Post on 28-Jun-2018
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HISTORY
INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION (2500BC
– 1500BC)
The ancient name of Indus valley is
‘Meluha’. John Marshall (in 1931) was the
first scholar to use the term, „Indus
Civilization’. Also called as Bronze Age
Civilization.
HARAPPA – discovered in 1921 by Dayaram
Sahni on the river Ravi
MOHENJODARO – discovered in 1922 by
R.D.Banerjee on the river Indus
Mohenjodara is the largest of all the
Indus cities.
Dholavira is the largest and latest site
present in India (Gujarat).
First man made port in the world is
present in Lothal (near Gulf of Cambay,
Gujarat).
„Mohenjodaro’ is called „The Mount of
Dead’ and „Kalibangan’ means the „Black
bangle’.
Features of Harappan Culture
1) First urbanization in India.
2) Town planning
lines of the grid system
Harappa, Mohenjodaro and Kalibangan
each had its own citadel built
Underground drainage system
Harappa has six granaries.
Largest building in Mohenjodaro is a
granary (150 feet length and 50 feet
breadth)
Wheat and barley were the main crops
grown besides sesame, mustard and cotton
The chief male deity was Pasupati,
(proto-Siva) surrounded by four animals
(elephant, tiger, rhino, and buffalo each
facing a different direction)
Chief female deity was the Mother
Goddess (Matridevi or Shakti) represented in
terracotta figurines
Wooden coffins were also found at
Harappa
Harappan script was mostly written from
right to left
The boustrophedon method – writing in
the reverse direction in alternative lines -
was also adopted.
Tree worship (Peepal) and Fire worship
(Havan Kund) was also practised
Domestic Animals in Indus Valley
Civilization: Sheep and goats, dogs,
humped cattle buffalo, camels, pig, domestic
fowls, Humped bulls and elephant was
certainly domesticated.
Known and Unknown facts of Indus
People:
1) Indus People used Gold-Silver mixture
called Electrum.
2) They also used Bronze (alloy of copper
and tin) and Copper.
3) Horses were Known to Indus people.
4) Iron was unknown to them.
5) Cotton fabrics are very common.
6) They are very fond of Ornaments, both
men and women wear ornaments.
7) Potter‟s wheel were known to them,their
pottery was red or black in colour.
Archeological Findings:
Harappa Wheat and Barley in wooden
Mortar, Painted pottery, Clay
figures of mother goddess.
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Mohenjodaro
Great Granary, The Great
Bath, Piece of woven cotton,
Beared man in Steatite,
Bronze dancing girl
Chanhudaro Bronze toy cart, shell
ornament makers and bead
makers, bullock cart
Lothal Burnt brick, Dockyard, Rice
husk, Fire altars
Kalibangan Ploughed field surface, 7 fire
altars, Mesopotamian
cylindrical seal, Decorated
bricks.
Dholavira A unique water harnessing
system, storm water drainage
system,giant water reservoirs,
Largest Harappan inscription
for civic purposes
Decline of Indus Valley Civilization:
1) Invasion 2) Natural disaster
3) Climate change 4) Decline in trade
5) Diseases
BUDDHISM AND JAINISM
Buddha (563BC-483BC)
Born in Lumbini (near Kapilavastu) in
Nepal.
Father: Suddhodana (the Saka ruler).
Mother: Mahamaya (Kosala dynasty)
died after 7 days of his birth.
Brought up by stepmother Prajapati
Gautami, who named Buddha as Gautama
Yoshodhara is his wife and Rahula, his
son
Bimbisara and Ajatasatru of Haryanka
dynasty were his contemporaries
Buddha gave his first sermon at Sarath.
His first sermon named as Dharma Chakra
Parivartan
Buddha got enlightenment (Nirvana) at
the age of 35, in Gaya under Peepal tree
Died in Kushinagar, UP
All the buddhist literatures are written in
‘Pali’ language
Important disciples of Buddha were
Sariputta, Moggallanna, Ananda, Kassapa
and Upali
Teachings of Buddha follows Eight fold
path
Buddha had two kinds of disciples –
monks (bhikshus) and lay worshippers
(upasikas).
3 pitakas of Buddhism:
Vinaya Pitaka: Rules of discipline in the
Buddhist monasteries
Sutta Pitaka: Largest, contains collection of
Buddha's sermons.
Abhidhamma Pitaka: Explanation of the
philosophical principles of the Buddhism
Sects of Buddhism:
1) Hinayana- They believe Idol worship
2) Mahayana- They had no belief in the idol
worship.
a) Madhyamika
b) Yogachara (School teachings started by
„Maitreyana‟)
Important Symbols:
Birth Lotus and Bull
Great Renunciation Horse
Nirvana Bodhi tree
First Sermon Dharmachakra
Parinirvana/Death Stupa
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Buddhist Councils:
6 buddhist councils had been held so far. The
important among them were:
Council Yr Place Presided by
1st 483BC Rajgaha
(Rajgir)
Mahakashyapa
(In reign of Ajat
Satru)
2nd 383BC Vaishali Sabakami
(Kalasoka)
3rd 250BC Pataliputra Moggaliputta
Tissa (reign:
Ashoka)
4th 100AD Kashmir Vasumitra (Reign:
kanishka)
JAINISM:
Jainism founded by Rishabha, the first
Tirthankara (Emblem: Bull)
There were 24 Tirthankaras
The 23rd Tirthankar Parshwanath
(Emblem: Snake) was the son of King
Ashvasena of Banaras.
Books of Jainism were written in Prakrit
language
VARDHMAN MAHAVIRA: (540BC-468BC)
Mahavira was the 24th and last Tirthankar
Born in Kundagram (Muzaffarpur, Bihar)
Name: Mahavira, Jina, Jitendriya, Nirgrantha
Father: Siddhartha (head of Jnatrika clan).
Mother: Trishla (sister of Lichchavi Prince
Chetak of Vaishali).
Married to Yashoda; daughter -
Priyadarsena, whose husband Jamali
became his first disciple.
He attained the highest spiritual knowledge
called Kevala Gnana
Emblem: Lion.
Died in Pavapuri (near modern Rajgir)
Mahavira organised the Sangha to spread
his teachings
Chandragupta Maurya, Kharavela of
Kalinga and the royal dynasties of south
India such as the Gangas, the Kadambas,
the Chalukyas and the Rashtrakutas
patronized Jainism
Two groups in Jainism:
1) Shvetambaras (who put on white dress)
led by Sthulabhagu.
2) Digambaras (who always keep them
naked) led by Bhadrabhagu.
Jainism Councils:
COUNCIL PLACE PRESIDED BY
1st Pataliputra sthulabadhra
2nd Vallabhi Devardhi
Final compilation of Jain literature called
Twelve Angas was completed in the 2nd
council.
