Post on 25-Feb-2018
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THE JOURNAL
OF THE INTERNATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF
BUDDHIST STUDIES
E D I T O R I N C H I E F
Roger Jackson
Depl.
of Religion
Carleton College
Northfield,MN 55057
E D I T O R S
Peter N.
(Gregory
University of Illinois
Urbana-Champaign, Illinois, USA
Alexander W. Macdonald
Universile de Paris X
Nanterre, France
Steven Collins
Concordia University
Montreal,
Canada
Ernst Steinkellner
University of Vienna
Wien, Austria
Jikido Takasaki
University ofTokyo
Tokyo, Japan
Robert Thurman
Columbia University
New
York,
New
York,
USA
Volume 13
1990
Number 1
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C O N T E N T S
I . A R T I C L E S
1.
T ib e ta n M ate r ia l s in the Asia Rare Book Col lec t ion of
the L ib ra ry of Co ngress
by John B. Buescher
1
2.
T he Re l ig ious S tan d ing o f Burm ese Bud dh i s t N uns
(thild-shin): The Ten Precepts and Rel ig ious
Respec t W ords byHiroko Kawanam i 17
3 . A Poss ib le Ci ta t ion of C an dr ag om in ' s L ost
*
Kayatrayavatara by Peter
Shilling
41
4.
M edi ta t ion and Co sm ology : T h e Physica l Bas is of
the Concen t ra t ions and Formless Absorp t ions
Ac cord ing to dG e- lugs T ib e tan Presen ta t ions
by
Leah Zahler
53
I I .
C O N F E R E N C E R E P O R T
1.
"Bu ddh i s t So te rio logy : T he
Marga
a n d O t h e r
A ppro ach es to L ib e ra t io n" : A Confe rence Repor t
by Robert E. Buswell, Jr. andRobertM. Gimello 79
I I I . R E V I E W S
1. Maham udra: The Qu
intessence
of Mind and Meditation,
by Tash i N am gya l [ tr . Lo bsan g Lh a lu ng pa ]
(M at th ew K aps te in) 101
2 . Les
Tamang
du Nepal:
Usages
et religion,
religion
de I'usage,
by Brig i t te Ste inmann
(Dav id H olm be rg ) 114
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IV . NOTES AND NEWS
1. Notice
of Studies inCentraland East Asian Religions
(Per K va erne ) 117
LIST O F CO N T RIB U TO RS 119
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I I .
CONFERENCE REPORT
Buddh i s t So t e r io logy : The Marga a n d O t h e r A p p r o a c h e s t o
L i b e r a t i o n "
A Confe rence Re por t ,by Robert E. Buswell,Jr. and
Robert
M. Gimello
Religious Studies, particularly the cross-cultural version thereof
w
hich is often known as Comparative Religion, has long promised
to liberate scho lars from culture-b oun d categories, perspectives, and
m
ethods. This promise has regularly taken the form of an exhorta
tion combined with an invitationan exhortation to cease relying
exclusively on Western (viz., Ju de o-C hris tian ) tradition s in estab
lishing the major features of religious experience or in determining
the general terms in which religion can or should be studied, and an
ln
vit atio n to draw freely upo n othe r tradition s for themes, and
approaches that may be usefully employed in the study of religions
generally. This promise, unfortunately, has seldom been fulfilled. It
js still all too common to find non-Western religious traditions like
Maoism, Hinduism, and Buddhism treated only in terms drawn from
the European heritage, such as prayer, theodicy, transcendence,
m
yth, ritual, eschatology, deity, and so forth. Some such concepts
a r
e useful in the study of traditions other than those in which they
were generated; others prove often to be quite inappropriate if not
utterly untransferable. But this examination has typically been one
sided: where are the Hindu categories used to illumine Christianity,
the Taoist concepts employed in analyzing Ju da ism , the sh am anic
themes applied to Islam? No doubt such truly cross-cultural studies
f religions have been occasionally essayed, but only rarely in a sys
tematic fashion.
This conference on "Buddhist Soteriology" was, among other
things an effort, albeit an admittedly modest and limited one, to
D e
gin to rectify this situa tion . T he conference was held at the U niver-
S1
ty of Californ ia, Los Angeles between the 25th and 30th of
Jun e ,
1988, under the sponsorship of the Join t C om m ittee on Chinese
Studies of the American Council of Learned Societies and the Social
Science Research C oun cil, and the University of California System-
wide Grant Program in Pacific Rim Studies. An international group
f twenty scholars, who together covered the entire span of Budd
hism's history and geographical extension, gathered for a wide-rang-
l n
g series of discussions on the problem of soteriology in many of its
79
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JIABS VOL. 13 NO . 1
most important dimensions. The participants sought to util ize both
Buddhism's emphasis on soteriology as the bedrock of its own iden
tity and the potential use of the con ceptofmdrga, or "path," as a fun
damental category in the field of Religious Studies. All presented
original research on the theories and methods of liberation in Budd
hism and the general question of the role of soteriology in the array
of things that comprise Buddhism; abstracts of the papers presented
at the conference follow in this report. Clarification of the nature of
the relationship between doctrine and religious experiencein
Buddhism and in religions generallywas among the dominant
theoretical goals of the conference. Th e pa rticip an ts w ere joined by
several discussants versed in other religious traditions, including
Bernard Faure (Stanford University), Karl Potter (University of
W ash ing ton ), Lee Yearley (Stanford U niversity), and Yoshihide
Yoshizu (Kom azaw a U niversity), wh o provided a valuable co m para
tive perspective and deepened our appreciation of the potential
implications of this topic.
