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Copyright 2011 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. McGraw-Hill/I rwin
Perceptions, Attributions,
and Emotions
Chapter 4
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Learning Objectives
Explain how primary emotions can be observed or determined
Discuss the potential problems one faceswhen using stereotypes to make judgments
Describe the role perception plays in organizing stimuli
Explain why and where impression managementtactics are used
Discuss why emotional intelligence has potential for managerial use, but should be treated cautiously
Describe how attribution can be used in evaluatingindividual and group performance
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The Perceptual Process
These are not concepts a manager candirectly access or fix in others Managers should know how these factors
impact ones view of the work environment
Perception Attribution Emotion
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Perception
Perception is based on prior experience
It is the cognitive
process by which oneselects, organizes, andgives meaning to
environmental stimuli
Each person gives his
or her own meaning tostimuli, so eachperceives things
differently
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Perception
We are bombarded by environmental stimuli Which stimuli you focus on is determined by
what you choose to pay attention to Generally, people perceive stimuli that
satisfy needs, emotions, attitudes, or self-concept
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The Perceptual Process
Organizing, Translating, SelectionEnvironmentStimuli
Manager style
Technology Noise Peers Reward system Compensation Career
opportunities
Response
Attitudes
Feelings Motivation
Observation
Sight Learning Taste Smell
Selection Intensity Size Impatience
Stereotyping Self-concept Emotions
Translation
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The Perceptual Process
Misinterpretingstimuli can result inperceptual errors
Each person selectscues that influencethe perception of
Similar-to-me errors
Snap impressions
Objects
People
Symbols
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The Perception Gap
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Self-Fulfilling Prophecy
Pygmalion effect The positive case
Golem effect The negative case
Someones expectations about another
causes the individual to behave in a manner consistent with those expectations
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The Pygmalion and Golem Effect
Expectations Support Given Experience Performance Positive Negative
Positive Negative
More Less
More Less
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Perceptual Grouping
Nearness Stimuli are near each other
Similarity Stimuli are similar in size,color, shape, or form
Closure Completing a figure so it hasa consistent overall form
Figure andGround
Grouping sensations intofigures and backgrounds
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Schemas
A framework embodying descriptions of people, situations, or objects Helps us make better sense of information Schemas are person, role, self, or event based
Managers use schemas to examine or prepare for a situation
Allows the chance to think, organize, andcompare before acting
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Perceiving, Grouping, and Creating Schemas
Schema inaccuracies anddistortions can result from
Stereotyping Halo effect
Selectiveattention
Similar-to-meerrors
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Stereotyping
A translation step in the perceptual process Helps people deal with massive information-
processing demands A useful, even essential, way to categorize
individuals, events, or other things on the basisof limited information or observation
Stereotyping is not inherently bad or wrong
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Stereotyping and Prejudice
Prejudice A stereotype that doesnt change when given
information showing the stereotype is inaccurate Often the result of direct experiences with
members of the rejected group Once formed, positive experiences with the
persons, group, or unit usually do not reverse
the prejudice Extreme form is scapegoating
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Two Sources of Prejudice
Personal
Something, or someone, is
perceived as a
threat to ones owninterest
Group
Occurs when aperson conformsto the norms of agroup to which he
or she belongs
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Stereotyping and Prejudice
Negative Consequences of Stereotyping
Social injustice
Poor decision making
Stifled innovation
Under-utilization of human resourcesIneffectiveness and inefficiency
Holding back of talented, qualified people
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Stereotyping
Pay Attention to Your Stereotyping
Stereotypesare frequentlybased on little
or inaccurateinformation
Be willing tochange or add
informationthat improves
the accuracyof your stereotypes
Stereotypesrarely
accuratelyapply to a
specificindividual
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Selective and Divided Attention
Giving some messages priorityand putting others on hold
A bottleneck or narrowing of the informationchannel linking the senses to perception
SelectiveAttention
Occurs when mental efforts aredivided among tasks
Some stimuli require more attentionDividedAttention
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Halo Effect
One important or noticeable characteristicbiases an evaluation, perception, or impression of a person Presuming someone is hard working because
they arrive early and stay late Considering that someone with piercings is
wild and unreliable
One trait or characteristic cant predict apersons performance
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Halo Effect
An individuals attractiveness can influencemanagerial decisions Attractiveness increased evaluations, pay raises,
and promotions for women in non-managerialpositions
The opposite was true for women in managerialpositions
Both outcomes stem from the halo effect
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Similar-to-Me Errors
People frequently use themselves as benchmarksin perceiving others
Those who accept themselves are morelikely to see favorable aspects of others
Knowing oneself makes it easier to see others accurately
Choosing subordinates who are similar toourselves may not be appropriate to the situation
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Situational Factors
Perceptual Accuracy Can be Affected by
The pressof time
Attitudes of subordinates
Other situational
factors
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Needs and Perceptions
Perceptions are influenced by needs and desires People see what they want to see The hungrier people were when viewing ambiguous
drawings, the more they saw them as articles of food
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Attribution Theory
Behavior is greatly influenced by our personal interpretation of reality Therefore, perceptual processes are potent
determinants of behavior
Attribution theory Attempts to explain the why of behavior Based on peoples attributions of the causes
of events that happen to them
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The Attribution Process
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Internal and External Attributions
Distinctiveness
Does this personbehave in this
same manner in
other situations?
