Svend Hollensen

GLOBAL MARKETING4th Edition

15 Pricing decisions and terms of doing business

Hollensen, Global Marketing 4e, © Pearson Education 2008 15-2

Learning objectives (1)

Explain how internal and external variables influence international pricing decisions

Explain why and how prices escalate in export selling

Discuss the strategic options in determining the price level for a new product

Explain the necessary sales volume increase as a consequence of a price decrease

Hollensen, Global Marketing 4e, © Pearson Education 2008 15-3

Learning objectives (2)

Explain what is meant by experience curve pricing

Explore the special roles and problems of transfer pricing in global marketing

Discuss how varying currency conditions challenge the international marketer

Hollensen, Global Marketing 4e, © Pearson Education 2008 15-4

Learning objectives (3)

Identify and explain the different terms of sale (price quotations)

Discuss the conditions that affect terms of payment

Discuss the role of expert credit and financing for successful export marketing

Hollensen, Global Marketing 4e, © Pearson Education 2008 15-5

Pricing

Only area of global marketing mix where policy can be changed rapidly without large direct cost implications

Decisions in global markets are affected by complexity of influential factors

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Figure 15.1 International pricing framework

Firm-level factorsEnvironmental

factors

Product factors Market factors

Firm performance

Other elements

Pricing strategiesFirst Time Pricing 00 Price Changes over PLCPricing across products 00Pricing across countries

TermsTerms of sale 00 Payments

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Internal factors affecting international pricing decisions

Firm-level factorsCorporate and

marketing objectivesCompetitive strategyFirm positioningProduct developmentProduction locationMarket entry modes

Product factorsStage in PLCPlace in product lineMost important

product featuresProduct positioningProduct cost structure

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External factors affecting international pricing decisions

Environmental factors Government influences

and constraints Inflation Currency fluctuations Business cycle stage

Market factorsCustomers’ perceptionsCustomers’ ability to payNature of competitionCompetitors’ objectives,

strategies, strengths and weaknesses

Grey market appeal

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What is this?

What price-related phenomenon is caused by the summation of all cost factors in the distribution channel including ex-works price, shipping costs, tariffs, and distributor mark-up?

Price escalation

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Tactics for countering price escalation

Rationalizing the distribution processLowering the export price from the factoryEstablishing local production of the

productPressurizing channel members to accept

lower profit margins

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Factors influencing customer sensitivity to price (1)

More distinctive productGreater perceived quality of productsConsumers less aware of substitutes in

the marketDifficulty in making comparisonsProportion price represents of total

expenditure of the customer

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Factors influencing customer sensitivity to price (2)

Perceived benefit for customer increasesProduct is used in association with a

product bought previously, such that components and replacements are highly priced

Costs are shared with other partiesProduct or service cannot be stored

Hollensen, Global Marketing 4e, © Pearson Education 2008 15-15

What is this?

What price strategy involves charging a high price at the top end of the market with the objective of achieving the highest possible contribution in a short time?

Skimming

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Problems with skimming

Having a small market share makes the firm vulnerable to aggressive local competition

Maintenance of a high-quality product requires a lot of resources

If product is sold more cheaply at home or in another country grey marketing is likely

Hollensen, Global Marketing 4e, © Pearson Education 2008 15-17

What is this?

What price strategy involves charging a final price based on competitive prices?

Market pricing

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What is this?

What price strategy involves charging a low price with the objective of achieving the highest possible sales?

Penetration pricing

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Motives for penetration pricing

Intensive local competition

Lower income levels of locals

View of exporting as marginal activity

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What is this?

What price changes are based on the idea that total unit costs of a product in real terms can be reduced by a certain percentage with each doubling of cumulative production?

Experience curve pricing

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Figure 15.3 Experience curves of value chain activities

Source: Czepiel, 1992, p. 154.

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Hollensen, Global Marketing 4e, © Pearson Education 2008

Agreement on Custom Valuation

15-23

The value of goods traded that is taken into account by customs authorities is of major importance to exporters and importers. If the value is more than what it should be, it will result in higher duties at the importer’s expenses, consequently making the product less competitive.

The Agreement on Customs Valuation (ACV), which was adopted during the Uruguay Round, intends to address these problems, and indicates how goods are to be valued by customs authorities.

The Agreement lists various alternatives methods of valuing goods.

The first method – the priority method – bases the customs value on the transaction value of the goods when they are exported under normal conditions.