Hoping to address an audience especially of scholars in Reli
gious Studies, the conference sough t to un de rtake a manifold investi
gation of the primary Buddhist concept or category of
mdrga
the
path"in order both to clarify the range of that category's meaning
in the B uddhist trad ition and to suggest its utility in the cross-cultural
study of religion. It was our co ntention not only th atmdrgais a them e
central to the whole of Buddhism, but also that it has range and
theoretical potential sufficient to allow our speaking usefully of a
Chris t ian mdrga, Jewish
mdrga,
Islamic
mdrga,
etc. T he focus on
Bud dhism made sense, we felt, because, as a potentially cross-cultural
category for the study of religions,
mdrga
has been given its most sus
tained, com prehensive, and subtle explication in Bu ddhism .
Th e Western concept to which the B uddhist category ofmdrgais
most close related is "soteriology." The equivalence, to be sure, is
hardly exact, given, for example, the English term's etymological
implication of "savior," but no other more fitting term has sug
gested itself to us. W ha t we m ean by mdrga or "soteriology " is, gen
erally speaking, the transformative dimension of religion, which is
often manifest as an explicit pattern of religious behavior leading
necessarily to a specific religious goal. While it is certainly true that
transformative powerthe capacity to alter character, values, and
world-viewsis implicit in all religions, nowhere is this more clearly
the case than in Buddhism. That tradition, throughout the two-and-
a-half m illenia of its pan-A siatic career, h as been relentlessly explicit
in declaring itself to be a soteriology above all else. Its unflagging
concentration on "the path" has led not only to the careful and
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CONFERENCE REPORT
81
detailed delineation of numerous curricula of religious practice and
to the precedence of such delineation among the various modes of
Buddhist discourse, but also to the adop tion of ju st those principles
of thought and discourse that would best secure the primacy of
soteriology. Thus we have the recurrent motif of the Buddhist as
therapist rather than theorist, the repeated assertion of the superior
ity of analytical and critical thought over synthetic and constructive
speculation, the characteristic invocation of pragmatic criteria for
the evaluation of doctrines and practices, the pervasive influence of
the meta-theory
oiupqya
(e xpe dienc e), the tendency to choose discip
lined experience (e.g., meditation) over reason as the final arbiter of
truth or efficacy, and so on.
The centrality within Buddhism
of
mdrga, and of systematic dis
course on "the path," suggests to us the possibility of approaches to
the study of both Buddhism and other religions that may be truly
novel. It has long been a dominant convention of Religious Studies
t 0
focus principally on certain cardinal concepts or archetypal
experiences in its efforts to understand particular religious tradi
tions. This approach has had its uses, but it is fraught with perils.
All too easily can it lead to purely abstract, reified, and fragmented
conceptions of religion in which excessive emphasis is given to the
e
hte and disembodied religion of the scholaras though the identity
of any religion can be reduced solely to its cardinal tenets. As much
as being systems of doctrine, however, religions are also axiologies
a
nd ways of life, and those facets are more immediately familiar and
com pelling to the ord ina ry adh eren ts of a religion tha n w ould be any
f the scho lastic discussions of the elite the oretician s. T his is because
the truths of a religion are revealed to most adherents not as much
through its doctrines as by the structured lifestyle of the monastery
0 r
lay community. In the case of Buddhism, for example, even the
m
ost unsophisticated of monks unable to list the twelve links of the
chain of dependent originationor any of the other interminable
numerical lists of tenets in which Buddhist texts aboundwould still
know the monastic regimen he follows each day, and it would be that
re
gimen which most directly informs his religious understanding.
While the experiences fostered by the monastic discipline and life
style may be only implicit in the doctrines of the religion, they are
explicit in the
mdrga
itself As the living context within w hich all that
l s
Buddhist is defined, the
mdrga
creates a commonality of concern
that reticulates all the various strands of its religious endeavor
m
oral values, ritual observances, doctrinal teachings, and contemp
lative exercisesinto a unified network of practices focused on liber
ation. Th e
mdrga
thus incorporates everything from the simplest act
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JIABS VOL. 13 NO. 1
of charity
to
the most refined meditative experience; it concentrates
attention not on the isolated effects of specific religious practices but
on the whole pattern of discipline that encompasses the life of the
individual adherent.
A specific exam ple oimdrgaas the ordering m echanism or "d eep
structure" of religion might well be in order at this point. Consider
one of the earliest and simplest statements of the Buddhist path, the
so-called "three trainings" (tris'iksd). In this scheme, the practitioner
is instructed to begin his pursuit of liberation by cultivating obedi
ence to basic moral rules (non-violence, avoidan ce of false speech,
etc.) so as to delimit strictly the range of appropriate human action
in the physical, verbal, and mental spheres. The rationale provided
for such ethical discipline
{sila)
at the outset of the path is tha t m ora l
ity minimizes present mental anguish, guilt, and uncertainty, lead
ing in turn to more rudimentary forms of tranquility and peace that
result from control of the mind. But rather than tranquility being an
abstract ideal divorced from the preceding practice of morality, it is
actually embodied in the ethical observances of the student. The
control over his response to external stimuli that the student thus
gains through moral observance and tranquility leads to the develop
ment of an introspective focus, which allows him to begin to wield
control over the impulses that initiate action in the first place. This
internal control regulates in turn the processes of the mind, permit
ting the student to become still more concentrated and focused. T h at
concentration
{samddhi)
can then be put to use in investigating the
student's world with insight. The wisdom {prajnd) achieved through
such investigation finally reveals the nature of the world as being
impermanent
(anitya),
unsatisfactory
{duhkha),
and impersonal
(andt-
man)~-the
fundamental Buddhist dogma of the "three marks of exis
tence"
{trilaksana)
. This insight ultimately brings a permanent end
to the impulses that sustain one's ties with the phenomenal world of
suffering, engendering the radical renunciation that is nirvana. We
thus see that the program of practice outlined in the three modes of
train ing finally corroborates the most ba sic doc trinal teachings of
Buddhism by bringing them into the whole pattern of discipline that
defines the spiritual career of the individual. The path thus weaves
all these different facets and stages of Buddhist spiritual endeavor
into an o rganic whole, in which each p ar t in corpo rates ^all other
par ts :
morality is the premonition
of
both concentration and wis
do m , conce ntration the resona nce of m orality and the anticipation of
wisdom, and wisdom the consumation of both morality and concen
tration and the initiation into liberation.