Four Fold Virtue:
The Four fold virtue was given by 23rd
Tirthankar Parshwanath, they are
1) Satya (Truth) 2) Ahimsa 3)
Aparigraha (non-possession) 4) Asteya
(do not steal)
Mahavira added one more virtue to these
four. It is (5) Brahmacharya (celibacy).
Three Jewels of Jainism:
1) Right knowledge 2) Right faith
3) Right conduct
GEOGRAPHY
India is an ancient country named
Bharatvarsh.
India lies wholly in the Northern
Hemisphere. The Indian mainland extends
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between 8°4'N to 37°6' N latitudes and from
68°7' E to 97°25' E longitudes.
The northern most point of the Indian
mainland is Jammu and Kashmir and the
southernmost point of the country as a
whole is Indira Point (6°30'N latitude) in
Andaman and Nicobar . The westernmost -
Gujarat and the eastern most -
ArunachalPradesh.
The latitudinal and longitudinal extent of
India is of about 29 degrees.
1 degree of latitude is equal to 111 km
Physical Divisions of the Indian
Subcontinent
A chain of high mountains radiate out
from the Pamir Knot which lies just in the
north of India.
In these mountains the Hindukush, the
Sulaiman and the Kirthar in the east and the
Himalayas in the west separate the Indian
subcontinent from rest of Asia.
Indian subcontinent can be divided into
following physical divisions:
The Great Mountain wall of the North:
They are divided into three groups. They are
(i) The Himalayas
(ii) The Trans-Himalayas
(iii) Purvanchal or the hills of the North-East
The Himalayas, the highest mountain
wall of the world, is situated on the northern
boundary of India like an arc.
From west to east the Himalayas are
2500 km long. The average breadth of the
Himalayas is between 250 km to 400 km.
Two of the highest peaks of Himalayas,
Mt. Everest (in Nepal) and Kanchenjunga
(Sikkim)
Mount Everest, the highest peak in the
world, lies in these mountains in Nepal.
Division of the Himalayas
The Himalayas consist of three parallel
mountain ranges:
(i) The Greater Himalayas
(ii) The Lesser Himalayas and
(iii) The Outer Himalayas.
The Greater Himalayas (or Himadri)
This is the loftiest of the three ranges of
Himalayas.
The extent of this range is between the
Nanga Parbat peak (8126 m.) in the west
and Namcha Barva peak (7756 m.) in the
east.
Mount Everest lies in this range.
Waterfalls perennial throughout the year.
These snow-covered mountains give
birth to many glaciers (Gangotri and
Yamunotri)
The Ganga originates from this
Himalayas
The Lesser Himalayas (or the Himachal
Himalayas):
South of the Greater Himalayas, the
range also lies parallel to it from west to
east.
Pir Panjal in Jammu and Kashmir and
Dhauladhar in Himachal Pradesh are the
local names of this range
This ranges 60 to 80 km wide and its
average height ranges between 3500 to
4500 metres.
The famous valley of Kullu and Kangra
are also a part of Himachal ranges.
Tourist centres like Shimla, Mussorie
and Nainital are situated in this range
The Outer Himalayas (or Shiwaliks):
This is the southernmost and the third
parallel range of the Himalayas with an
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average height of 900 to 1200 meters.
Between Himachal and Siwalik, a
longitudinal valley named 'duns' present. Eg:
Dehradun
Its breadth is only 10 to 15 km. Shivalik
range is broader in the west.
The Trans-Himalayas:
The range extending to the north of the
Himadri and running parallel to it is called
the Zaskar range. North of Zaskar range is
the Ladakh range
The river Indus flows towards northwest
between Zaskar and Ladakh range.
K2 (8611m) is the highest peak of the
Karakoram Mountains.
K2 is the second highest peak of the
world, next only to Mt. Everest.
Purvachal:
Patkoi Bum, Naga, Manipur, Mizo
(Lushai) and Tripur are the major hilly
ranges of this region
Meghalaya Plateau is also part of these
hills (Garo, Khasi, and Jaintia)
The Great Nothern Plains:
The Northern plains are divided into
three sub-divisions. These are the Punjab
and Haryana plains, The Ganga plains and
the Brahamaputra valley.
Plains contains alluvial soil
The relatively higher part of the plain is
called bangar
The comparatively lower area is called
the khadar .Khadar area is know as bet in
Punjab.
The Ganga plains form the largest
lowland drained by thy Ganga and its
tributaries.
The Yamuna is the most important
tributary of the Ganga.
The Ghaghara, the Gandak, the Kosi and
the Tista are other tributaries of the Ganga.
The Sone and the Damodar are
tributaries of the Ganga while the Chambal
and the Betwa are tributaries of the Yamuna
from the peninsular plateau.
The Ganga plain has an extremely gentle
slope. Parts of the plain are subject to floods
in the rainy season. In the lower course, the
Ganga divides itself into tributaries to form a
large delta along with the Brahmaputra.
The Punjab and Haryana plains represent
a part of the Indus basin.
A low watershed separates these plains
from the Ganga plains.
The Great Pensinsular Plateau:
Anamudi or Anaimudi (2695 m) is the
highest peak of the peninsula.
The Deccan plateau includes the area to
the south of the Vindhyas.
The western edge of the plateau rises
steeply from the Arabian Sea to form the
Western Ghats , which is continuous (which
includes the Shahydri).
The Decccan plateau slopes gently
towards the east. The surface of the plateau
is dissected into a rolling upland by a
number of rivers.
The elevation ranges from 300 to 900
metres.
The eastern edge of the plateau is known
as the Eastern Ghats, which is
discontinuous.
The Eastern Ghats joins the Sahyadris at
the Nilgiri Hills in Tamil Nadu
The north-western region of the Deccan
plateau is covered by nearly horizontal
sheets of lava.
This region is called 'Deccan trap region'.
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The Deccan plateau is drained by many long
east flowing rivers.
These rivers originate in the Western
Ghats, flow towards the east and enter the
Bay of Bengal.
The Godavari, the Mahanadi, the Krishna
and the Cauvery are the major rivers that
have built deltas along the coast.
The Narmada and the Tapti rivers are
west flowing.
Both the rivers enter the Arabian Sea
along the Gujarat coast.
These rivers do not have deltas.
Major Plateaus: Marwar Upland, Central
Highland, Bundelkhand, Malwa Plateau,
Baghelhand, Chhotanagpur Plateau
(Hazaribagh Plateau, Ranchi Plateau and Raj
Mahal Hills), Meghalaya Plateau, Deccan
Plateau, Maharashtra Plateau, Karnataka
Plateau, Telengana Plateau, Chhatisgarh
Plain.
The Coastal Plains
Narrow strips of flat land on eastern and
western coasts are known as the East
Coastal Plain and the West Coastal Plain
respectively.
