CHAPTER 2LECTURE OUTLINE

SEE POWERPOINT IMAGE SLIDESFOR ALL FIGURES AND TABLES PRE-

INSERTED INTOPOWERPOINT WITHOUT NOTES.

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Copyright (c) The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Reading Assignment 1

Read pages 44-55 in Chapter 2

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The Chemical Elements2-3

_________ = simplest form of matter with unique chemical properties 24 elements have biological role

6 elements = 98.5% of body weight trace elements in minute amounts

_________ = # of protons in nucleus periodic table

elements arranged by _________

2-4

______________ Number of protons and neutrons in nucleus Atomic mass units (amu)

Number of neutrons determined by subtracting the atomic number from the mass number

2-5

Atomic Structure2-6

______ = center of atom _____ : single + charge, mass = 1 amu ______: no charge, mass = 1 amu

Electron shells surround the nucleus ________: single negative charge, little mass electrons swarm about the nucleus in electron

shells (energy levels) _________ in the outermost shell

interact with other atoms determine chemical behavior

Planetary Models of Elements2-7

p+ represents protons, no represents neutrons

Electron Energy Levels2-8

Each energy level can hold certain maximum number of __________

Maximum number determined by formula

X=2(n squared)

Isotopes and Radioactivity2-9

_____________ differ in # of neutrons extra neutrons increase atomic weight isotopes of an element are chemically similar

have same valence electrons

Atomic _____ average atomic mass of the isotopes

Radioisotopes and Radioactivity2-10

Isotopes same chemical behavior, differ in physical

behavior breakdown gives off radiation

___________ unstable isotopes every element has at least one radioisotope

Radioactivity radioisotopes decay to stable isotopes releasing

radiation we are all mildly radioactive

Ions and Ionization2-11

_______ = transfer of electrons from one atom to another ( stability of valence shell)

• Ions - carry a charge due to an unequal number of ________________

Anions and Cations2-12• _________

– atom that gained electrons (net negative charge)

• ________– atom that lost an electron (net positive charge)

• Ions with opposite charges are _______ to each other

___________2-13

Salts that ionize in water to form body fluids Form solutions capable of conducting electricity

Importance chemical reactivity osmotic effects (influence water movement) electrical effects on nerve and muscle tissue

Imbalances cause muscle cramps, brittle bones, coma and death

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Molecules and Chemical Bonds2-15

_________ two or more atoms covalently bonded

_________ two or more atoms of different elements covalently

bonded

________ formula elements and how many atoms of each

_________formula location of each atom structural isomers revealed

Structural Formula of IsomersHow are molecular and structural

formulas different?

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Chemical Bonds2-17

What are the 4 types?

Describe each.

Chemical Bonds Song2-18

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BCYrNU-7SfA&feature=related

_________ Bonds2-19

Attraction of oppositely charged ions No sharing of electronsWeak bond (easily dissociates in water)

________Bonds2-20

Formed by sharing of valence electronsTypes of covalent bonds

single = sharing of single pair electrons double = sharing of 2 pairs nonpolar

shared electrons (equal time around each nucleus) strongest of all bonds

polar negative charge where electrons spend most time

Single Covalent Bond2-21

One pair of electrons are ________

2-22

Double covalent bonds: Two pairs of electrons are _____ each C=O bond

Nonpolar /Polar Covalent Bonds2-23

electrons shared ____

electrons shared _____

Covalent means?Nonpolar/polar refers to?

________Bonds2-24

Weakest bond = no sharing of electronsAttraction between polar molecules

positive hydrogen atoms to negative oxygen atoms in a 2nd molecule

Physiological importance properties of water created by shapes of large

complex molecules determined by folding due to hydrogen bonds

Hydrogen Bonding in Water

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1

2

Water animation2-26

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KiZJOTt3Dl0&feature=related

_________ Forces2-27

Weak attractions between neutral atomsFluctuations in electron density create

polarityOnly 1% as strong as a covalent bond

folding of large molecules significant when 2 large surfaces meet

______= ability to dissolve other chemicals

2-28

______(charged substances) dissolve easily in water

______ (neutral substances) do not easily dissolve in water

Water= Metabolic reactions and transport of

substances

Water as a Solvent2-29

______ water molecules overpower the ionic bond in Na+Cl-

-forming _______ around each ion-water molecules: ____ pole faces Na+, ____ pole faces Cl-

