Post on 13-Dec-2015
CHAPTER 5CHAPTER 5CHAPTER 5CHAPTER 55.1 Noise5.1 Noise5.2 Transmission Media & EM 5.2 Transmission Media & EM PropagationsPropagations
Introduction Define as • undesired random variations that interface with
the desired signal and inhibit communication.
Where does noise originate in a communication system?
1. Channel @ transmission medium
2. Devices @ Equipments
Cont’d...
Noise Effect
• One of the main limiting factor in obtaining high performance of a communication system.
• Decrease the quality of the receiving signal.
Block Diagram of Communication System With the Existence of
Noise
Cont’d...• Noise, interference and distortion
– Noise•Refers to random and unpredictable
electrical signals produced by natural process.
•Superimposed on information bearing signal, the message partially corrupted or totally erased.
•Can be reduced by filtering but can’t totally eliminated.
Cont’d...
– Interference•A contamination by extraneous
signals from human sources (e.g. from other Tx, power lines, machineries)
•Often occurred in radio system whose Rx antenna intercept several signals at the same time.
Cont’d...– Distortion
•The signal perturbation caused by imperfect response of the system to the desired signal.
•Disappear when the signal is turned-off.
•Can be corrected by the equalizers.
Noise Remedies?
REDUCE BANDWIDTH
INCREASE TRANSMITTER’S POWER
LOW NOISE AMPLIFIERS
F L IC K E R N O IS E-tu b es
S H O T N O IS E-e lec tron ic sys tem
-eq u ip m en t
TH E R M A L N O IS E-tran s is to r
-d iod e-res is to rs
IN TE R N A L
A TM O S P H E R IC N O IS E-N o ise b lan k in g
-lig h tin g
S P A C E N O IS E-so la r n o ise-sky n o ise
M A N M A D E N O IS E-au tom ob ile en g in e
-e lec tric m oto r-com p u te r
E X TE R N A L
N O IS E
Types of NOISE
Cont’d...
– Noise generated outside the electronic equipment used.
– Source can be terrestrial or extraterrestrial (E.g. the earth, the moon, the sun, the galaxies).
– Do not effect the entire communication frequency spectrum but affect certain frequencies at certain times and locations.
– Types: Man made noise, space noise, atmospheric noise.
Cont’d...
a. Man made noiseo Produced by mankindo Source : Spark-producing mechanismso Impulsive in nature & contains a wide
range of frequencies propagated through space.
o Sometimes called industrial noise (metropolitan & industrial area).
Cont’d...b. Space noise
o The sun is a powerful source of radiation.
o Stars also radiate noise called cosmic, stellar or sky noise.
o Important at higher frequencies (VHF and above) because atmospheric noise dominates at lower frequencies.
Cont’d...c. Atmospheric noise
o occurs due to electrical disturbances in the earth’s atmosphere
oThe principle source is lightning ( a static electricity discharge)
oCan propagate for a long distances through space.
oThe lightning energy relatively low frequency (up to several MHz).
Cont’d...
- Electronic noise generated by the passive and active components incorporated in the designs of communications equipment.
- Types : Shot noise, flicker noise, thermal noise.
Cont’d...a. Shot Noise
o Caused by a random arrival of carriers (holes and electrons) at the output of an electronic devices.
o Randomly varying & superimposed onto any signal present.
o Sometimes called transistor noise.
Cont’d...
b. Flicker noiseo Excess noise that related to dc
current flow through imperfect conductors.
o The real nature of flicker noise not yet fully understood.
c. Thermal Noise• This type of noise arise due to the random
motion of free electrons in the conducting medium such as resistor.
• Each free electron inside a resistor is in motion due to its thermal energy.
• The path of electron motion is random and zig-zag due to collision with the lattice structure.
Cont’d...
• The net effect of the motion of all electrons constitutes an electric current flowing through the resistor.
• It causes the rate of arrival of electron at either end of a resistor to vary randomly and thereby varies the resistor’s potential difference. That is the direction of current flow is random and has a zero mean value.
Cont’d...
• Resistors and the resistance within all electronic devices are constantly producing noise voltage Vn(t).
• Since it is dependent on temperature, it is also referred to as thermal noise.
• Thermal noise also known as Johnson noise or white noise.
• In 1928, J.B. Johnson founded that Noise Power is direct proportionally with temperature and bandwidth.
• Noise spectrum density is constant for all value of frequency to 1012 Hz.
•
Where Pn = noise power (Watt)k = Boltzman constant (1.38 x 10-23 J/K)T = conductor temperature (K) [Add 273 to C]B = Bandwidth of system (Hz)
Pn = k T B
• From the study of circuit theory, the relationship between source resistor and matched load under maximum power transfer is when Rn = RL .