The West Coastal Plain
This plain which lies between the Arabian
Sea and the Western Ghats spreads from
Gujarat in the north to Kanyakumari in the
south.
It is broader in the north and narrower in
the south. This uneven plain has been
dissected by many fast flowing rivers.
Its northern part from Gujarat to Goa is
called Konkan, while southern part from Goa
to Mangalore is called the Karnataka coast.
The coast from Mangalore upto Kanyakumari
is called the Malabar coast. Several lagoons
(salt water lakes separated from the main
sea by sand bars and spits) are found on the
coastal plain.
Important ports developed on its coast
from north to south are: Kandla, Mumbai,
New Jawahar Port Mumbai, Marmagao,
Mangalore and Cochin.
The East Coastal Plain:
This broader coastal plain spreads along
the Bay of Bengal from Odisha in the north
to Kanyakumari in the south.
Delta formation occurs more compare to
west coastal plain
Its northern part is known as Northern
Circar plains and the southern part is called
Coromandal Coast. Rivers like Mahanadi,
Godavari, Krishna and Cauvery form deltas
on this plain.
This coast is famous for rice cultivation.
A large number of lagoons are also found
here.
Chilka and Pulicat lakes are fine
examples of lagoons on our east coast.
The Great Indian Desert:
It lies to the west of the Aravali range.
It extends over major part of Rajasthan
and Sindhi in Pakistan.
This desert does not get much rain as
the Aravali range run parallel to the south-
western monsoon winds.
It is in the rain shadow area of the Bay
of Bengal current.
Lake Sambhar is found here.
The Island Groups
Lakshadweep is a group of 36 coral
islands in the Arabian Sea. Kavaratti is the
capital city of this island group. The largest
island among these is the Minicoy
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It is located 300 km to the west of the
coast of Kerala.
Andaman and Nicobar island are a group
of about 324 islands.
Most of these islands are uninhabited.
Andaman and Nicobar islands are
separated by the Ten Degree Channel
because 10°N latitude passes through this
place.
Barren Island in the Andaman‟s is India‟s
only active volcano.
POLITY
HISTORICAL BACKGROUND
Regulating Act, 1773: Provision of
Supreme Court at Fort William, Calcutta
Pitts’s India Act, 1784:
It created a new body called Board of Control
to manage the political affairs while Court of
Directors were allowed to manage the
commercial affairs.
Charter Act, 1793: Salaries of the
members of the board to be drawn from the
Indian exchequer
Charter Act, 1813
East India Company monopoly over trade
was abolished in India but its monopoly over
trade with China and for Trade in tea
retained.
Company to spend one lakh rupees every
year on the education of Indians.
Charter Act, 1833: It made the Governor
General of Bengal as the Governor General
of India.
Government of India Act, 1858
Changed the designation of Governor
General of India to that of viceroy of India
Dual government introduced by Pitt‟s Act
was abolished
A new office of Secretary of state for India
was created
Indian Councils Act, 1909 (Morley-Minto
Reforms)
Allowed Indians with the Executive Council of
the Viceroy and governors. Satyendra Prasad
Sinha became the first Indian to join the
Viceroy‟s Executive Council
Muslims were given separate representation
and hence Lord Minto came to be known as
the Father of Communal Electorate.
Government of India Act, 1919
(Montague-Chelmsford Reforms)
For the first time Indian Central Legislature
was made bicameral (Two Houses) ; direct
elections in the country were introduced;
introduced dyarchy
Establishment of the Public Service
Commission, which was established in 1926.
Government of India Act, 1935
Abolished the Council of India, established
by the Government of India Act, 1858.
The Act provided for a Federal Court and a
Federal Bank.
Abolished dyarchy
Indian Independence Act, 1947
This act called for the two dominions,
namely India and Pakistan.
It asked power to be transferred to the
Indians on August 15, 1947
MAKING OF THE CONSTITUTION
The idea of constituent assembly for making
the Constitution was first mooted by M.N.
Roy in 1934. Indian National Congress
officially demanded the formation of
Constituent Assembly in 1935.
The Constitution of India was framed by a
Constituent assembly which was set up
under the Cabinet mission plan (1946)
(Lord Pethick Lawrence, Stafford Cripps,
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A V Alexander)
First meeting of Constituent Assembly was
held on Dec 9, 1946.
Objective Resolution was presented by
Jawaharlal Nehru on Dec 13, 1946. Objective
Resolution forms the basis of Preamble
Dr. Sachidanand Sinha elected as the
temporary President of the assembly.
Rajendra Prasad was elected as the
President of the assembly.
H.C.Mukherjee was the vice president of
constituent Assembly.
The Constituent Assembly took almost 2
years, 11 months, & 18 days to complete the
Constitution The total membership of the
assembly thus was to be 389.
Adopted on 26th November, 1949, but
came into effect from 26th January 1950
Committees in Making of the
Constitution
Committees Leaders
Steering Committee ,
Rules of Procedure
Rajendra Prasad
Union committee,
State Committee,
Union Powers
Jawaharlal Nehru
Drafting Committee B R Ambedkar
Provincial committee
and House committee
Sardar Vallabhai
patel
Sources from where our constitution
borrowed
Government of India Act 1935
Office of Governor, Judiciary Public Service
Commission, Emergency Provisions
British Constitution
Parliamentary form of government, single
citizenship, Rule of law, Procedure
established by Law
United States
Preamble, Fundamental Rights, Electoral
College, Independence of the judiciary and
separation of powers, judicial review,
President as supreme commander of armed
forces
Irish constitution
Directive principles of state policy
Australian Constitution
Freedom of trade and commerce; Concurrent
List
French Constitution
Ideals of Liberty, Equality and Fraternity
Canadian Constitution
A federal system with a strong central
government
Distribution of powers between the central
government and state governments
USSR
Fundamental duties
Other Constitutions
Emergency Provision Under article 356
Weimar Constitution – Germany ;
Amendment of Constitution - South Africa ;
Due Procedure of Law - Japan
PHYSICS
Scalar Quantities
Physical quantities which have magnitude
only and no direction are called scalar
quantities. e.g., Mass, speed, volume, work,
time, power, energy, etc.
Vector Quantities
Physical quantities which have both
magnitude and direction and also obey
triangle law are called vector quantities. e.g.,
Displacement, velocity, acceleration, force,
momentum, torque etc.
Projectile Motion
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For maximum range = 45°. Therefore, a
long jumper takes jump at an angle of 45°.
For maximum height 𝜃 = 90°.
The horizontal range is the same
whether the body is projected at 𝜃 or
90 − 𝜃 .
When a body is dropped freely from the
top of the tower and another body is
projected horizontally from the same point,
both will reach the ground at the same time.
When two balls of different masses are
projected horizontally they will reach ground
at the same time.
Newton’s Laws of Motion
First Law
“Every body retains its state of rest or state
of motion, until an external force is applied
on it.” This law is also known as law of
inertia or law of Galileo.