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CONFERENCE REPORT
83
The value of this approach is especially evident when one con
siders the goal of the Buddhist path, nirvana, and the notorious diffi
culty of characterizing, let alone defining, that goal. How better to
understand it than by appreciating the sense in which nirvana is
lrr
plicit and shape d in the very p ath leading to it? Ninian Sm art has
offered the useful analogy of the relationship between the goal of a
game and the rules of that game. Any effort to define a "home run"
w
ould inevitably lead to a systematic statement of the rules of the
game ofbaseball. Similarly, virtually the only feasible description of
a
n ineffable religious goal like nirvanais an outline of the pa th leading
t o
it. In both cases, the goal is implicit in, and accessible only
t r o u g h , the rules of behavior leading to its attainme nt. Conversely,
^e meaning of any one element in the path consists principally in
the contribution it makes to the achievement of that goal.
T he
mdrga
proves therefore to be that factor which insinuates
l t s
elf into everything that is Buddhist, uniting not only its various
practices and strata of adherents, but also the disparate branches of
*ts diffuse tradition. This is by no means to advocate that there was
D u
t a single soteriology accepted by all the schools of Buddhism.
While soteriology may be what brings continuity to the Buddhist
re
l igion, many permutations occurred as that concept was dissemi
nated and inter pre ted in different regions of Asia. T hus
mdrga
may
also provide a key that will help unlock the distinctive contributions
tnade to Buddhism by its various indigenous traditions.
But we also believe that the potential "revisioning" of religion
Su
ggested by Buddhism's emphasis on the path offers the possibility
f a more holistic assessment not only of Buddhism, but indeed of
a n
y given religious tradition.
Mdrga
provides a m ore integrative way
f interpreting religion, in which all elements of a religious tradition
can be seen to collaborate in the service of the common goal of liber
ation. Thus a religion's doctrines can be seen to correspond to its
concrete practices and to flow from them; its worldviews and
axiologies can be seen as implicit in its regimens of practice; the
Popular piety of its common adherents can be seen to resonate
deeply with the insights that inform the conceptual systems of its
e
Hte philosophers. More than cardinal doctrines, then, we believe it
to be the
mdrga
that creates within a religion a sense of communal
l y - t h e Buddhist ideal of
samgha-among
the various strata of
adhe
rents with all their variant concerns and needs. It is this emphasis
n mdrga that serves to keep religion accessible to all, not simply a
small elite. The emphasis on a practical spirituality brings even the
highest reaches of religious achievement within the purview of the
most humble of adherents. It also demands that even the more basic
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J IA BS V OL . 13 NO . 1
of p rac t ices b e d i rec t ly p r ep ar a t o r y to , if no t ac tua l ly re f lec ted
wi th in , t h e m o s t ad v an ced . By m ak in g re l i g io u s ach i ev em en t q u an
tifiable in terms relevant to daily l ife, al l the activit ies of ordinary
ad he ren ts a re ma de to se rve the so te r io log ica l p rocess . T h e s ta te
m e n t o f t h e lay C h ' an p rac t i t i o n e r , P ' an g Yi in , m ay b e ap ro p o s :
" M y s t i ca l ex p e r i en ce an d ac t i v e s e rv i ce a re ca r ry in g wa te r an d
g a th e r in g k in d l in g . "
The Meaning of
Slla
in the
M a g g a
of the Theravdda Tradition,
Geo rg e D . Bo n d , No r th wes t e rn Un iv e r s i t y
T h e T h e ra v a d a t r ad i t i o n s ince a t l ea s t t h e tim e o f B u d d h ag h o sa
h as r eg a rd ed
sila
as an in tegra l com po ne n t o f the pa th to l ibe ra t ion .
I t has a l luded to the s ignif icance of
slla
by referring to i t as "a stair
tha t l eads to heaven" and a "door tha t l eads to
nibbana.
T h i s p a p e r
ex am in es t h e m ean in g an d fu n c t io n o f
slla
in re la t ion to the pat h an d
the goals of the t radi t ion .
Slla
means behav io r o r charac te r , and more spec i f ica l ly , good
ch a rac t e r o r v i r t u e . T h e ra v a d a d e f in ed th e co n ten t of
slla
t h r o u g h a
n u m b e r o f fo rm u la t io n s o f p rec ep t s . T h e e s sen ti a l fo rm u la t io n wa s
that ofdasa
slla,
a l th ou gh the t rad i t io n ac tu a l ly ha d two l is t s o f t en
p recep t s : t h e
sikkhdpadas,
o r t ra in ing p recep ts fo r the monks ; and
ano ther l i s t t e rmed the
dasa kusala kammapathd.
This second l is t
an a ly zes
slla
in to th ree ca tegor ies : body , speech , an d m ind . I t
appears tha t over t ime the t rad i t ion op ted fo r the
sikkhdpadas
as the
pr imary def in i t ion fo r
dasa slla.
A n o th e r fo rm u la t io n o f t h e p rec ep t s
co n s t i t u t i n g
slla
d iv id ed
slla
in to the th ree d iv i s ions
ofculla, majjhima
a n d
mahd.
T h i s fo rm ula t ion com bin ed bo th of the l is ts
of dasa slla
a n d
included o ther v i r tues to indic ate the e th ical perfect ion of the
arahant.
T o u n d e r s t an d th e m ean in g o f
slla
for the pa th an d i ts goa l we
m u s t r eco g n ize t h a t T h e ra v a d a a ff irm s a g ra d u a l p a th t h a t r ep re
sents a ser ies of so ter io log ical s t ra teg ies a da p te d to pe rso ns of d iffer
ing leve ls o f w isdom an d sp i r i tu a l per fec t ion . Th is pa th h as
lokiya
a n d
lokuttara
levels tha t fit the th ree ge ner al typ es of pe rs on s:
puthui-
janas, sekhas,
a n d
asekhas.