Adhesion and Cohesion2-30

_________- tendency of one substance to cling to another

_________-tendency of like molecules to cling to each other water is very cohesive due to its ______ bonds surface film on water formed by __________

Chemical Reactivity of Water2-31

Participation in chemical reactions Water ionizes into H+ OH- Water ionizes other chemicals (acids and salts) Water involved in _________ and __________ reactions

Thermal Stability of Water2-32

Water stabilizes internal temperature Has high _______ ______

Hydrogen bonds inhibit temperature increases by inhibiting molecular motion Water absorbs heat without changing temperatures

Effective ________ 1 ml of perspiration removes 500 calories

_______: amount of heat required to raise temperature of 1 g of water by 1 degree C

Measures of Concentration2-33

Weight per Volume weight of solute in given volume of

solution IV saline: 8.5 grams NaCl/liter of solution

Percentages Weight/volume of solute in solution

IV D5W (5% w/v dextrose in distilled water)5 grams of dextrose and fill to 100 ml

waterMolarity

moles of solute/liter in solution physiologic effects based on number of

molecules in solution not on weight

Molarity2-34

Molecular weight in grams = 1 mole of molecules

1 mole = Avogadro’s number of molecules

Molarity is the number of moles of solute/ liter of solution MW of glucose is 180 one-molar (1.0M) glucose solution contains

180g/L

Percentage vs. Molar Concentrations2-35

Percentage# of molecules

unequal weight of solute

equal

Molar # of molecules equal weight of solute

unequal

Electrolyte Concentrations2-36

Effect the body chemically, physically and electrically depends on charge and concentration

Measured in equivalents 1 Eq will electrically neutralize 1 mole of H+

or OH- ions multiply molar concentration x valence of

the ion 1 M Na+ = 1 Eq/L 1 M Ca2+ = 2 Eq/L

Acids, Bases and pH2-37

An acid is a ____ ____ (releases H+ ions)

A base is a _____ _____ (accepts H+ ions)

pH = the concentration of _________ a pH of less than 7 is _____ solution a pH of greater than 7 is _____ solution a pH of 7.0 is _____ pH

pH= -log [H+]

pH Scale2-38

Strong vs weak acidStrong vs weak base

Practice

1) Regarding changes in pH, if pH changes from 7 to 5 will the [H+] increase or decrease?

2) By how much?3) Will the solution become more acidic or

more basic?

2-39

________

Maintains a constant pH upon the addition of small amounts of either acid or base

2 parts to a buffer: weak acid and a weak base

Acid- can donate H+ ion if [H+] decreasesBase- can accept H+ ion if [H+] increases

Salts

Mixing an acid and a base results in water and____

A compound that yields ions other than hydrogen ions is called a salt

Electrolytes

Acids, bases, and salts are called ________Solutions of electrolytes conduct electricity

because of the presence of ionsWould a solution of hydrochloric acid be an

electrolyte?HCl H+ + Cl-

Chemical Reaction2-43

Process that forms or breaks an ionic or covalent bond

Symbolized by chemical ________reactants products

What are the 4 Classes of reactions?

_______ Reactions2-44

Two or more small molecules combine to form a larger one

A + B AB

_______ Reactions2-45

Large molecules broken down into smaller ones

AB A + B

_______ Reactions2-46Two molecules collide and exchange

atoms or group of atomsAB+CD ABCD AC + BD

ex.

Stomach acid (HCl) and sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3) from the pancreas combine to form NaCl and H2CO3 (carbonic acid)

Exchange Reactions2-47

Single exchangeAB+C AC+B

Double exchangeAB+CD AD + CB

_____ Reactions2-48

Go in either direction (symbolized with double-headed arrow)

A + B AB

CO2 + H2O <-> H2CO3 <-> HCO3- + H+

carbonic acid bicarbonate Law of ______ determines direction

side of equation with greater quantity of reactants dominates

Reaction Rates2-49

Basis for reactions is _________ and collisions

Reaction Rates affected by:1)2)3)