First law gives the definition of inertia.
Inertia is the virtue of a body due to which
it tries to retain its state.
Second Law
“The force applied on a body is equal to
the product of mass of the body and the
acceleration produced in it F = ma.”
The second law of motion gives the
definition of force.
A force is any influence that causes an
object to undergo a certain change, either
concerning its movement, direction and
geometrical structure.
SI unit of force is Newton (N).
Third Law
“Every action have equal and opposite
reaction.” Action any reaction always act on
the different bodies.
On firing the bullet, the gunner is pushed
to backward direction.
When the boatman is jumped from the
boat, the boat is pushed back.
In a rocket, „gases are ejected with a
great speed from the rocket backwards and
rocket is pushed forwards.
While swimming, a person pushes the
water backwards (action). The water pushes
the swimmer forward with the same force
(reaction).
Linear Momentum
The product of the mass and the velocity
of a body is called the linear momentum of
the body.
It is a vector quantity. Its unit is kg-m/s.
∴ Momentum = Mass × Velocity
A heavier body has a larger linear
momentum than a lighter body moving with
the same velocity.
In the absence of external forces, the
total linear momentum of teh system
remains conserved.
Application of Conservation of Linear
Momentum
When a man jumps from a boat to the
shore, the boat slightly moves away from
the shore. Rocket works on the principle of
conservation of momentum.
When a bullet is fired from a gun, the
gun recoils or gives a sharp pull in backward
direction.
Impulse
If a force acts on a body for a very short
time Δt, then the product of force and time
is called the impulse.
Impulse = Change in momentum
= Force × Time interval
Its SI unit is N-s or kg-m/s.
Concept of Impulse
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A cricketer moves his hands backwards
while catching a ball.
FRICTION
It we slide or try to slide a body over a
surface, the motion is resisted by a bonding
between the body and the surface. This
resistance is called frictional force.
Advantages and Disadvantages of
Friction
Walking is possible due to friction.
The transfer of motion from one part of a
machine to other part through belts is
possible by friction.
Brake works on the basis of friction.
Friction causes wear and tear of the
parts of machinery in contact. Thus their
lifetime gets reduced.
Methods of Reducing Friction
By polishing, by lubrication, by proper
selection of material, by using ball bearing
the friction can
be reduced to same extent.
Work, Energy and Power
Work
When a body is displaced by applying a force
on it, then work is said to be done. It is a
scalar quantity. Its unit is joule (J).
Energy
It is defined as capacity of doing work.
Its unit is joule in SI and erg in CGS system.
Mechanical energy is in two forms;
kinetic energy and potential energy.
Kinetic Energy
It is the energy possessed by a body by
virtue of its motion.
If a body of mass m is moving with
velocity v, then kinetic energy
𝐾𝐸 = 1
2 𝑚𝑣2 =
𝑝2
2𝑚
where p is the linear momentum.
When momentum is doubled, kinetic
energy becomes four times.
Kinetic energy of air is used to run
wind mills.
Kinetic energy of running water is used
to run the water mills.
A bullet fired from a gun can pierce a
target due to its kinetic energy.
If a body is moving in horizontal circle
then its kinetic energy is same at all points,
but if it is moving in vertical circle, then the
kinetic energy is different at different points.
Potential Energy
It is the energy possessed by a body by
virtue of its position.
Suppose a body is raised to a height h
above the surface of the earth, then
potential energy of body – mgh.
When a body is falling downwards, then
its potential energy goes on changing to
kinetic energy.
The potential energy of the wound
spring of a clock is used to drive the hands
of the clock.
The potential energy of water in dams is
used to run turbines in order to produce
electric energy using the generators.
Law of Conservation of Energy
According to the law of conservation of
energy, “energy can neither be created nor
be destroyed but it can be transformed from
one from to another.
The sum of all kinds of energies in an
isolated system remains constant at all
times.
Transformation of Energy
In a heat engine, heat energy changes
into mechanical energy.
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In the electric bulb, the electric energy is
converted into light energy.
In burning coil, oil, etc, the chemical
energy changes into heat energy.
In solar cell, solar energy changes into
electrical energy.
In playing sitar, mechanical energy
changes into sound energy.
In microphone, sound energy changes
into electrical energy.
In loud speaker, electrical energy
changes into sound energy.
In battery, chemical energy changes into
mechanical energy.
In electric motor, electrical energy
changes into mechanical energy.
In candle, chemical energy changes into
light and heat energy.
POWER
Rate of doing work by a body is called
power.
i.e., 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = 𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛
𝑃 = 𝑤
𝑡
SI unit of power is watt (W) or joule
second and it is a scalar quantity.
1 Horse Power = 746 W
1 watt second (W-s) = 1J
1 watt hour (W-h) = 3600J
1 kilowatt hour (kW-h)
= 3.6 × 106𝐽
The turning effect of a force on a body is
known as the moment of the force or torque.
Torque is a vector quantity.
Simple Machines
It is based on moment of force. Moment
of force = Force × perpendicular distance of
the force from the axis of rotation.
Lever, inclined plane, screw gauge etc
are simple machine.
Scissors, sea saw, breaks of cycle, hand
pump, plass are lever of first kind.
Nut cracker and waste carrying machine
are lever of second kind.
Tong, man‟s hand and tiller are lever of
third kind.
Gravitation Force
It is always attractive in nature.
It is the weakest force but is a long
range force.
Mathematically it is represented as
𝐹𝐺 = 𝐺𝑀𝑚
𝑟2
where, 𝐹𝐺 is gravitational force, G is
gravitational constant, M is the mass of first
particle, m is the mass of second particle
and r is the distance between them.
This is called Newton‟s universal law of
gravitation.
The value of G is
6.67 × 10−11 𝑁 − 𝑚2/𝑘𝑔2
Gravity
It is the force by which Earth attracts a
body towards its centre.
The acceleration due to gravity is the
rate of increase of velocity of a body falling
freely towards the Earth.
The value of g at the surface of Earth is
9.8 𝑚/𝑠2.
Earth is surrounded by an atmosphere of
gases due to gravity. The value of g on the
Moon is 1/6th of that on the Earth surface.
Variation in the Value of g
When we go above the surface of the
Earth, the acceleration due to gravity goes
on decreasing.
When we go below the surface of the
Earth, the acceleration due to gravity goes
on decreasing and becomes zero at the
centre of the Earth.
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Decreasing the rotational motion of
Earth, the value of g increase.
When we go from the equator towards
the poles, the value of g goes on increasing.
The value of g is maximum on the
surface of the Earth.
Weight of a Body in a Lift
If lift is going up with acceleration, the
apparent weight of a body is more than the
true weight. If lift is going down with
acceleration, the apparent weight of a body
is less than the true weight.
SATELLITE
The heavenly body which revolves round
the planets is called satellite. Moon is a
natural satellite of Earth.