For the
puthujjanas,
t h e re a re m u n d an e fo r
m u l a t i o n s
{abhisamdcdrika slla)
and for the
sekhas,
s u p r a m u n d a n e
(ddibrahmacariyaka).
Lay perso ns on th e m un da ne level fol low the
refuges and the f ive precepts , except on
uposatha
day s , w he n they a re
expe c ted to observ e e igh t of the
sikkhdpadas
out of ve ne ra t io n for , an d
in imitation of, the
arahants.
Before be ing fu lly a dm it t ed to the o rd er
nov ice monks on the mundane leve l observe the ten
sikkhdpadas-
after
ordination they follow a fourfold
slla.
T h e t rad i t ion a l so speci fied the
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CONFERENCE REPORT
85
kinds ofsilato be followed by those on the lokuttara orariya maggas.
This formulation of sila involves the com prehen sive formulation
described asculla,majjhima, andm ahdsila.
Just as the meaning ofsilaas a com pone nt of the path varies
acco rding to the level of the pe rson , so also does the relation ofsilato
the goal
of
the path. For those
on the mundane level, the
abhisamdcdrika
silaleads to attainme nts w ithin the round of
sam sara,
such as faith, learning, generosity and a heavenly rebirth. On the
lokuttara path, however,sila is integral to the process of mental purifi
cation, restraining theakusala impulses and eradicating the unw hole
some roots and volitions.
No-Mind and SuddenAwakening:
Thoughts on the Soteriologyofa KamakuraZenText
Carl Bielefeldt, Stanford University
Zen Buddhism is often depicted as a religion that seeks to bring
about direct, intuitive experience of ultimate reality through the
psychological technique of meditation. This paper questions the
adequacy of such a soteriological model when applied across the
range of historical forms of Zen ; it does so by exa m ining the e xam ple
of a thirteenth-century Jap an ese text, popularly known as the Zazen
ron, that appears to favor a rather different religious style.
The paper begins with distinctions between explicit and
implicit systems of Buddhist soteriology and between ultimate and
proxim ate soteriological goals. Th e argum ent then attem pts to show
tha t the religion of theZazen
ron
seeks to med iate betw een the explicit
norm s and ultimate ends of the M aha ya na theology and the implicit
values and proximate goals of its Jap an ese audience; thus the
Mahayana goal of liberation from the world through the attainment
of buddhahood is redefined as consolation in the world through
belief in the immanence of the Buddha mind. Under this reading,
the key salvific experience is identified not with the mystical awaken
ing of the Zen m edita tor but with the leap of faith of the Zen conv ert;
similarly, the soteriological role of meditation is less that of causeof
awakening tha n of expression of faith. T h e pa per end s with the sug
gestion that such a "soteriology of conversion" may be seen as a
reflexofthe apologetic purp oses of theZazenronitself
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J I A B S V O L . 13 NO . 1
TheravadaBuddhist Soteriologyand theParadoxof Desire
G rac e G. Bur ford , G eorge to wn Un iver s i ty
Desp i te i t s own c la ims to the con t r a ry , Theravada Buddhism
deve loped the t each ings and prac t ices i t now cons ide r s o r thodox
over a co ns id erab le per iod of t im e. I ts l i te ra tu re reflects both the
ear ly beginnings of th is t radi t ion and i ts la ter formula t ions . This
s tudy examines the nature of the ideal goal and the path to i t accord
ing to theA tthakavagga of the Suttanipata and in both a la te canonica l
a nd pos t - c a non ic a l c om m e n ta r y on i t .
Careful analys is of the Atthakavagga ind ica tes th a t it represe nts
two different ap pro ac he s to the highe s t go al . O n e of the two
soter iologies in the text descr ibes a pa th tha t involves developing
var iou s speci fic e th ica l hab i t s an d v i r tues . T h e pr im ary v i r tue
wi th in th i s pa th schem e is des i r e le s sness . T hr ou g h see ing and know
ing things as they rea l ly are , one eradica tes des i re , se l f ishness , and
a t t a c hm e n t . T he o the r pa th t he
Atthakavagga
r e c o m m e nd s t a ke s t h is
not io n of des i re lessness to i ts logica l con clus io n, de ny ing the value of
pre fe r r ing any pa r t i cu la r v iew {ditlhi) over any other , eventual ly
exp ress in g disap pro va l of any preferences for a pa r t i cu la r teacher ,
pa th or even go al . T hi s la t te r soter iologica l v iew chal len ges the
forme r w i th the par ad ox of des i re : how ca n preference ( i . e . , des i re)
for a par t icular teaching, teacher , pa th , or goal he lp one to cul t iva te
des i re lessness?
S ince these two approaches a r e in p rac t ica l t e rms incompat ib le
(should one cul t iva te specif ic v i r tues , in accordance with a specif ic
teacher ' s v iew, or not?) , the Atthakavagga poses a so te r io log ica l p rob
lem for the T he ra va da t r ad i t io n . T h e second pa r t o f th i s s tudy
examines the two major Pa l i commenta r ie s on the Atthakavagga, in
ord e r to see how the T he ra va da t r ad i t ion ha s in te rp re ted th i s po te n
t ia l ly problemat ic text .