________= all the chemical reactions of the body

2-50

_______: energy releasing (exergonic) decomposition reactions

breaks covalent bonds, produces smaller molecules, releases ______

_______: energy storing (endergonic) synthesis reactions

requires _____ input

Oxidation-Reduction Reactions2-51

_______ molecule gives up electrons and releases energy accepting molecule is the oxidizing agent

oxygen is often the electron acceptor

________ molecule gains electrons and energy donating molecule is the reducing agent

Oxidation-reduction (redox) reactions Electrons are often transferred as hydrogen

atoms

OIL-RIG

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Organic Chemistry2-53

Study of compounds containing carbon4 categories of carbon compounds

carbohydrates lipids proteins nucleotides and nucleic acids

Organic Molecules and _____2-54

Only __ valence electrons bonds readily to gain more valence electrons

Forms long chains, branched molecules and rings serve as the backbone for organic molecules

Carries a variety of ____________ groups

Functional Groups 2-55

Atoms attached to carbon backbone

Determines __________

Monomers and Polymers2-56

_________ = very large molecules______= macromolecules formed from

monomers bonded together ______ = an identical or similar subunit

Polymerization2-57

Bonding of monomers together to form a ________

Formed by _______ synthesis ________ molecules are a polymer of 3000 glucose

monomers ______ molecules are a polymer of amino acids

_________ Synthesis2-58

Monomers covalently bond together to form a ________ with the removal of a _____ molecule A ______ group is removed from one monomer

and a _______ from the next

Hydrolysis2-59

Splitting a polymer (____) by the addition of a water molecule (____) a covalent bond is broken

All digestion reactions consists of ________ reactions

Organic Molecules: _________2-60

Hydrophilic organic moleculeGeneral formula

________ n = number of _____ atomsfor glucose, n = 6, so formula is C6H12O6

_______ of hydrogen to oxygen

Names of carbohydrates word root sacchar- or the suffix -ose often used

monosaccharide or glucose

_____________2-61

Simple sugars

General formula is C6H12O6

structural isomers

• Major monosaccharides– ____________________– produced by digestion of

complex carbohydrates• glucose is blood sugar

Disaccharides2-62

Sugar molecule composed of ______

Major disaccharides sucrose = __________

glucose + fructose Lactose = __________

glucose + galactose Maltose = __________

glucose + glucose

___________2-63

Chains of _______ subunits_______: energy storage in plants

_______: structural molecule of plant cell walls

Glycogen: energy storage in animals

Carbohydrate Functions2-64

All digested carbohydrates converted to glucose and oxidized to make _______

What are conjugated carbohydrates? Give 3 types with examples of each?

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Organic Molecules: Lipids2-66

_________ organic moleculeLess oxidized and thus has more

calories/gramWhat are the five primary types in humans?

1)2)3)4)

Fatty Acids2-67

Chain of 4 to 24 carbon atoms Where is the carboxyl (acid) group? Where is the

methyl group? hydrogen bonded along the sidesClassified

saturated - carbon atoms saturated with hydrogen unsaturated - contains C=C bonds without hydrogen

Is this saturated or unsaturated?

Triglycerides (Neutral Fats)2-68

3 fatty acids bonded to _______ molecule (________ synthesis)

At room temperature when liquid called _____

often polyunsaturated fats from _______ when solid called _____

saturated fats from _______

Function?

Phospholipids2-69Triglyceride with one fatty acid replaced

by a ________ groupAmphiphilic character

fatty acid “tails” are _________ Phosphate “head” is _________

Eicosanoids2-70

Derived from _________ (a fatty acid)_____-like chemical signals between

cellsIncludes ________ – produced in all

tissues

Steroids and Cholesterol2-71

_______= lipid with carbon atoms in four rings all steroids are derived from _________

Examples:

Cholesterol important component of _________ produced only in animal _______

naturally produced by our body

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Organic Molecules: Proteins2-73

• ______ = polymer of amino acids

• ______ = carbon with 3 attachments– Amino (NH2), carboxy (COOH) and radical

group (R group)

• 20 unique amino acids____groups differ

______ determined by -R group

Naming of Peptides2-74

_____ = polymer of 2 or more amino acids

Named for the number of amino acids _______ have 2, tripeptides have 3 _______ have fewer than 10 to 15 ________ have more than 15 _________ have more than 100