The speed of a satellite does not depend
upon the mass of the satellite.
A satellite revolving very close to earth‟s
surface has a period of revolution about 84
min and its speed is nearly 8 km/s.
Every body inside the satellite is in a
state of weightlessness. Total energy of the
satellite is negative.
Artificial satellites are of two types
Geostationary and Polar satellites
(i) The satellite whose time period is 24 h, is
called geostationary satellite. It is used to
reflect TV signals and telecast TV programs
from one part of the world to another. This
satellite revolves around the Earth at a
height of 36000 km. INSAT 2B and INSAT 2C
are geostationary satellites of India.
(ii) Polar satellites revolve around the
earth in polar orbits at a height of
approximately 800 km. The time period of
these satellites is approximately 84 minute.
These satellite are used for weather
forecasting in studying upper region of the
atmosphere in mapping etc.
Escape Velocity
The minimum velocity of the body that
should be given to the body to enable it to
escape away from Earth‟s gravitational field
is called escape velocity. It is given by
𝑣𝑒 =
2 × 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦
× 𝑅𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑒 𝐸𝑎𝑟𝑡
Its value on the Earth‟s surface is 11.2 km/s.
The value of the escape velocity of a
body does not depend on its mass. Its value
on the moon surface is 2.38 km/s. So, there
is no atmosphere around the moon.
Escape velocity is 2 times the orbital
velocity.
Satellites are launched with the escape
velocity as needed.
Kepler’s Laws
All planets move around the sun in
elliptical orbits having the sun at one foci of
the orbit.
The areal speed of a planet around the
sun is constant.
The square of the period of revolution of
any planet around the Sun (T) is directly
proportional to the cube of its mean distance
from the Sun (a), i.e., 𝑇2 ∝ 𝑎3 .
Quick Digest
The Earth rotates on its axis from West
to East. This rotation makes the sun and the
stars appear to be moving across the sky
from East to West.
The response of plants to gravity is
called geotropism.
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We are able to see a live telecast of
cricket matches or other programmes with
the help of a communication satellite, which
is a geostationary satellite.
CHEMISTRY
Matter
Matter is anything which has mass and
occupies space.
It exists in five phases, viz, solid, liquid,
gas, plasma, Bose-Einstein condensate.
Melting Point
It is a temperature at which a substance
converts from its solid state to liquid state.
Melting point of ice is 0°C.
Melting point decreases in the presence
of impurity.
Sublimation
It is the process of conversion of a
substance from the solid phase to the gas
phase without passing through an
intermediate liquid-phase.
It is used to separate a sublimate
(substance undergoing sublimation like
camphor, naphthalene, ammonium chloride
etc) from non-sublimate.
Boiling Point
It is a temperature at which vapour
pressure of a liquid becomes equal to
atmospheric pressure.
It is different at different places.
Boiling point of water at normal
conditions is 100°C.
It usually decreases at high altitudes,
that‟s why at high altitudes, the boiling point
of water is less than 100°C and more time is
required to cook a food.
Boiling point of water in pressure cooker
is high due to high pressure and hence, less
time is required to cook the food.
Boiling point increases in the presence of
impurity.
Evaporation
It is the process of conversion of a liquid
into vapours at any temperature below its
boiling point. It increases with increase in
surface area and temperature.
In produces cooling. That‟s why we feel
cool when some nail polish remover or spirit
is kept on our palm.
Condensation
Is the process of conversion of gas into
liquid.
Solids, liquids and gases are inter
convertible by changing the conditions of
temperature and pressure-
Fluorescent Tube contains helium (He)
gas and neon (gas) Sign bulb contains neon
(Ne) gas.
Gas Laws
Boyle’s Law
At constant temperature, the pressure of a
fixed amount of gas (number of moles) is
inversely proportional to its volume.
The mathematical equation is
𝑃 ∝1
𝑉 𝑜𝑟 𝑃𝑉 = 𝑘
Charles’ Law
At constant pressure volume of a fixed
mass of a gas is directly proportional to its
absolute temperature.
This law can be written as
𝑉 ∝ 𝑇
Avogadro’s Law
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It states that equal volumes of all gases
at the same temperature and pressure
contain the equal number of molecules.
Ideal and Real Gases
Ideal gases follow gas laws in all
conditions of temperature and pressure.
Real gases follow gas laws only at high
temperature and low pressure.
Critical Temperature
It is the temperature above which a gas
cannot be liquefied.
Elements
Elements known at present are 118. Out
of which 94 are natural. Elements which are
liquid at room temperature are mercury (Hg)
and bromine (𝐵𝑟2).
Elements which become liquid at a
temperature slightly above the room
temperature (303 K), are gallium (Ga) and
cesium (Cs).
Examples (of elements) are sulphur,
phosphorus, oxygen, etc.
Elements have the following order of
abundance in earth crust. Oxygen > silicon >
aluminium (metal) > iron > calcium.
Elements have the following order of
abundance in human body: Oxygen > carbon
> hydrogen > nitrogen
Elements combine to give molecules.
Atom
It is the smallest particle of matter that
takes part in chemical reactions. (by
Dalton’s atomic theory).
It can neither be created nor destroyed
(law of conservation of mass given by
Lavoisier).
Mixtures
Mixtures can be homogeneous, i.e., have
uniform composition throughout (e.g., salt
solution, sugar solution, air, true solutions
etc.) or heterogeneous, i.e., have non-
uniform composition (e.g., mixture of salt
and sugar, colloidal solutions etc).
Solutions or True Solutions
These are homogeneous mixtures of two
or more substances.
Colloidal Solutions
These are heterogeneous mixtures.
These contain two phases, i.e., dispersed
phase and dispersion medium.
These can scatter light because of the
presence of large solute particles, i.e., they
show Tyndall’s effect and Brownian
movement.
Blue colour of sky is also due to
scattering of light by dust particles
suspended in air.
They are separated by special technique
like centrifugation.
They are of following types on the basis
of dispersed phase and dispersion medium.
Colloidal solutions are coagulated by
adding an electrolyte.
Colloidal solutions are purified by
dialysis, which is also used in the purification
of blood with the help of artificial kidney
machine.
Coagulation found its use in purification
of water by alum, stoping bleeding by 𝑒𝐶𝑙3 ,
formation of delta at the junction of sea and
river.
Colloidal Solutions
Disperse
d Phase
Dispersion
Medium
Type of
Colloid
Example
Liquid Gas Aerosol Fog, clouds,
mist
Solid Gas Aerosol
(solid)
Smoke,
automobile
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exhaust
Gas Liquid Foam Shaving
Cream
Liquid Liquid Emulsio
n
Milk, face-
cream
Solid Liquid Sol Milk of
magnesia
mud,
Gas Solid Foam Foam,
rubber,
sponge,
pumice
Liquid Solid Gel Jelly,
cheese,
butter
Solid Solid Solid sol Coloured
gemstone,
milky glass
Separation of Mixtures
A number of physical and chemical methods
are used to separate the number of
mixtures. Some important methods are
discussed below
Centrifugation
It is based upon the principle that the
denser particles are forced to the bottom
and the lighter particles stay at the top when
spin rapidly.