• The total of noise source power is Pn.
kTBRV
kTBRV
kTBR
V
kTBPP
RV
R
V
R
VP
VV
RR
RV
n
n
n
Ln
n
n
LL
nn
Ln
LL
4
4
4
therefore
and
42
,Vat Power
2
2
2
2
2
2
L
Known as Rn = RL = R,
Therefore voltage at RL is
Example 1
• A receiver has a BW of 10 kHz with the 4.14 x 10-17 W noise power. A resistor that matches the receiver input impedance is connected across its antenna terminals. Calculate the resistor’s temperature in Celsius.
Example 2
• A 1 kΩ resistor is connected across 1 kΩ antenna input of a television receiver. The BW of the receiver is 5 MHz and the resistor at the room temperature 293 K. Calculate the noise power and noise voltage applied to the receiver input.
How to Quantifying the Noise?
• The presence of noise degrades the performance of analog and digital communication.
• The extent to which noise affects the performance of communication systems is measured by the output signal to noise power ratio or SNR (for analog communication systems) and probability of error (for digital communication systems).
Cont’d...• The signal quality at the input of the receiver
is characterized by the input signal to noise ratio. Because of the noise sources within the receiver, which is introduced during the filtering and amplification processes, the SNR at the output of the receiver will be lower than at the input of the receiver.
• This degradation in the signal quality is characterized in terms of noise equivalent bandwidth, N0, effective noise temperature, Te. and noise figure,F
Noise Calculation
• SNR is ratio of signal power, S to noise power, N.
• Noise Factor, F
• Noise Figure, NF
dBN
SSNR log10
oo
ii
NS
NSF
)(log10
log10
dBNS
NS
FNF
oo
ii
Expressed in dB
Noise Calculation In Amplifier
o Two types of model
1. Noise amplifier Model.
2. Noiseless amplifier model.
Analysis of Noise Amplifier Model
)()(
and
0
0
aiia
iai
i
NNGG
NNGNGNN
GSS
Analysis of Noiseless Amplifier Model
)(
and
0
0
aii
i
NNGN
GSS
i
ai
i
aii
aii
i
i
i
i
N
N
N
NN
NNGGS
NS
SNR
SNRF
1
)(0
SNR0 <<< SNRi
As known as BkTNBkTN eaiii and
i
e
i
e
i
ai
T
T
BkT
BkT
N
NF 111Noise Factor,
Noise Temperature, ie TFT )1(
Analysis of Cascade Stages
• Consider three two ports in cascade
G3So
No
G1 F2, G2, Te2
antenna
pre-amplifier demodulator amplifier
F1, Te1F3, Te3
Si
Ni
Ti Nai1 Nai2 Nai3
S1
N1
S2
N2
Stage 1 Stage 2 Stage 3
)(
)(
)( Power, Noise
Power, Signal
11
11
111
11
ei
ei
aii
i
TTkBG
BkTBkTG
NNGN
SGS
Stage 1
BkTGTTkBGG
NGNG
NNGN
SGGSGS
eei
ai
ai
i
22112
2212
2122
12122
)(
)( Power, Noise
Power, Signal
Stage 2
BkTGBkTGGTTkBGGG
NGNG
NNGN
SGGGSGS
eeei
ai
ai
i
332231123
3323
3230
123230
)(
)( Power, Noise
Power, Signal
Stage 3
Noise Factor, F
i
e
i
e
i
ei
i
eeei
kBTGkBTGGTTkBGGGSGGG
BkTS
NS
NS
O
itotal
TGG
T
TG
T
T
TT
kBTGGG
kBTGkBTGGTTkBGGG
SNR
SNRF
eeei
i
i
i
O
O
i
i
12
3
1
21
123
332231123
)(
)(332231123
123
21
3
1
21
0
0
21
3
1
21
21
3
1
21
)1()1(
)1( therefore
290 and 1 If
1
GG
F
G
FFF
TFT
KTTT
TF
TGG
T
TG
T
T
TF
TGG
T
TG
T
T
T
T
TF
TOTAL
e
ii
e
i
e
i
e
i
eTOTAL
i
e
i
e
i
e
i
iTOTAL
Known as the overall noise factor, FTOTAL
21
3
1
21
021
3
01
2
0
1
0
21
0
3
1
0
2
0
1
0
21
3
1
21
1111
11
)1()1(
GG
T
G
TTT
TGG
T
TG
T
T
T
T
T
GG
T
T
G
T
T
T
T
T
T
GG
F
G
FFF
eeeeTOTAL
eeeeTOTAL
ee
eeTOTAL
TOTAL
And we can calculate noise temperature, Te
12121
3
1
21 ...