These measures are likely to discourage invoicing firms from lowering prices with a view of saving on customs duties, in agreement with the importing party.

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Pre-Shipment Inspection

15-24

Many governments, in particular developing countries, request that goods be inspected before shipment

Independent firms provide inspection services, and certify the quality and quantity of products exported

It reduces the risk of under- or over-invoicing.

Inspections should be carried out in a non-discriminatory manner

It also provides a new institutional mechanism for handling complaints regarding alleged arbitrary decisions by inspection companies

It may also reduce the level of customs-related corruption

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Subsidies GATT has attempted in the past and during the Uruguay Round to limit their use and ill effects. WTO treatment of subsidies depends on whether the goods exported are industrial or agricultural products.

Two types of subsidies are prohibited (so-called red subsidies): export subsidies that are contingent one way or another on export performance and import substitution subsidies that are contingent to the use of domestic products Subsidies that are non-actionable (green subsidies) are non-specific subsidies that do not favor any firm over other firms. Basic assistance to research, regional assistance and assistance for the adaptation to new environmental regulations are examples of green subsidies. With regard to pricing, the reduction in the margin of subsidy in the export price of products originating from countries that support heavily the agricultural sector is likely to make many products uncompetitive on world market. It will increase the relevance of adding value to products in order reduce the burden of a comparative disadvantage in the primary sector.

Hollensen, Global Marketing 4e, © Pearson Education 2008

Agreement on Anti-Dumping Practices

15-26

A product is to be considered as being dumped, i.e. introduced into the commerce of another country at less than its normal value, if the export price of the product exported from one country to another is less than the comparable price, in the ordinary course of trade, for the like product when destined for consumption in the exporting country.

When a Firms may want to set the export price at a lower level than the normal price with a view of gaining market share or access to a new market. It is a rather common practice in exporting

Dumping is not allowed only if it causes or threatens to cause material injury to an industry or if it delays the establishment of a domestic industry in a member country.

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Duty Remission

15-27

Under GATT, members are allowed to return to exporters the duty that they paid on imported inputs that are being re-exported in exported products

The same principle applies to indirect taxes charged to exported products (e.g. sales taxes, value-added tax, excise tax, Agreement on SMC, Annex I). Such remissions are not considered to be subsidies and exporters should take advantage of these measures with a view of lowering their export prices and of making their products more competitive.

Duty drawbacks are made available to exporters in many countries (ITC/CS, 1999 p. 125). It appears, however, that only experienced exporters take advantage of these measures.

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What is this?

What term is used to describe the prices charged for intracompany movement of goods and services?

Transfer pricing

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Transfer Pricing

15-29

Firms should be attentive to this rule since governments usually monitor quite carefully the transfer pricing practices of multinational firms, and apply stiff sanctions when firms are caught not applying fair transfer prices (Al-Eryani, Alam and Akhter 1990).

Hollensen, Global Marketing 4e, © Pearson Education 2008 15-30

Gillette relies on product line pricing

www.gillette.com/

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What is this?

What price strategy is based on grouping products and services in a system-solution product in order to overcome possible customer price concerns?

Bundle pricing

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Basic approaches to pricing across countries

Price standardization

Price differentiation

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Figure 15.5 Structural factors of standardized

versus differentiated pricing

Source: Reprinted from European Management Journal, Vol. 12, No. 2, Diller. H. and Bukhari, I. (1994) ‘Pricing conditions in the European Common Market’, p. 168, Copyright 1994, with permission from Elsevier.

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Figure 15.6 A taxonomy of international pricing practices

3 Multilocal price setter

4 Global price leader

1 Local price follower

2 Global price follower

High

LowPre

pare

dnes

s fo

r in

tern

atio

naliz

atio

n

Multilocal markets Global markets

Industry globalism

Source: Adapted from Solberg et al., 2006, p. 31. In the original article Solberg has used the concept ‘Globality’ instead of ‘Globalism’.

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International pricing practices (1)

Prototype 1: Local price follower

Limited resources and leverage

Dependent on local export intermediary

Cost-oriented, standard prices

Unexposed to global forces

Prototype 2: Global price follower

Newcomers to global markets

Market-oriented, standard prices

Global competition but local differences

Hollensen, Global Marketing 4e, © Pearson Education 2008 15-36

International pricing practices (2)

Prototype 3: Multilocal price setter

Local market leaders in selected markets

Market-oriented, adapted prices

Local competition

Prototype 4: Global price leader

Global market leadersMarket and cost-

oriented ‘global’ pricesGlobal competition but

local differences

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What is this?