It is used in diagnostic laboratories for
blood and urine tests, in dairies and home to
separate butter from cream, in washing
machine to squeeze out water from wet
clothes.
Distillation
It is a method of separating mixtures
based on differences in volatilities of
components in a boiling liquid mixture.
It is used to separate mixtures of ether
and toluene, benzene and aniline etc.
Fractional Distillation
It is used to separate liquids having very
less difference in their boiling points.
It is used to obtain pure diesel, petrol,
kerosene oil, coaltar etc from crude oil or
mineral oil.
It is used to separate a mixture of
acetone (329 K) and methyl alcohol (338 K).
Vacuum Distillation
It is also known as distillation under
reduced pressure
It is used for the substances which
decompose below their boiling point.
It is used to obtain glycerol and 𝐻2𝑂2 and
to concentrate sugar cane juice in sugar
industry.
Steam Distillation
It is used to separate a steam volatile
compound from non-volatile or non-steam
volatile compounds. It is used to purify
sandalwood oil, turpentine oil, aniline,
nitrobenzene etc.
Crystallisation
It is used to separate a mixture of inorganic
solids. It is done with the help of suitable
solvent. Their examples include separation of
a mixture of sugar and salt by using ethyl
alcohol.
Chromatography
It is the modern technique used for
separation and purification of organic
compounds. It was discovered by Tswett.
It is used for the separation of coloured
pigments from a plant.
Reverse Osmosis
It is a technique in which solvent
molecules move from the solution of higher
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concentration to the solution of lower
concentration when these are separated by
semipermeable membrane and excess
pressure is applied to the solution of higher
concentration.
It is used for desalination of sea water.
ATOMIC STRUCTURE AND
RADIOACTIVITY
Modern Atomic Theory
According to this theory, „Atom is made up of
three fundamental particles called electrons,
protons and neutrons.
Discovery of Cathode Rays and
Electrons (−𝟏𝒆𝟎)
Cathode rays were discovered by Sir
Julius Pluckur.
These originate from cathode and travels
in a straight line towards anode.
These rays carry negative charge and
generate X-rays.
Electron was discovered by JJ Thomson.
It‟s antiparticle is positron.
Discovery of Anode Rays and Protons
(1H or P)
Anode rays were discovered by
Goldstein. (also called positive rays.)
These do not originate from anode.
These are positively charged and have
velocity less than cathode rays.
Proton was discovered by Rutherford.
It is positively charged.
It is present in the nucleus
It has mass 1836 times that of the
electron.
Discovery of Neutron (𝟎𝒏𝟏)
Neutron was discovered by Chadwick.
It has zero charge and 1.674 × 10−17 𝑘𝑔
or 1.00867 u mass.
It is present inside the nucleus. Its
antiparticle is antineutrino.
Hydrogen is the only atom in which
neutrons are not present.
Electromagnetic forces bind electrons
with the nucleus.
Atoms having same number of electrons
and protons are neutral.
Discovery of Nucleus
It contains protons and neutrons which
are collectively called nucleons.
Atomic Number (Z)
It is equal to the number of protons.
It is equal to the number of electrons in
neutral atom.
Mass Number (A)
It is equal to the sum of number of
protons and number of neutrons.
It is written as a superscript to the right
of the symbol of the atom, e.g., 𝐶12 here 12
is the mass number of carbon (C).
Mass number = Number of protons +
Number of neutrons = Atomic number +
Number of neutrons = Number of electrons
+ Number of neutrons (in case of neutral
atom)
Isotopes
These have same atomic number but
different mass number. Example isotopes of
hydrogen i.e., 1H1, (protium), 1H
2 or D
(deuterium) and 1H3 or T (tritium). T is
radioactive.
Isotopes of polonium are maximum.
Hydrogen (H–1) is the lightest isotope
and lead-208 is the heaviest isotope (with
mass 207.974).
Isobars
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These have the same mass number but
different atomic number.
18Ar40, 19K40, 20Ca40 are isobars.
Isotones
These have same number of neutrons, e.g.,
1H3 and 2He4 as both have two neutrons.
Niels Bohr Model
The electrons are confined into clearly
defined, quantised orbits and could jump
between these, but could not freely spiral
inward or outward in intermediate states.
Planck’s Quantum Theory
According to this theory
1. Atoms and molecules could emit or absorb
energy only in the form of discrete packets
of energy called quanta.
2. The energy of quantum (E) is proportional
to its frequency (v),
i.e., E = hv
where, h = Planck‟s constant 6.626 ×
10−34 𝐽𝑠
3. The energy is quantized.
De-Broglie Concept
It suggests that matter possesses dual
nature, i.e., has wave nature as well as
particle nature.
It also suggests that wavelength (λ) of
electron is inversely proportional to its
momentum (p) i.e.,
𝜆 =
𝑝=
𝑚𝑣
where, m = mass of electron
and v = velocity of electron
Radioactivity
It was discovered by Henry Becquerel
but term radioactivity was given by Madam
Curie. It is the process of spontaneous
disintegration of nucleus and is measured by
Geiger counter.
It is a nuclear phenomenon, thus
remains unaffected by external factors like
temperature, pressure etc.
It involves emission of 𝛼 , 𝛽 and 𝛾
rays/particles and has units Curie,
Becquerel, Rutherford.
Alpha (𝜶) Particle
These are positively charged helium
nuclei (2He4) 2+. They have +2 unit charge
and 4u mass.
They have low penetrating power but
very high ionizing power and kinetic energy.
Beta (𝜷) Particle
These are more dangerous than 𝛼 − rays.
These have high penetrating power as
compared to 𝛼 − 𝑟𝑎𝑦𝑠.
Gamma (𝜸) Rays
These are electromagnetic radiation and
have very high penetrating power.
These have low ionising power and
kinetic energy.
Their emission does not affect the
position of nuclei in the Periodic Table.
Half-Life Period
It is the time in which a radioactive
substance remains half of its original
amount.
Nuclear Fission
It is a process in which a heavy nucleus
is broken down into two or more lighter
fragments.
It is usually accompanied with the
emission of neutrons and large amount of
energy. It is used in nuclear reactor and
atom bomb.
Atom Bomb
It is based on uncontrolled nuclear
fission. It contains 235U or 239Pu as fuel.
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Nuclear Reactor
It is a device that is used to produce
electricity and permits a controlled chain
nuclear fission.