)1(...
)1()1(
n
n
GGG
F
GG
F
G
FFF
It can also be shown that the overall noise figure, F and the effective noise temperature, Te of n networks in cascade is given by:
12121
3
1
21 ...
...
n
eneeee GGG
T
GG
T
G
TTT
Transmission Loss, Attenuator
• Every transmission medium will produce power loss. Pout < Pin.
Power loss or attenuated is given by the following equation:
GPPLoutin1
dBoutindB GPPL 10log10
GP
PL
out
in 1
dBout
indB G
P
PL
10log10
Cont’d...
We also can calculate by using this following equation;
dBLWhere ℓ = transmission medium length α = attenuated constant
Example 3
Determine:a. Noise Figure for an equivalent
temperature of 75 K (use 290 Kfor the reference temperature).
b. Equivalent noise temperature for a Noise Figure of 6 dB.
Example 4
For three cascaded amplifier stages, each with noise figure of 3dB and power gain of 10 dB, determine the total noise figure.
Example 5
An amplifier consists of three identical stages in tandem. Each stage having equal input and output impedances. For each stages, the power gain is 8 dB when correctly matched and the noise figure is 6dB. Calculate the overall power gain and noise figure of the amplifier.
Transmission Media / Transmission Media / ChannelsChannels
Transmission Media / Transmission Media / ChannelsChannels
Introduction
• Provides the connection between the transmitter and receiver.1. Pair of wires – carry electric signal.2. Optical fiber – carries the information
on a modulated light beam.3. Free space – information-bearing signal
is radiated by antenna
Cont’d...
• Signal transmission problem additive noise – generated internally by
components used to implement the communication system.
Interference from other users of the channel.
Cont’d...
• Minimizing noise effects – Increasing the power of transmitted
signal.
• Constraint – Limited power level – Channel bandwidth availability
Cont’d...
Underwater acoustic
Fiber optics
Wireless electromagnetic
Wire lines
Channels
Cont’d...1. Wire Lines Channel
– Signals transmitted are distorted in both amplitude and phase. – corrupted by noise.
– Carry a large percentage of daily communication around the world.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coaxial_cablehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Twisted_pair
Cont’d...
Twisted pair Coaxial cable
Cont’d...2. Fiber Optics Channel
– Low signal attenuation– Highly reliable photonic devices– Large bandwidth available– Services : voice, data facsimile and video– Tx – light source
(e.g. LED, laser)– Rx – photodiode– Noise source : photodiodes & amplifiers
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiber_optics
Cont’d...
Cont’d...
3. Wireless Electromagnetic Channels
– Electromagnetic energy is coupled to the propagation medium by antenna (radiator)
– Antenna size & configuration – Frequency of operation
– Efficient radiation – antenna longer than 1/10 λ
Cont’d...
• Example A radio station transmitting in AM
frequency band, fc = 1MHz, λ = 300 m,
requires antenna at least 30 m.
Cont’d...
Various frequency bands of the electromagnetic spectrum
Cont’d...
• Mode of propagation of EM waves
i. Ground-wave propagationii. Sky-wave propagationiii. Line-of-sight (LOS)
1. GROUND-WAVE PROPAGATION
• Surface-wave propagation• Dominant mode of propagation• Frequency band: 0.3 – 3 MHz• Applications: AM broadcasting,
maritime radio broadcasting• Disturbances for signal transmission: atmospheric noise, man-made noise,
thermal noise.
Cont’d...
2. SKY-WAVE PROPAGATION
• Transmitted signals being reflected from ionosphere
• Frequency : above 30 MHz• Little loss• Problem : Signal Multipath• Application : Satellite communications
Cont’d...
Antenna at different angles
> fc
3. LINE-OF-SIGHT (LOS) PROPAGATION
• VHF band and higher• Limited by curvature of earth• Problem : Thermal noise (Rx front end)
Cosmic noise (pick-up by antenna)
• Application: A TV antenna mounted on a tower of 300 m height to provide a broad coverage area (67km)
Cont’d...
Cont’d...• Underwater acoustic channels
– EM waves do not propagate over long distances under water except at extremely low frequencies
– Expensive – because of the large and powerful transmitters required
– Problem : Attenuation – skin depth
Cont’d...• Multipath channel – signals
reflections from the surface and the bottom of the sea.
• Noise : ambient ocean acoustic noise,
man-made acoustic noise
END OF PART 2END OF PART 2END OF PART 2END OF PART 2