Th ese com m en ta r ie s c lea rly r ef lect the T he ra va da t r ad i t ion ' s
decis ion to op t for the pa th th a t follows a pa r t i cu la r teach er ' s teach
ing . Th ey in te rp re t theA tthakavagga verses tha t present the znu-ditthi
view as refer r ing only to views and teachers
other
t ha n t he B u dd ha
and his v iew ( the r ight ditthi), ef fec t ive ly undermining the
Atthakavagga^ ditthi po l e m ic w i th a " p r e s e n t c om pa ny e xc e p t e d"
in te rpre ta t ion . In the p rocess , the commenta r ie s a l so r eso lved the
inheren t cha l lenge of the Atthakavaggds ra is in g of the pa ra do x of
des i r e : i t may be pa radoxica l , o r pe rhaps more accura te ly i ron ic , bu t
i t is in practical fact necessary to desire the ideal in order f inally to
a t ta in i t. T h e des i re to be des i re less is w ha t d is t ing uish es the Bud
dhis t adherents f rom those re l ig ious who do not s t r ive to be t ter them
selves at all.
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C O N F E R E N C E R E P O R T
87
The
Wholesome
Roots and their Eradication:
A Descent tothe Bedrockof Budd histSoteriology
R ob ert E. Busw el l , Jr . , Un ivers i ty of C al i forn ia , Los Angeles
Buddhism has genera l ly conce ived tha t the " t a s te o f l ibe ra t ion"
that pervades i t s scr iptures was something that was accessible to a l l
be ings, provided they ful f i l led the necessary precondi t ions to i t s
a c h i e ve me n t . Th i s un i ve r sa l i s t i c t e nde nc y i n Buddh i sm i s pe rha ps
best exem plified in the fam ou s refrain of the Nirvana Sutra that all
be ings a re endowed wi th the capac i ty to ach ieve buddahood. Whi le
esp ou sing th is ul t im ate goal of en l igh ten m en t for a l l , howev er , some
Buddhis t sc r ip tures made the apparen t ly conf l i c t ing c la im tha t ce r
t a in pe rsons could be forever ba r red f rom sa lva t iona c la im some
t imes found even in the same text , as in our example of the Nirvana
Sutra. Such ind iv idua l s , w ho ha d en gag ed in the m ost he inou s of evil
ac t ions , were ca l l ed " those whose wholesome roo t s a re e rad ic ted"
{samucchinnakusalamula), an d in the vast ma jor i ty of case s , were con
de m ne d to sub sequ ent re b i r th in he l l . T h i s pap er uses the no t ion of
samucchinnakusalamula
to explore two re la ted qu es t ion s in Bu ddh is t
soter iolog y: 1) w ha t could caus e sa lvat ion to bec om e forever out of
reac h? ; an d 2) w h at factor is abs olute ly essen tial if peo ple are to
re ta in the i r capaci t ies for re l igious cul t iva t ion?
U s i ng sou rc e s r a ng i ng f rom t he Ch i ne se Agamas an d Pali
Nikayas, to the Abhidharmamahdvibhasaof the V aibh asik as (now avai l
ab le on ly in C hin ese t ra ns la t io n) , and even to C hin ese San-c h ieh
chiao and Ch 'an mate r i a l s , th i s paper seeks to prove tha t n iggard
l iness is the qua l i ty t ha t leads to the era dic a t io n of the wh oles om e
root s whi le g iv ing sus ta in s and , if need be , regen era tes , them . O u r
examinat ion of the wholesome roots wi l l reveal the i r associa t ion wi th
t he c onc e p t o f me r i t -ma k i ng , o r putrya,and t ake us dow n to the b ed
rock of Buddhist soter iology. With the ple thora of qual i t ies tha t
B ud dh ists em ph as ize in the i r w ri t in gs , it i s d if ficul t to de ter m in e
wh ich is mo st fun dam enta l wh ich is the " lowes t com m on
de no m ina tor , " a s it were , of the Bu ddh is t sp i r i tua l equ a t ion . We will
f ind in this m ate ria l tha t the essentia l cataly st to cu lt iva t ion wil l
p rove to be no t one of the severa l impor tan t ph i losophica l concept s
for w hic h B ud dh ism is of ten r en ow ne d; inste ad i t wi l l be the s imp le
prac t i ce of g iv ing {ddna).
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JIABS V OL. 13 NO . 1
Attainment through
Abandonment:
The Sarvdstivdda PathofRemoving Defilements
Collett Cox, U niversity of W ashington
According to the earliest accounts, the Buddha's enlightenment
experience culminates in the knowledge of the destruction of the
fluxes(dsravaksayajndna), resulting in an end to rebirth, an end to
suf-
fering. The Sarvastivada, a northern Indian school of Abhidharma,
developed a complex and intricate path of religious praxis also
directed exclusively toward this ultimate goal: the complete cessa
tion of defilement. Theirs is a path of attainment through abandon
ment, in which freedom from suffering is reached in progressive
stages through the removal of defilements. Though knowledge and
insight are integral to this religious process, they do not, in them
selves, cons titute the final goa l; inste ad, they serve as tools to be used
in effecting the abandonment of specific defilements.
T he s ingular im po rtan ce of the ab an do nm en t of defilements in
the Sarvastivada Abhidharma path structure is indicated first by the
detail with which the defilements afflicting unenlightened beings are
enumerated (e.g., the six or ten basic defilements associated with
various states of mind in various meditative and rebirth states,
resulting in a total of 98). Further, religious aspirants are differen
tiated according to their level of attainment, that is, by the number of
defilements abandoned and the degree of completeness of this aban
donment. The complete abandonment of a particular defilement is
designated cessation through application {pratisamkhydnirodha)\ that
is,religious asp irants require disconnection
(visamyoga)
from particu
lar defilements thro ug h th e application of vision
(darsana)
or cultiva
tion
(bhdvand).
The Sarvastivada equate this complete cessation of
each defilement with nirvana.Th is cessation, disconnection, or
nirvana
is then acquired repeatedly in progressing along the path; and once
all defilements are ab and on ed, the final goal is a ttaine d.
This paper examines the Sarvastivada Abhidharma path struc
ture using both early Sarvastivada texts (e.g., the
Prakaranapdda,
Dharmaskandha, and Samgitiparydya), and texts represen ting the
developed Sarvastivada-Vaibhasika perspective (e.g., the Vibhasa
literature, Abhidharmakosabhdsya, and Nydydnusdra). I seek to clarify
the following q ues tions:
1) What is the nature of defilements (i.e., anusaya;klesa), and
what is the mechanism by which they affect unenlightened sentient
beings (e.g.,bija,
prdpti)?