Dipeptide Synthesis2-75

•____________creates a peptide bond that joins amino acids

Protein Structure and Shape2-76

Primary structure

Secondary structure ___________ shape _____bonds between negative C=O and positive

N-H groupsTertiary structure

further folding and bending into _____ and ________shapes that contain both alpha helix and beta pleated sheet

Quaternary structure

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In Class

1) Describe the secondary level of protein structure.2) What makes up the primary structure of a protein?3) Association of two or more polypeptide chains with one

another refers to what level of protein structure?4) The level of protein structure that includes both alpha helix

and beta pleated sheets and results from interactions between R groups

5) The bonds between amino acids are _________ bonds.6) The bonds between areas of an alpha helix are _________

bonds.

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Conjugated Proteins2-79

What do we mean by conjugated protein?Give an example

Protein Conformation and Denaturation2-80

Conformation – unique 3-D shape crucial to function ability to ______ change their conformation

opening and closing of cell membrane pores

Denaturation

Protein Functions2-81

What are 7 ways proteins function in the body?

Protein Functions2-82

What are 7 functions of proteins?Structure

collagen, keratin

Communication some hormones, cell receptors

Membrane Transport channels, carriers

Catalysis enzymes

Protein Functions 22-83

Recognition and protection antigens, antibodies and clotting proteins

Movement molecular motor = molecules that can change

shape repeatedly

Cell adhesion proteins bind cells together

Enzymes2-84

_______ as biological catalysts promote rapid reaction rates

Substrate - substance an enzyme acts uponNaming Convention

named for substrate with -ase as the suffix amylase enzyme digests starch (amylose)

Lowers ____________= energy needed to get reaction started

2-85

Enzymes and Activation Energy

Steps of an Enzyme Reaction2-86

Substrate approaches enzyme moleculeSubstrate binds to active site forming

enzyme-substrate complex highly specific

Enzyme breaks bonds in substrateReaction products releasedEnzyme repeats process over and over

Can an enzyme be reused?Can an enzyme facilitate any type of

reaction?

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Enzymatic Reaction Steps

Enzymatic Action2-88

Reusability of enzymes enzymes are unchanged by the reactions

Astonishing speed millions of molecules per minute

Temperature and pH change shape of enzyme and alter its ability

to bind enzymes vary in optimum pH

salivary amylase works best at pH 7.0 pepsin works best at pH 2.0

temperature optimum for human enzymes = __________

Cofactors and Coenzymes2-89

Cofactors _________ (iron, copper, zinc, magnesium or calcium

ions) bind to enzyme and change its ______ _______to function

Coenzymes ______ cofactors derived from water-soluble vitamins

(niacin, riboflavin) transfer ______ between enzymes

NAD+ (Cofactor or Coenzyme??)

2-90

NAD+ transports ______from one metabolic pathway to another

Metabolic Pathways2-91

Chain of reactions, each catalyzed by an enzyme

A B C DA is initial reactant, B+C are intermediates

and D is the end productRegulation of metabolic pathways

activation or deactivation of the _________ cells can turn on or off pathways

Organic Molecules: ________2-92

3 components nitrogenous base sugar (monosaccharide) one or more phosphate groups

Physiological important nucleotides ATP = energy carrying molecule cAMP = activates metabolic pathways DNA = carries genetic code RNA = assists with protein synthesis

ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate)2-93

ATP contains adenine, ribose and 3 phosphate groups

ATP2-94

Holds energy in covalent bonds 2nd and 3rd phosphate groups have high energy

bonds ~

ATPases hydrolyze the 3rd high energy phosphate bond separates into ADP + Pi + energy

_____________ addition of free phosphate group to another

molecule

Overview of ATP Production

ATP consumed within 60 secondsContinually replenished

2-95

Other Nucleotides2-96

___________________(cAMP) formed by removal of both high energy Pi’s from

ATP formation triggered by hormone binding to cell

surface cAMP becomes “___________” within cell activates effects inside cell

Nucleic Acids2-97

______ (deoxyribonucleic acid) 100 million to 1 billion nucleotides long contains genetic code

cell division, sexual reproduction, protein synthesis

_____(ribonucleic acid) – 3 types transfer RNA, messenger RNA, ribosomal RNA 70 to 10,000 nucleotides long involved in protein synthesis coded for by DNA