It contains fuels e.g., 92U235, moderator
(e.g., graphite and heavy water, D2O) to
slow down neutrons and control rods (made
up of boron steel or cadmium) to absorb
neutrons.
It may also contain liquid sodium as
coolant.
Nuclear Fusion
It is a process which involves fusion of
two or more lighter nuclei to give a heavier
nuclei.
It occurs only at extremely high
temperature > 106 𝐾 , so also called
thermonuclear reactions.
It is used in hydrogen bomb. Energy of
Sun is also a result of a series of nuclear
fusion reactions.
Hydrogen Bomb
It contains a mixture of deuterium oxide
(D2O) and tritium oxide (T2O) in a space
surrounding an ordinary atom bomb.
Radiocarbon Dating
It is used in determining the age of carbon
bearing materials such as wood, animals
fossils etc. It is based on the concentration
of C12 and C14 isotopes.
Uranium Dating
It is used to determine the age of earth,
minerals and rocks. Periodic Classification of
Elements
Uses of Radioisotopes
1. Iodine – 131 is employed to study the
structure and activity of thyroid gland. It is
also used in internal radiation therapy for the
treatment of thyroid disease.
2. Iodine – 123 is used in brain imaging.
3. Cobalt – 60 is used in external radiation
therapy for the treatment of cancer.
4. Sodium – 24 is injected along with salt
solution to trace the flow of blood.
5. Phosphorus – 32 is used for leukemia
therapy.
6. Carbon – 14 is used to study the kinetics
of photosynthesis.
BIOLOGY
Introduction
Study of plants is called Botany and
study of animals is called Zoology. Zoology
and Botany are collectively called Biology.
The term „Biology‟ was coined by Lamarck
and Treviranus.
Theophrastus is known as Father of
Botany.
The Cell
The Cell is the basic structural and
functional unit of all known living organisms.
It is the smallest unit of life and is often
called the building block of life.
The branch of Biology which deals with
the study of cell, is called Cytology.
The first living cell was discovered by
Leeuwenhoek.
Differences between Prokaryotic and
Eukaryotic Cell
Prokaryotic Cell Eukaryotic Cell
Simplest and
primitive in
nature.
Developed and
comparatively complex in
nature.
Lacks nuclear
envelope
Nucleus is present with
elaborate nuclear
envelope
Membrane bound
cell organelles are
Membrane bound cell
organelles are present.
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absent.
Single naked
chromosome
present.
Many chromosomes are
present.
Cell division is
direct.
Cell division occurs by
mitosis or meiosis.
Facts about Cell
The largest known cells are unfertilized
Ostrich egg cells (size 6 inch diameter)
The smallest cell is of PPLO
(Mycoplasma gallisepticum of size 0.1-
0.3µ.m.
Human nerve cell is the longest animal
cell.
Largest unicellular plant is Acetabularia
(10 cm) and animal is Amoeba, (1 mm).
The largest human cell is the female
ovum and the smallest human cell is the red
blood cell.
Parts of Cell and their Functions
A typical cell consists of cell wall and
protoplasm.
Protoplasm of Cell
It is the living fluid matter present inside the
plasma membrane. The fluid present outside
the nuclear membrane is called cytoplasm
and the fluid present inside the nuclear
membrane is called nucleoplasm.
Deutoplasm is the non-living matter of the
cell.
Cell Wall
It is present in plant cells, bacteria, fungi,
algae and some archaea. It is composed of
cellulose in plants and chitin in fungi. It is
non-living. Its main function is to provide
shape and rigidity to the cell.
Plasma Membrane
The cell is enclosed by a thin membrane
called the cell membrane or
plasmalemma. It is composed of proteins
and phospholipid molecules. It is elastic,
living and selectively permeable, i.e., provide
passage for various substances.
Mitochondria
It is a semi-autonomous (can form its own
copies) organelle and is called power house
of the cell because in it stepwise oxidation
of fuel occurs which results in release of
chemical energy. This energy is stored in the
form of ATP.
Plastids
These are present only in plant cells and
are of three types-chloroplasts (green),
leucoplasts (white) and chromoplasts (of
various colours except green). Chloroplast is
the site of photosynthesis as it contains
chlorophyll, while leucoplasts are storage
plastids. Chloroplast is called the kitchen of
the cell.
The red colour of tomatoes is due to the
presence of lycopene pigment, i.e.,
chromospheres.
The colour of carrot is due to carotene.
Endoplasmic Reticulum
Rough enodoplasmic reticulum is the site of
protein synthesis, while smooth endoplasmic
reticulum is the site of synthesis of steroids
and detoxification.
Golgi Apparatus
It was discovered by Camillo Golgi. It is
made up of sac-like flattened structures and
play an important role in secretion,
transportation and acrosome formation.
Ribosomes
Ribosomes were discovered by GE Palade.
These are minute, non-membranous
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particles, composed of RNA and protein. 70S
type of ribosomes are found in prokaryotes,
while 80S type in eukaryotes. These are the
site of protein synthesis.
Lysosomes
Lysosomes were discovered by de Duve.
These are polymorphic organelles having
hydrolytic enzymes. These enzymes function
at acidic pH ~ 5 . These are sometimes
called suicidal bags of the cell.
Lysosome helps in carcinogenesis, i.e.,
conversion of a normal cell into cancerous
cell.
Centrosome
It was discovered by T Boveri. It is
composed of two set of centrioles and
participate in the formation of mitotic spindle
during cell division.
Vacuoles
These are non-living reservoir, bounded by a
membrane called tonoplast. Pigment
anthocyanin is present in the cell vacuole,
which provide colour to flowers. It stores
toxic metabolic waste and helps in
osmoregulation.
Nucleus
It was discovered by Robert Brown. It
contains nucleoplasm, nucleolus and
chromatin material. Nucleolus is rich in
protein and RNA. All this material is covered
up by a nuclear membrane. Chromatin is the
controlling centre of cell as it form
chromosomes. Chromosomes are units of
inheritance.
Chromosome
Chromosome is thread-like structure, found
in the nucleus. Bead-like structures found on
chromosome are called genes, which are
made up of DNA and are the carrier of
genetic information from generation to
generation. In some viruses e.g. retrovirus,
RNA is the genetic material.
Differences between Plant and Animal
Cell
Plant Cell Animal Cell
It has cell wall. Cell wall is usually absent.
Plastids are
found.
Plastids are usually absent.
Centrioles and
centrosome are
absent.
Centrioles and centrosomes
are found in all cells.
A big vacuole is
present.
Vacuole is absent or very
small in size.
Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA)
Each nucleotide consists of a nucleoside
(i.e., nitrogenous base and deoxyribose
sugar) and a phosphate group, joined
together by phosphodi ester bonds.
It has four bases, i.e. adenine, guanine,
cytosine and thymine.
Adenine and guanine are the purine
bases; cytosine and thymine are pyrimidine
bases.
