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CHAPTER-7

MOTIVATION

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Objectives of the Chapter

Definition of motivation Classifications of motives The content theories of work motivation The process theories of work motivation The contemporary theories of work motivation Motivation of performance through job design

and goal setting Application of goal setting to organizational

system performance

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Definition of Motivation

Motivation is defined as “The willingness to exert high level

of effort towards organizational goals, conditioned by efforts,

and ability to satisfy some individual needs.”

Stephen P Robbins

it is condition that is initiated by a physiological or

psychological deficiency or need in an individual, which

causes the individual to behave in a certain manner in

order to achieve a particular goal or incentive.

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Elements of Motivation

Physiological/ Psychological

deficiency(NEED)

Achieves a particular goal(INCENTIVE)

Individual behaves in a

certain manner(DRIVE)

these elements are interactive and interdependent

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Need : physiological or psychological deficiency or imbalance in an individual will result in a need. For e.g. hunger thirst But psychological need may sometimes arise without

any deficiency or imbalance. e.g. strong need for progress.

Drive: physiological drive is a condition which causes a person to work in a particular direction.

Incentive : anything that mitigate the drive and decrease the intensity of the drive

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Classification of Motives:

Primary Motives

General Motive

Secondary Motives

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Primary Motives:

A motive is termed as a primary motive when it satisfies both the criteria : it is learned as well as it is physiologically based. It is not earned, and it is physiological based.

all human beings have same primary motives

Example: Hunger, thirst, sleep, avoidance of pain

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General Motives:

A motive is considered to be a general motive if it is not learned, but is also not based on physiological need. general motives stimulate tension within the individual. They are also called “stimulus motives”

The motives of curiosity, manipulation and motive to remain active

The affection motive

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The Curiosity, Manipulation and Activity Motives

The motives of curiosity, manipulation and

activity are very beneficial for a person, as

they often result in innovations and better

ways of doing things.

If individuals were restricted from satisfying

these motives, there would be no improvement

in the way things are done, which would result

in stagnation.

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The Affection Motive:

Affection or love is a somewhat complex

general motive.

The complexity arises due to that fact that

love is similar to the primary motives in

some ways, while in some other ways, it

resembles secondary motives.

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Secondary Motives:

It is a motive that has been learned or acquired over time

The power motive

The achievement motive

The affiliation motive

The security motive

The status motive

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The Power Motive

The person’ drives to gain power and prove

himself superior to others.

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Achievement Motive

The achievement motive is a person’ desire to perform excellently or to handle complex or competitive situations successfully.

David C. McClelland Profile of High achievers:

Moderate degree of risk Need for precise feedback Satisfaction with accomplishment Total dedication towards task

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Affiliation Motive

Employees especially those at the lower

levels of the organizational hierarchy,

have a strong desire to belong to and be

accepted by other employees or the

whole group

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Security Motive

Security motive is based largely on fear

and is avoidance-oriented i.e., people try

to avoid insecurity rather than attempt to

achieve security

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Status Motive

Status is defined as the rank a person holds

relative to others within a group. The

status motive is extremely important

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The Content Theories of Work Motivation

The content theories of motivation attempt to identify and prioritize the needs and derives that motivate people at work.

The theories are: Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Herzberg’s Two-factor Theory of

Motivation Alderfer’s ERG theory

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Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Abraham Maslow

Self actualization needs

Esteem needs(Important projects,

Recognition, prestigious office location)

Social needs(Good coworkers, peers, superiors,

customers)

Safety or Security Needs(Job security; benefits like life insurance; safety

regulations)

Physiological needs(Basic pay, Workspace, heat, water company cafeteria)

(Challenging projects, Opportunities for innovation and creativity, training)

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Two-Factor Theory:

Herzberg’s classification of needs as hygiene factors and motivators.

He conducted a study to find out the job satisfaction and dissatisfaction factors

Job satisfiers were associated with job content and job dissatisfiers were related to job context ( circumstances/ situation)

satisfiers were called motivators and dissatisfiers were called hygiene factors

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Hygiene Factors (Needs): they are preventive in nature they are responsible for preventing dissatisfaction.

They are similar to lower level needs in Maslow’s hierarchy Presence of able supervisors administrative policies of the org. Fair pay Good interpersonal relations Conducive working conditions

Once hygiene factors have been addressed, organization can make use of motivators to make people feel motivated and satisfied

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TWO-FACTOR THEORY: Contd…

Motivator Factors (Needs): were essential to keep employees satisfied the wok itself: Meaningful and

challenging work, Appreciation for good work Giving adequate responsibility to employees Clear achievable goals career growth (opportunity for growth,

opportunity for advancement)

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CONTRIBUTION OF HERZBERG’S

THEORY

Theory proposed that the employers will not be able to motivate employees if they concentrate only on the hygiene factors.

hygiene factors are necessary only to retain their employees. but they cannot motivate the employees

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Alderfer’s ERG Theory:

Clayton Alderfer : proposed a continuum of needs rather than a hierarchy

Existence needs – These are associated with the survival and physiological wellbeing of an individual.