2) What is the specific method by which defilements are to be
abandoned (e.g.,aprdpti, visamyogaprdpti, and
mdrga)?
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3) What are the relations between this interpretation of defile
ments and other doctrinal positions accepted by the Sarvastivada
school? How did differing assumptions held by other sects alter their
descriptions of the pa th?
W e n - t z u Ch'an: Learning, Letters, and Meditation
Robert M. Gimello,
University
of Arizona
In terms of rhetoric, Ch'an Buddhism eschews verbal formula
tions or expressions of truth in favor of direct, unmediated experi
ence.
Despite this, there have been periods throughout its history
w hen , recoiling from spasm s of an tinom ianis m , Ch 'a n proved itself
to be rather more hospitable to textual study and more appreciative
of literary expression than its typical rhetoric would have led one
to expect.
One such period was that of the Northern Sung dynasty, when
the predominant strains of Ch'an advocated the systematic integra
tion of learning and meditation practice. This advocacy not only
included a repetition of older calls to "unify C h 'a n and the scrip tural
teachings," but also the novel contention that the Buddhist contemp
lative career could even be combined with secular learning and the
practice of humane letters. Under the banner of "lettered Ch'an,"
many Ch'an figures sought to incorporate Ch'an into the literary
and academic culture of the intelligentsia. This effort to harmonize
Ch'an with learning and literature was not simply a device for reli
gious propagation, but was seen also as having intrinsic religious
m erit in the m inds of those w ho fostered it. It w as viewed as a way of
protecting the tradition from antinomian corruption and as a means
of enriching Ch'an spirituality by putting the resources of the liter
ary and learned traditions at Ch'an's disposal.
T he topic of "lettered (wen-tzu) C h 'a n " may also serve as a "case
study" of the broader issue of the relationship between intellectual
disciplines like study and literary com position, on the one han d, and
the meditative disciplines of the interior or contemplative life, on the
otheri.e., to wh at Je an Leclercq has called in Christia n term s
"The love of learning and the desire for God." It may be especially
profitable to raise such qu estions in respect to C hi na , for there we see
Bu ddhism developing within a cultural context in which literary sen
sitivity and accomplishment, together with scholarship, were pri
mary measures of pietyitself It is not surprising, therefore, that the
question of the soteriological value of learning and letters should
have been pu t especially acutely by Chinese Bu ddh ists.
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JIA BS VO L. 13 NO . I
My discussion of this topic is based especia l ly on the wri t ings of
three majo r f igures of the Lin -chi l ineage of N or th e rn Su ng C h 'a n .
Th e y a r e C h ue h - f a n H u i -h un g (1071-1128) o f the H ua ng - lu ng
br a n c h o f L in -c h i , a nd Yi i a n -w u K b -c h ' in ( 1063 -113 5) a nd Ta -hu i
Tsu ng-ka o (1091-1157 ) , bo th of the Yan g-ch ' i b ra nc h . T h e w r i t ings
of these men abound in both explic i t and implic i t references to the
top ic o f the r e l a t ionsh ip a m on g l e a rn ing , l it e r a tu r e , a nd m e d i t a t ion -
an d the ir views of thos e re la t ion shi ps great ly inf luenced la ter Ea st
Asian re l ig ious thought and prac t ice .
The
Cosmogonic
B asis of Tsung-mi's
Theory
of the Path
P e te r N . Gre gory , Un ive r s i ty o f I l li no i s , U rb a n a - C ha m p a i gn
Th i s pa pe r e xa m ine s how Tsung -m i de r ive s a c osm ogon y f rom
th eA wakening of Faithto se rve as a m a p for Bu ddh is t p rac t ice . Ju s t a s
un de rs ta nd ing of the twe lve-l inked cha in of de pe nd en t or ig in a t ion
provided a m ap for ea r l ie r Budd his ts , so Tsun g-m i ' s un de rs t an di ng of
the process of phenomena l evolu t ion accord ing to h is in te rpre ta t ion
of theA wakening of Faithprovided a s t ruc tu red pa t te rn f rom w hich h e
der ived his ten-s tage d proces s of re l igious pra ct ic e an d rea l iza t ion
T h e pa pe r explores Tsu ng-m i ' s accoun t of the s tages of prac t ice an d
realization in his Ch'an-yuan chu-ch'uan-chi tu-hsii, w here his th eor y is
expressed in i ts most developed form. I t also traces the evolution of his
ten-s taged theory by looking a t i t s "pr imi t ive" express ion in ea r l ie r
works , such as h is commenta ry and subcommenta ry to the Yuan-chueh
ching a nd h i s c o m m e n ta ry to the Awakening of Faith. T he se ea r l ie r
works c lar i fy the centra l i ty of the Awakening of
Faith
in Tsung mi ' s
un de r s t a n d in g o f the B udd h i s t pa t h . T h e pa p e r u se s i ts d i sc uss ion o f
Tsu ng-m i ' s thou gh t as a way of exp lor ing the la rge r co m pa ra t ive
issues of the re la t io ns hip of cosm ogo ny to e thic s and of on tolo ev to
soter iology.
