex Mendoza illustrates theceremony. Evidence suggests that nobles were permitted to have more than one wife (polygamy).
Figure 21: Codex Mendoza
What were the most common Nahuatl names given to Mexica males and females? Bob McCaa of theUniversity of Minnesota has analyzed the names documented in a 1540 census from Morelos. Hecounted 427 unique names for males while only 57 unique names for females. Below is a list of thetop ten names mentioned in the documents and the frequency of their mention.
Male:
Name Frequency English
Yaotl 74 War
Matlalihuitl 66 Blue-green Feather, or Purple Feather
Nochehuatl 59 Consistent
Coatl 48 Snake
Tototl 19 Bird
Quauhtli 18 Eagle
Tochtli 17 Rabbit
Zolin 16 Quail
Matlal 12 Dark Green, or Net
Xochitl 12 Flower
Female:
Name Frequency English
Teyacapan 313 First Born
Tlaco 182 Middle-born
Teicuih 182 Younger sister
Necahual 151 Survivor, Left-Behind
Xoco 53 Youngest sister
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Maize/Corn
Tortillas
Tamales
Atole
Centehua 42 Only one
Xocoyotl 38 Youngest child
Tlacoehua 22 Middle one
Tepin 15 Little one
Cihuaton 15 Little woman
Mexica Diet
The Nahua diet was composed of a variety of food sources. Maize, however, was their mostimportant staple.
It was eaten in the form of tortillas, tamales and atole (a form of porridge). Along withmaize, beans were also an extremely important food source.
Figures 22/23: Corn Domestication and Metate (Florentine Codex)
Contrary to popular belief, the Nahua diet did meet adequate levels of protein.
This was accomplished by combining lime soaked maize (high in most amino acids exceptlysine) with beans (high in lysine).
Iron, riboflavin, niacin, and vitamins A and C were derived from chilis. Other foods includedin the Nahua diet were tomatoes, avocado, squash, nopal, maguey plant, dog, turkey,Muscovy duck, and spirulina algea.
Agriculture and Artisans
The Nahuas adopted various farming techniques to grow food.
For example, they created stone terraced walls that enabled them to make use of land onhilltops. Irrigation was harnessed by constructing small-scale dams during rainy seasons.
Finally, chinampas were constructed making swamp and available for farming. The imagebelow illustrates how chinampas functions. Canals, as you can see, were dug to remove
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Chinampas
Artisans
water. This expose land on which a variety of food sources were planted. This technique wasvery important to the Mexica in particular because Tenochtitlan was founded on an islandsurrounded by swampland.
Figure 24: Chinampa
Like other Mesoamerican civilizations, the Nahuas made use of a wide variety of artisans. Someartisans were very effective in creating obsidian tools.
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Obsidian
Quachtli
Maguay
Metallurgy
Figure 25: Artisans
Obsidian is a black volcanic rock that is considered to be one of the sharpest naturalmaterials on earth.
This volcanic material was also used in a variety of weapons.
The image below taken from the Codex Mendoza shows a warrior marching off to war with aspear that has obsidian encrusted in it.
Figures 26/27: Obsidian and Obsidian Spear
Mexica artisans also produced pottery vessels, jars to hold water, plates, cooking pots, and tortillagriddles called comalli.
The Mexica made extensive use of cotton cloth. In the form of quachtli (folded cape), it was used asa form of currency.
Among the Mexica, only nobility werepermitted to wear cotton clothing.
Cloth/textile was also produced from themaguay plant as well. It was this cloth thatcommoners wore.
Also produced from this plant was pulque(octli), a fermented drink.
Scholars believe that metallurgy (bronze) wasintroduced into Mesoamerica from Andean SouthAmerica by 1200 CE .
Axes, chisels, and needles were some of the tools produced.
However, metallurgy was not worked to the extent that it wasavailability of other natural materials that produced the same e
in Europe because of theffect. For example, obsidian
Figure 28: Maguay
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Tianquiz
Quetzal
for cutting tools.
The Marketplace
The tianquiz (market place) made up an important part of the Nahua economic world. The Tianquizwas held once a week. The largest of market places was located at Tlatelolco.
Below is an image from the Florentine Codex showing merchants at a market. Notice thefeathers in the image. Feathers taken from the quetzal bird (see image below) were cherishedand used a variety of ways. They were used in ceremonies, to create headdress (see imagebelow) and were a sign of social status.
Figure 29: Florentine Codex
Figuress 30/31: Quetzal Bird/Feather Worker
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Pochteca
Tlanecuilo
Cacao Beans
Quachtli
Figure 32: Mexica Headdress
There appears to have been two types of merchants present at these marketplaces.
The pochteca were guild- merchants who traded on an "international" level. In other words,they traded in markets outside the boundaries of the Empire of the Triple alliance. It was thepochteca who moved luxury items such as gold items, tropical bird feathers, herbs, jade, etc .. .