Relatedness needs – These needs emphasize the significance of social and interpersonal relationship.

Growth needs – These needs are related to a person’s inner desire for personal growth and development.

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Acc. To Alderfer : a person’s background or cultural environment may cause the relatedness needs to predominate over unfulfilled existence needs.

It is also possible that intensity of growth needs will increase in the degree to which they are satisfied.

limitations of content theories :

They do not explain the complexities involved in the process of motivation.

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The Relationship between Maslow,s Hierarchy of Needs, Herzberg’s Two-Factor

Theory and Alderfer’s ERG Needs

Self-actualization and fulfillment

Esteem and status

Belongings and social needs

Safety andsecurity

Physiological needs

Growth

Relatedness

Existence

Work itself AchievementPossibility of growth

Responsibility

Advancement Recognition

Status

Relations with supervisors Peer relationsRelations with subordinatesQuality of supervisions

Company policy and administration Job security

Working conditions Pay

Motivation factors

Hygiene factors

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The Process Theories of Work Motivation

The process theories of motivation deal with “How” of Motivation.

It deal with the cognitive antecedents (preceding factor) that go into motivation or effort, and more specifically, with the way the cognitive antecedents of an individual relate to one another.

The theories are Vrooms’ Expectancy Theory of Motivation The Porter-Lawler Model

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Vrooms’ Expectancy Theory of Motivation

The theory is based on three variables – valence, instrumentality and expectancy – and is therefore commonly termed VIE theory.

An individual will act in a certain way based on the expectation that the act will be followed by a given outcome and on the attractiveness of that outcome to the individual.

Valence (V) denotes the strength of an individual’s preference for a particular outcome.

valence is value or expected utility Valence is +ve if person prefer to attain a particular outcome valence is –ve if person is not interested in the outcome

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Instrumentality refers to the degree to which a first-level outcome would help in attaining the desired second-level outcome.

Instrumentality serves as an input for valence

Expectancy is the probability that performing a specific action would produce a particular first-level outcome or effort.

Vrooms’ ExpectancyTheory of Motivation Contd…

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Performance Instrumentality

belief that if I do better,

I get a better reward

Effort Expectancy

Belief that if I try had I can do better

Outcome Valence

Value of the outcome to the person

Vs indifference or aversion

Motivation

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Relationships Identified In Vroom’s Expectancy Theory

Effort performance relationship- an individuals perception of the probability that a specific level of the performance would result if he put a certain effort

performance- reward relationship – the extent of an individuals belief that a particular level of performance would result in achieving the desired outcome.

Rewards- personal goals relationships- the degree to which an individuals need are satisfied by the rewards given by the org. and his perception of the attractiveness of these rewards.

Managers need to asses the relationship between the three factors and personal goals .

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Outcome

1

Person possessing preference Among Various outcomes

Goals and associated Outcomes (Direct and Correlated)

Expectancy 1st level outcomes

2nd level outcomes

Motivational force = Walence*Expectancy Action Outcome

1a

Outcome

1c

Outcome

1b

Accompanied by perceived probabilities of various actions leading to Different outcomes

Feedback (Modification of preferences)

Net Valence or Values of all outcomes

(satisfaction –dissatisfaction)

*Walence = ΣValence x Instrumentality

Vrooms’ Expectancy Theory

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The Porter-Lawler Model

Porter and Lawler tried to explore the

complex relationship between

motivation, satisfaction and

performance, and pointed out that

efforts put in by an employee did not

directly result in performance.

it gives a comprehensive explanation

of work motivation.

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Acc to porter Lawler model performance is dependent on three factors : An employee should have the desire to

perform i.e. he must feel motivated Motivation alone cannot ensure successful

performance of a a task: he should have the necessary skills and abilities.

The employee should also have the clear perception of his role in the org. and accurate knowledge of the job requirement.

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1. Value of Reward4. Abilities & Traits

8. Perceived Equitable Rewards

3. Effort6. Performance

7.a Intrinsic Rewards

2. Perceived Effort Reward Probability 5. Role Perception

7b Extrinsic Rewards

9. Satisfaction

The Porter-Lawler Model contd…

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Effort: the amount of energy expended by an individual to perform a specific task. Effort depends upon the attractiveness of the reward and the probability that his efforts will lead to the reward.

Performance : it is not necessary that the effort will result in performance. Performance in turn is depended on the abilities and skills and the way the individual perceives his role.

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important variables in the model

Reward: employee is rewarded acc. To performance. Reward can be intrinsic or extrinsic. intrinsic rewards : are those a person grants to

himself for having performed a task well Extrinsic rewards : are the rewards given to the

employee by the organization

Satisfaction: depends upon whether the actual reward offered fall short of, match or exceed what the individual perceives as an equitable level of reward.