5 y
The
Development
of Early Japanese
Tendai Views on
the
Rapid Realization ofBuddhahood
Paul G roner , U nivers i ty of V irg in ia , Ch ar lo t te sv i l le
T h e de fin it ion o f bu dd ha ho od , the a m o un t of t im e r e qu i r e d to
rea l ize i t, an d the n u m b er of peop le w ho can hop e to a t ta rn have
of ten been top ics of b i t te r cont roversy am on g Bu dd his t schoo l At
c er ta in p oin ts in B u dd his t h is to ry , th ese i s su e h a v e T e n s t * ^
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91
mtense scrut iny, resul t ing in substant ia l revis ions in the defini t ion of
buddhahood and the pa th to i t . At the beginning of the n in th century
m
o s t J a p an es e mon ks wou ld have accep ted the pos i t ion tha t b ud dh a
hood was the resul t of eons of pract ice that few could a t ta in. By the
e
nd of the n in th century , th i s s i tua t ion had radica l ly changed due to
the es tab l i shm ent of two new schoo ls , Ten da i and Sh ing on. La rge
gro ups of m onk s and lay be l ievers had com e to be lieve tha t b ud d ha -
hood could be a t ta ined by everyone in a s ingle l i fe t ime.
This paper focuses on the emergence and ea r ly deve lopment of
one of the key concepts employed in the redefini t ion of these issues
D
y Ja pa ne se Tenda i m onk s : name ly , t he t e ach ing con ce rn ing " the
rea li z a tion o f bu dd ha ho od in t h is ex i s t ence"
(sokushin
jobutsu). The
study wil l be divided into two parts . In the f i rs t , the Chinese origins
ar
*d the f i rs t Japanese usages of the concept wil l be considered,
^a i ch o , t he Tenda i m onk w ho in t roduced the concep t t o J a p an , d i ed
before he could define i t exact ly. The second part of the s tudy wil l
locus on the efforts of his disc iples to do so. T h ei r co nc ern s wil l be
e
*a rn in ed th ro ug h a series of le t ters on do ctr in al issues tha t they
^ c h a n g e d w i t h C h i n e s e m o n k s . E v e n t u a ll y , t h e J a p a n e s e m o n k s fo r
mula ted the i r own innova t ive pos i t ions ra the r than adopt the more
conse rva t ive pos i t i ons o f t he i r Ch inese coun te rpa r t s . The ques t ions
ra ised by T en dai m on ks reveal the key issues an d co nc ern s tha t led
them to formula te the i r v iews on enl ightenment in new and d is t inc
tive ways.
Ja pa ne se Tenda i vi ews on the rea l iz a t ion o f bu dd ha ho od in t h i s
e x
i s t e nc e p ro found ly a ffec ted su bsequ en t J a pa ne se Buddh i s t h i s to ry
|
n
both pos i t ive and nega t ive ways . On the nega t ive s ide , the teach
ing even tua l ly led to a dec l ine in se r ious prac t ice w i th in the Ja p an es e
Jendai school because the f inal goal was sa id to be so easy to rea l ize .
O n the pos i ti ve s ide , Ten da i a rg um en t s t ha t bud dh ah oo d w as poss i
b le for everyone cont r ibuted to the spread of Buddhism to a l l seg
m ents of soc ie ty . A l tho ug h la te r Ja p an es e schools eventua l ly re jected
mu ch o f t he Ten da i t e ach in g on the rap id rea l i z a t ion of bu dd ha ho od ,
a ll nev erthele ss ha d to co m pe te w ith i t an d to form ulate their respe c
t ive do c t r in es an d p rac t ice s in respon se to i t. T hi s pape r , w hich
t r
a ce s th e early h is tory of the T end ai view on the rap id r ea l iza t ion of
e n
l i g h t en m en t , t hus he lps t o c la rify m any a spec t s o f l a t e r J a pa ne se
Buddhis t h i s tory .
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JIA BS V OL . 13 NO . 1
The Concept of Sudden Awakening in Bodhidharma's
Teaching
of
the
Mind
Ground
K i D o o H a n , W o n ' g w a n g U n i v e rs it y
To p r o p ag a t e t h e f u n d am en t a l s o f su d d en aw ak en i n g , su ch emi
n e n t C h ' a n t e a c h e r s a s H u i - n e n g , M a - t s u , P o - c h a n g , H u a n g - p o ,
and Lin -ch i a ll u sed B od h id ha rm a ' s t ea ch in g o f t he m ind g rou nd
(hsin-ti).
T h e Platform Sutra oftheSixth Patriarchprovid es a d iscip l i
nary p l a t fo rm fo r t r ansmi t t i ng the mind g round , t h rough the no t ion
of the nonab id ing mind . Th i s t each ing , however , was no t exc lus ive
to the Ch 'an schools , and th is paper seeks to t race the pedigree of
th i s t e rm in bo th Ch 'an and doc t r ina l l i t e ra tu re .
T h e chara c t e r i s t i cs of t he t eac h ing of t he m ind g rou nd in C h 'a n
were clar i f ied by Shen-hui as fol lows:
1) B o d h i d h a r m a ' s t each i n g of t h e m i n d g r o u n d w as t r an s m i t t ed
to successive C h 'a n t ea che rs f rom H ui -n en g to Lin -ch i .
2 ) T h e N o r t h e r n s ch oo l o f C h ' a n B u d d h i sm p u r su ed a co n ce p
tua l form of C h 'a n , as i s exp resse d in such co nc ep ts as so l id i fy ing
mind , ab id ing mind , and co l l ec t ing the mind , whi l e the Sou thern
sch o o l of C h ' an p u r su ed a n o n co n cep t u a l f o rm t h r o u g h i ts t e ach i n g
o f ' n o - t h o u g h t . "
3 ) N o r t h e r n C h ' an B u d d h i sm ad v o ca t ed measu r e s t o co u n t eK ac t
d e f i l emen t s , w h i l e So u t h e r n C h ' an B u d d h i sm p r o mo t ed i n s t ead a
na tu ra l knowledge and an awaken ing to one ' s own mind .
4 ) N o r t h e r n C h ' a n B u d d h i sm so u g h t t o d ev e l o p
prajnd
t h r o u g h
samddhiw h i le S o u t h e r n C h ' a n B u d d h i s m s o u g h t samadhifromprajnd.