When a customer requires one global price per product from the supplier for all its foreign SBUs and subsidiaries, a _____ has been requested.

Global pricing contract

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Customer advantages and disadvantages of GPCs

Advantages Lower prices worldwide Higher levels of service Standardization of

products Efficiency of processes Faster diffusion of

innovations

Disadvantages Less adaptability to

market changes Potential for quality

inconsistencies Dependence upon

supplier could result in higher prices

Resistance to GPCs among local managers

Monitoring costs

Source: Source: adapted from Narayandas, Quelch and Swartz, 2000, pp. 61–70.

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Supplier advantages and disadvantages of GPCs

Advantages Access to new markets Economies of scale Influence over market

development through association with industry leaders

Strong relationships developed

Solve price and service anomalies across countries

Disadvantages Resistance to change Loss of customers Risk of failing to deliver

on promises Inappropriate use of cost

information Over dependence on one

customer Conflict in distribution

channels

Source: Source: adapted from Narayandas, Quelch and Swartz, 2000, pp. 61–70.

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Approaches to transfer pricing

Transfer at cost

Transfer at arm’s length

Transfer at cost plus

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Currency decisions in export pricing

Quote price in foreign currency of buyer’s country

Quote price in currency of exporter’s country

Quote price in currency of a third country

Quote price in currency unit (euro)

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Benefits to quoting price in buyer’s country currency

Quoting in foreign currency could be a condition of the contract

Access to finance abroad at lower interest rates

Good currency management may be a means of gaining additional profits

Customer preference for quotes in their currency

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Euro implications

Lower prices due to price transparency

Real single market without transaction costs

Enhanced competition

Easier entry to foreign markets in EU

Inflation and entry rate stability

Lower costs of doing business

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Delivery terms

EXW Ex-works FCA Free carrier FAS Free alongside ship FOB Free on board CFR Cost and freight CIF Cost, insurance, and

freight CPT Carriage paid to

CIP Carriage and insurance paid to

DAF Delivered at frontierDES Delivered ex-shipDEQ Delivered ex-quayDDU Delivered duty

unpaidDDP Delivered duty paid

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Figure 15.8 Different terms of payment

Source: Chase Manhattan Bank, 1984, p. 5.

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Characteristics of letters of credit

An arrangement by banks for settling international commercial transactions

Provide a form of security for parties involved

Ensure payment, provided that terms and conditions of credit have been fulfilled

Payment based on documents only and not on merchandise or services involved

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Figure 15.9 The process for handling letters of credit

Source: Phillips et al., 1994, p. 454, with permission from ITBP Ltd.

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Letter of credit forms

Revocable L/C

Irrevocable but unconfirmed L/C

Confirmed irrevocable L/C

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Export financing

Commercial banksExport credit

insuranceFactoringForfeitingBonding

LeasingCounter-trade

BarterCompensation dealBuy-back agreement

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For discussion (1)

What are the major causes of international price escalation? Suggest possible courses of action to deal with this problem

Explain how exchange rate and inflation affect the way you price your product

In order to protect themselves, how should marketers price their product in a country with high inflation?

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For discussion (2)

International buyers and sellers of technology frequently disagree on the appropriate price for knowledge. Why?

What methods can be used to compute a transfer price (for transactions between affiliated companies)?

What relevance has the international product life cycle theory for pricing strategy in international firms?

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For discussion (3)

Why is it often difficult to compute fair arm’s-length transfer prices?

Explain these terms of sale: EXW, FAS, FOB, CFR, CIF, DEQ and DDP. Which factors will determine the terms of sale?

Explain these types of letter of credit: revocable/ irrevocable, confirmed/unconfirmed. Under what sets of circumstances would exporters use the following methods of payment: (a) revocable letter of credit; (b) confirmed letter of credit; (c) confirmed irrevocable letter of credit; (d) time draft (i.e. bill of exchange)?

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For discussion (4)

Name some of the financing sources for exporters.

How does inflation affect a country’s currency value? Is it a good idea to borrow or obtain finance in a country with high inflation?

How and why are export credit financing terms and conditions relevant to international pricing?

What is counter-trade? Why should firms be willing to consider counter-trade arrangements in their global marketing efforts?

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