Figure 33: Pochteca
The tlanecuilo were regional merchants who traded in foodstuffs and utilitarian items. Theseincluded maize, chili, turkeys, sandals, and baskets. Some historians argue that Nahuamerchants may have also served in a reconnaissance role for the state.
Scholars believe the Mexica bartered in marketplaces. However, the Mexica also had a form ofcurrency that based on cacao beans and cotton textiles.
Cacao beans were used for small purchases.
Quachtli, cotton capes of standardized sizes with an attached cacao bean value (65, 80 or
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Amatl
Pictographs
Logograms
Phonetic
Calendars
100), were used for larger purchases. A 1545 list of market prices gives us a sense of thepurchase power of the cacao bean:
+
Figures 34/35: Cacao Beans and Quachtli
Table 4: 1545 Price List
1 turkey hen (100 cacao beans)
1. Turkey egg (3 cacao beans)
5 Chili (1 cacao bean)
1 Rabbit (30 cacao beans)
1 Avocado (3 cacao beans)
Writing and Tracking Time
The Mexica wrote on a wide variety of mediums that included “paper”, stone sculptures, and ceramicvessels.
As previously noted, the codices (painted books) produced by the Mexica were composed ofa paper (amatl in Nahuatl) made from the inner bark of Ficus cotonifolia ( figtree). The areaof Morelos was a major supplier of "paper" to the Mexica.
Deerskin was also used to write on.
Mexica writing used pictographs (straightforward depict ions), logograms (conventionalizedrepresentation of ideas or meanings) and phonetic designations (signs representing sounds). The mostcommon of these were the pictographs. This tradition of writing allowed for Mexica scribes to easilyadopt European forms of writing and record keeping.
The Nahua, like other Mesoamerican civilizations, used a variety of calendrical systems.
260 day ritual calendar (Tonalpohuilli) = two repeating cycles of twenty day names with
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Calendar Round
Year Count
Fire Ceremony
Polytheism
Human Sacrifice
thirteen numbers with 260 unique combinations was used to keep track of rituals and practicedivination.
Annual Calendar = 365 days grouped into eighteen months of twenty days with five unluckydays. This calendar was used to track seasons, monthly events, and religious ceremonies.Each week consisted of five days.
Calendar round = combined the 260 day calendar with the annual calendar. A uniquecombination between both of these calendars appeared every 52 years.
Year count = was a calendar consisting of four day names with thirteen numbers. Theirunique combination produced a cycle of 52 years.
Figure 36: Fire Ceremony celebrating a new 52 year cycle
Mexica Religion
It is generally believed by scholars that the Nahua in general and the Mexica in particular, adoptedsome of the religious beliefs indigenous to central Mexico (agricultural fertility and sun worship).However, the Mexica would also bring their own gods and rituals with them which fused with thosealready existing in central Mexico. A key concept subscribed to by the Mexica was the belief that thegods had sacrificed themselves for humankind. You will explore this concept in more detail whenreading The Question of Human Sacrifice.
For the Mexica, the beginning of creation was brought about when Ometeotl (Two Deity - male) andOmetecuhtli (Two Lord – female) produced four sons (Tezcatlipoca, Xipe, Totec, Quetzalcoatl andHuitzilopochtli). With this birth also came a cycle of creation and destruction that is still with ustoday
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Fifth Sun
Table 5: The Five Suns
First Sun - Tezcatlipoca – Destroyed by jaguars
Second Sun – Quetzalcoatl – Destroyed by hurricanes
Third Sun – Tlaloc – Destroyed by fiery rain
Fourth Sun – Clalchiuhtlicue – Destroyed by a great flood
Fifth Sun – Tonatiuh – Believed that will be destroyed by earthquakes in 2027 CE
The Fifth Sun was populated by the maize-eaters through the efforts of Quetzalcoatl, who proceededto underworld (Mictlan = place of the dead) and retrieved the bones of the people from the previoussun. These bones were grounded and the gods shed their blood on them thus creating the maize-eaters.
Figure 37: Codex Borbonicus - Tezcatlipoca and Quetzalcóatl
An examination of sources has revealed that the Mexica had up to 200 gods and goddesses. Each hadcertain characteristics and roles assigned to them. It appears that the gods associated with rain andagricultural fertility were the most highly worshipped by the Mexica.
Deity Meaning Theme/Role
Ometeotl Two-god Original creator of the gods
Tezcatlipoca Smoking mirror Omnipotent power – patron ofkings
Xiuhtecuhtli Turquoise lord Hear and fire
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Templo Mayor
Tlaloc ? Rain, water, agricutlrual fertility
Centeotl Maize god Maize
Huitzilopochtli Hummingbird of left or south Patron of the Mexica, war, sun
Mixcoaltl Cloud-serpent War, sacrifice and hunting
Quetzalcoatl Quetzal-feathered serpent Creation, fertility, patron ofmerchants
The center of worship for the Mexica was Templo Mayor, located in the sacred precinct ofTenochtitlan.
Figures 38/39: Tenochtitlan and the Templo Mayor