DNA was discovered by James D
Watson and Francis Crick, who got Nobel
Prize for this discovery.
Ribonucleic Acid (RNA)
It is also made up of a long chain of
nucleotides.
Each nucleotide consists of a nitrogenous
base, a ribose sugar, and a phosphate
group.
It contains uracil in place of thymine.
RNA is of three types-
mRNA (messenger RNA)
rRNA (ribosomal RNA)
tRNA (transfer RNA)
These three take part in protein synthesis.
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Cell Division
It is the process by which a cell increase in
number. It is essential for the growth,
development
and repair of the body.
It is of two types – Mitosis and Meiosis
(i) Mitosis: It occurs in unicellular organism
during asexual reproduction. Each mitotic
cell division results in the formation of two
daughter cell having number of
chromosomes equal to the parent cell.
Tumour or cancer is a result of uncontrolled
mitosis.
(ii) Meiosis: It occurs in reproductive cells
and is called reduction division because of
the presence of single set of chromosomes
(i.e., half of the parent chromosomes). It
results in the formation of four daughter
cells.
ECONOMICS
FIVE YEAR PLAN
When India became an independent country,
many questions had arisen in front of the
country‟s leaders at that time. The British
had left the Indian economy handicapped;
leaders had the challenges to make country‟s
economy strong. A formal model of planning
was adopted. The Planning commission was
established on 15th March 1950, with
Former Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru as
the Chairman. The Planning Commission is
directly reporting to the Prime Minister of
India. Now, it is known as NITI Aayog
(National Institute for Transforming India
Aayog) and established by Prime Minister
Narendra Modi on 1st January 2015.
Planning Commission was assigned the task
of formulating plans for the most effective
and balanced utilisation of resources and
determining priorities. Since then the
Planning Commission frames the centralized
and integrated national economic programs
at the interval of every five years, thereby
known as the Five-Year Plans. The First Five-
Year Plan of India was presented by Pandit
Jawaharlal Nehru in 1951.
First Plan (1951-56): It was based on
Harrod-Domar Model. Focus on Agriculture,
Price Stability, Power and Transport It was a
successful plan primarily because of good
harvests in the last two years of the plan.
Second Plan (1956-61): It also called
Mahalanobis plan named after the well
known economist. Focus on rapid
industrialization. Advocated huge imports
through foreign loans. Shifted basic
emphasis from agriculture to industry.
During this plan prices increased by 30%,
against a decline of 13% during the First
plan
Third Plan (1961-66): It stressed
agriculture and improvement in the
production of wheat, but the brief Sino-
Indian war of 1962 exposed weaknesses in
the economy and shifted the focus towards
the defence industry and the Indian Army.
Complete failure in reaching the targets due
to unforeseen events-Chinese aggression
(1962), Indo-Pak war (1964), severe
drought 1965-66.
Three Annual Plans (1966-69): Prevailing
crisis in agriculture and serious food
shortage necessitated the emphasis on
agriculture during the Annual Plans. During
these plans a whole new agricultural strategy
was implemented. It involving wide-spread
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distribution of high-yielding varieties of
seeds, extensive use of fertilizers,
exploitation of irrigation potential and soil
conservation. During the Annual Plans, the
economy absorbed the shocks generated
during the Third Plan.
Fourth Plan (1969-74): Main emphasis
was on growth rate of agriculture to enable
other sectors to move forward First two
years of the plan saw record production. The
last three years did not measure up due to
poor monsoon. Influx of Bangladeshi
refugees before and after 1971 Indo-Pak war
was an important issue.
Fifth Plan (1974-79): It proposed to
achieve two main objectives: 'removal of
poverty' (Garibi Hatao) and 'attainment of
self reliance'. Promotion of high rate of
growth, better distribution of income and
significant growth in the domestic rate of
savings were seen as key instruments. The
plan was terminated in 1978 (instead of
1979) when Janta Party government rose to
power. Rolling Plan (1978-80): Janta
government put forward a plan for 1978-
1983. However, the government lasted for
only 2 years. Congress government returned
to power in 1980 and launched a different
plan.
Sixth Plan (1980-85): Focus - Increase in
national income, modernization of
technology, ensuring continuous decrease in
poverty and unemployment, population
control through family planning etc
Seventh Plan (1985-90): Focus - rapid
growth in food-grains production, increased
employment opportunities and productivity
within the framework of basic tenants of
planning. The plan was very successful, the
economy recorded 6% growth rate against
the targeted 5%.
Eight Plan (1992-97): The eighth plan was
postponed by two years because of political
uncertainty at the centre Worsening Balance
of Payment position and inflation during
1990-91 were the key issues during the
launch of the plan. The plan undertook
drastic policy measures to combat the bad
economic situation and to undertake an
annual average growth of 5.6% Some of the
main economic outcomes during eighth plan
period were rapid economic growth, high
growth of agriculture and allied sector, and
manufacturing sector, growth in exports and
imports, improvement in trade and current
account deficit.
Ninth Plan (1997-2002): It was developed
in the context of four important dimensions:
Quality of life, generation of productive
employment, regional balance and self-
reliance.
Tenth Plan (2002-2007): To achieve 8%
GDP growth rate Reduction of poverty ratio
by 5 percentage points by 2007 Providing
gainful high quality employment to the
addition to the labour force over the tenth
plan period Universal access to primary
education by 2007 Reduction in gender gaps
in literacy and wage rates by atleast 50% by
2007 Reduction in decadal rate of population
growth between 2001 and 2011 to 16.2%
Increase in literacy rate to 72% within the
plan period and to 80% by 2012 Increase in
forest and tree cover to 25% by 2007 and
33% by 2012. Cleaning of all major polluted
rivers by 2007 and other notified stretches
by 2012.
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Eleventh Plan (2007-2012): Accelerate
GDP growth from 8% to 10%. Increase
agricultural GDP growth rate to 4% per year.
Create 70 million new work opportunities
and reduce educated unemployment to
below 5% Raise real wage rate of unskilled
workers by 20 % Lower gender gap in
literacy to 10 percentage point. Increase the
percentage of each cohort going to higher
education from the present 10% to 15 %
Reduce Total Fertility Rate to 2.1 Raise the
sex ratio for age group 0-6 to 935 by 2011-
12 and to 950 by 2016-2017 Provide clean
drinking water for all by 2009 Attain WHO
standards of air quality in all major cities by
2011-12 Increase energy efficiency by 20
percentage points by 2016-17
Twelfth Plan: 2012-17 This plan‟s focus is
on instilling “inclusive growth”. The plan is
concentrated to encourage the development
of India‟s agriculture, education, health and
social welfare through government spending.
It is also expected to create employment
through developing India‟s manufacturing
sector and move the nation higher up the
value chain.
Success is the result of perfection, hard
work, learning from failure, loyalty, and
persistence
*****ALL THE BEST*****