YES
NO
Low Distinctiveness
High Distinctiveness
Consistency
Does this personbehave in this
same manner at
other times?
YES
NO
High Consistency
Low Consistency
INTERNALATTRIBUTION
EXTERNALATTRIBUTION
Consensus
Do other peoplebehave in thissame manner?
NO
YES
Low Consensus
High Consensus
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Attribution Theory
Degree to which one behaves
similarly in different situations
Distinctiveness
Degree to which one engages in thesame behaviors at different times
Consistency
Degree to which others areengaging in the same behavior
Consensus
Behavior is examined on the basis of its
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Attribution Theory
Under-estimating the importance
of external factors andover-estimating internal factorswhen making attributions about
the behavior of others
Fundamental
attribution error
Taking credit for successful workand denying responsibility
for poor work
Self-servingbias
Systematic errors or biases can distort attributions
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Attribution Theory
Managerial implications of an attributional approachto understanding work behavior
Managerscannot
assume thattheir own
attributions areerror free
To influencebehavior,managers
mustunderstand the
attributionsemployees
make
Managersmust be aware
that their attributions
may bedifferent fromemployeesattributions
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Impression Management
The attempt to influence others perceptions
of ourselves How we talk Our overall style Office locations and furniture
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Impression Management
Impression management is interpersonal Resources, style, and creativity are mobilized in
order to create a positive impression in thepresence of others
Reasons to use impression management Allows one to convey a desired identity After the identity is established, it allows
congruence with the impression A particular situation requires a significantly
different behavior
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Impression Management Tactics
Ingratiation
Self-promotion
Exemplification
Supplication
Intimidation
Impressionmanagementtactics
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Impression Management
Men and women try to create impressions indifferent ways Women use less aggressive behaviors Women are less likely to use impression
management tactics
Generating a positive or good impressionis the goal of most people
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Emotions
Changes in facialexpressions Gestures
PostureSubjective
feelings
An emotion is a state of physiologicalarousal accompanied by
Emotional expressions are visible or audible signs of what one is feeling
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Primary Emotions
Anger
Joy
Fear
Anticipation
Surprise
Acceptance
Disgust
Sadness
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Emotions
Broader emotions include Aggression Love Awe Remorse Optimism
The mildestforms of emotionare moods, alow-intensity,long-lasting
emotional state
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Expressions
Emotional expressions are innate Other facial expressions are learned and/or
unique to a national culture
Expressions of fear, anger, happiness andsadness are universal How often they are expressed varies Women are more emotionally expressive than
are men
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Body Language
Kinesics is the study of communication throughbody movement, posture, gestures, and facialexpressions
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Body Language: Mimicking
The chameleon effect Unconsciously mimicking the postures,
mannerisms, and facial expressions of others If another person copies your gestures and
postures, you are more likely to like them
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Facial Feedback
Emotional activity causes innatelyprogrammed changes in facial expressions Ekman says making faces can cause emotion A study suggests that emotions influence
expressions and expressions influence emotions
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Emotional Labor
Managing emotions for compensation Enhancing, faking, or suppressing emotions It is stressful and may cause burnout
Two ways to manage emotions Surface acting: regulating emotional expressions Deep acting: modifying feelings in order to
express a desired emotion
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Emotional Intelligence
A combination of Self-awareness Self-control Empathy toward others Sensitivity to the feelings of others
Intelligence is a goal-directed mental activitymarked by Efficient problem solving Critical thinking Abstract reasoning
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Gardners View of Intelligence
Spatial
Musical
Intra-personal
Inter-personal
Mathe-matical
Verbal
MultipleIntelligence
l h f l ll
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Golemans Theory of Emotional Intelligence
Two brains, two minds,two kinds of intelligence
rational and emotional
Balance & managementof emotions determineshow intelligently we act
and how successfulwe will be
l d h
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Salovery and Mayer Theme
Proposes that emotional intelligence (EI)emphasizes four cognitive components
The capacity toperceive emotion
The capacity tointegrate emotion
in thought
The capacity tounderstand emotion
The capacity tomanage emotioneffectively
E i l I lli
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Emotional Intelligence
Even if EI is important for career success, itworks in conjunction with other factors
IntegrityPersistence
EI increases through middle management;decreases from middle to senior management
Passion
General intelligence
Th N G i f EI
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The Next Generation of EI
Many question the notion of emotionalintelligence, so the next generation of EIwork needs to
Conceptualize EI in a manner that is concise
and meaningful Develop more precise, concise EI measures Determine if there is practical value in the EI
concept for managers