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The Contemporary Theories of Work Motivation

Equity Theory :

J. Stacy Adams

This theory states that the degree of equity

or inequity perceived by an employee with

reference to his work situation plays a major

role in work performance and satisfaction.

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Employees generally compares their output – input ratio with that of others. If they perceives the ratio of their outcomes and inputs are equal to that of their peers and others , it will result in equity

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Equity Theory Contd…

Equity theory represented schematically as:Person’s Outcomes= Other’s OutcomesPerson’s inputs Other’s inputs

Inequity is represented as follows:Person’s Outcomes< Other’s OutcomesPerson’s inputs Other’s inputs

(or)Person’s Outcomes> Other’s OutcomesPerson’s inputs Other’s inputs

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Various referent comparison used by employees:

Self-inside - comparing ones experience in the present position with the experiences of those holding a similar position in same org.

Self-outside - comparing ones experience in the present position with the experiences of those holding a similar position in another org

Other-inside- comparing ones experience in the present position with the experiences of those holding a a different position but belonging to the same org.

Other-outside - comparing ones experience in the present position with the experiences of those holding a different position in another org

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After comparing his position with that of his referent, if an employee perceives an inequity, he will make certain choices. The choices that an employee is likely to make are as described below:

Change in inputs: he may reduce the effort he puts in a particular job

Change in outcomes: the employee may act an manner that brings about change in the outcome or end result.

Distort perceptions of self: the employee may distort the perception he held about his own performance

Distort perception of others: an employee may change the way he perceives others jobs, positions and productivity.

choose a different referent

leave the field

Equity Theory Contd…

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Equity theory proposed four methods for overcome inequity :

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Attribution Theory

Attribution theory deals with the cognitive

processes of an individual, which help

interpret his behavior as being caused by

aspects pertaining to the relevant

environment.

Harold H.Kelley

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Locus of Control Attributions

‘Locus of control’ refers to the chief

source of factors that creates a result or

gives rise to an outcome in the

employee’s perceptions.

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Other Attributions

Consensus:

Behave in similar manner

Consistency:

Pattern of behavior, which may be relatively stable or unstable

Distinctiveness:

Indicates whether a person’s behavior is similar for all tasks

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Motivation of Performance Through Job Design and Goal Setting:

“Job design” can be defined as the process of

structuring tasks and responsibilities into a job

in an attempt to make the job more

meaningful, significant and satisfying.

The theory of goal setting as propounded by

Locke, Wood and Mento is based on the

principle that difficult goals stimulate

performance and commitment.

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Motivation of Performance Through Job Design

Approaches to job design

Job engineering approach to job design

Job enlargement approach

Job rotation

Job enrichment

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Approaches to Job Design

Job engineering approach to job design:

Concerned with issues like plant layout, design of products, processes and tools.

Job enlargement approach:

Deals with the horizontal expansion of jobs

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Approaches to Job Design Contd…

Job rotation:

This approach involves the regular

switching of jobs among employees.

Job enrichment:

The job enrichment approach carries out

a vertical expansion of jobs.

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Quality of Work Life and Socio- Technical Approach to Job Design

QWL approach deals with the impact of

work on the employees and on

organizational effectiveness.

The sociotechnical aspect of job design

aims at creating a harmonious interface

between the human and technological

aspects of work so as to enhance the

quality of work life.

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Job Characteristics Approach to Job Design

The Job Characteristics approach identifies certain features of jobs that result in certain psychological states.

The core dimensions or characteristics of a job :

Skill variety

Task identify

Task significance

Autonomy

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Measuring Task Scope:

Task scope refers to a dimension for describing jobs at various levels of the organization.

Hackman and Oldham have developed a qualitative method

MPS = (Skill variety + task identify + task significance) x autonomy x feedback/3

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Redesigning Jobs

Combination of tasks

Vertical Loading of jobs

Introduction of an open feedback system

Formation of natural teams

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Motivating Performance Through Goal Setting:

A goal can be defined as the desired consequence of an action.

Performance enhancement through goal setting:

Goals should be specific Goals should be difficult and challenging Goals must be owned and accepted Goals must have a specific time frame Goals should be measurable

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Barriers to Effective Goal Setting

Lack of top management-support

Lack of Communication

Content of the goal

Technical incompetence

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Application of Goal Setting to Organizational System Performance

The theory of goal setting is usually

implemented through a system called

Management by Objectives, popularly

known as MBO.

MBO refers to the process of setting goals

and objectives through the participation of

the management and he workers.

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The Process of MBO

Consensus on key goals and objectives

Sketch a plan of action

Control of behavior

Periodic appraisal and reviews:

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Summary of The Chapter

Definition of motivation Classifications of motives The content theories of work motivation The process theories of work motivation The contemporary theories of work motivation Motivation of performance through job design

and goal setting Application of goal setting to organizational

system performance