She n-hu i bel ieved tha t B od h id ha rm a ' s t eac h ing o f t he mind
ground cou ld be ob ta ined th rough knowledge , and a l so a rgued fo r a
so t er io l o g ica l p r o g r a m o f su d d en aw ak en i n g / g r ad u a l cu l t iv a t i o n .
Because of th i s , he was cr i t ic ized as a master of in te l lectual knowl
ed g e . T h e N a t i o n a l M as t e r N an - y an g H u i - ch ' u n g c r it ic i zed S h en -
hui for h is opin ion that "only sent ient beings can become a buddha,
and c l a im ed tha t i n sen t i en t be ings cou ld a l so rea l i ze b ud dh ah oo d .
T h is not ion w as the sou rce of the sh if t from the mo de ra te s ubi t i sm
of sudd en aw ak en in g / g r ad ua l cu l t iva t ion to the r ad ica l sub i t i sm of
su d d en aw ak en i n g / su d d en cu l t iv a t i o n . T h e ev i d en ce ma r sh a l l ed in
th i s paper , however , sugges t s t ha t t he mind g round requ i res a p ro
cess of gr ad ua l cul t ivat ion in ord er for the sprou t of enl ig hte nm en t
to grow, b lossom, and bear f ru i t . The d i f fer ing t reatments of th i s
semina l concep t p rov ide impor t an t i n fo rmat ion fo r exp la in ing the
t rans fo rm at ion f rom ear ly to l a t e r C h 'a n tho ug h t .
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A Tibetan
Perspective on the
Nature of Spiritual Experience
Jef frey H op kin s , Un ive r s i ty o fV i rg in ia , Ch ar lo t te sv i l l e
In th is paper I u t i l ize wr i t ten and ora l Tibetan sources f rom a
ge n r e c a l l e d " g r ounds a nd pa th s "
(sa lam, bhumi-mdrga)
in con s ider -
'ng 1) At isa 's threefold typolog y of pra c t i t io ne rs and p ath s , 2) the
profoun d exp er ienc e of the min d of c lear light in Hig hes t Yoga
Tant r a , and 3 ) the meaning of "pa th , " o r sp i r i tua l exper ience in the
mo re genera l s ense . I mak e use o f T ib e ta n d Ge - lugs -p a l i t e r a tu re o n
the Bud dh is t p a th to prov ide a view of w ha t cons t i tu tes re l ig ious
exper ience in th is t radi t ion as wel l as to sugges t a bas is for compar i
son and con tras t wi th non trad i t ion al form ula t ion s of aspe cts of the
sac red by Ru do lph O t to , Ca r l Ju n g , and Wi lf red C antwe l l S mi th .
D ue to i ts exc lus ionary ag end a , th is th r eefo ld Ind o-T ibe tan
typology is c lear ly inadequate for ca tegor iz ing a l l re l ig ious persons
and re l ig ious exper ience; never theless , i t provides an avenue for
explor ing forms of Buddhis t re l ig ious exper ience in genera l , f rom
which hints about re l ig ious exper ience in genera l may be gleaned. A
cen tra l the m e of the pap er is tha t three ph ase s of exp er ien ce of the
sac redinsp i r ing dread , overcoming obs tac les , and be ing to ta l ly "a t
hom e" need to be em pha s ized in o rde r to convey even a m in im al ly
rou nd ed p ic tu re of the pa th . T hr ou gh th i s , the eno rm i ty a nd
rnom entousn ess o f the r e lig ious en te rpr i se can be app rec ia t ed .
On
the Ignorance
of
theAr h a t
Pa dm an ab h S . J a in i , Unive r s i ty o f Ca l i fo rn ia , Berkeley
Vasubandhu, whi le commenting in the f i r s t verse of h isAbhidhar-
rnakosa on the words
sarvathd sarvahatdndha kdrah,
spea ks of two kin ds
o f i gno r a n c e
{ajndna).
The first one is called
klista-sammoha,
o r im pa s
s ioned ignorance , which seems to be the ignorance of the Four Noble
Truths . The second var ie ty is ca l led
aklista-ajndna,
the ignorance , no t
of the Truths, but of things, such as of the inf inite var iety of objects
d i s tan t in space an d t ime . T he Va ibhas ik as ma in ta in tha t wh ereas
the Bu dd ha des t roys bo th k inds o f ign oran ce , the
arhats,
even w hen
they destroy the
klesas,
are not f ree from the second v ar iety, the
aklista-ajndna.
Yasomitra , in his
Sphutdrtha-vydkha,
i l lustrates this
po in t by the exam ples o f such em ine n t
sravakas
a s Sa r ip u t r a and
M a ud ga ly a ya na , a n d s ee ks t o e xp l a in the a pp a r e n t c on t r a d i c t i on
be tween the
arhaCs
f reedom from all form s of
duhkha
and the p res
ence of th i s " ignorance . " The paper a ims to examine the na ture o f
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JIAB S VO L. 13 N O . 1
th e Bu d d h i s t arhafs a l leged ign ora nc e in the contex t of the Yoga and
Ja in a m ater ia l s on the com ple t ion o f the pa th to nirvana.
Parallels to this s i tuation of the arhatsca n b e found in the cas e of
th e y o g in s ap p ro ach in g
kaivalya
as de scr ibe d by Patan jali in his
Yogasutra. I t s co m m en ta ry , t h e Vydsa-bhdsya, states that the so-called
"om nisc ienc e ," an d par t ic u la r ly the knowledge o f ob jec t s d i s ta n t in
place an d t im e, are results of yogic pra ct ice s (not d iss im ilar to the
p rac t i ce oCsamdpattisin B ud dh ism ), and are not a pre req uis i te for th e
y o g in 's a t t a in m en t of kaivalya.
T h e Ja in a posi t ion on th is issue d iffers con sidera bly , ap pa re nt l y
d em an d in g th a t p e r so n s wh o o v e rco m e th e Mesas(as the Bu ddh is t
arhat
does) m ust proc eed further in h igh er t ran ce s (cal led
s'uk-
ladhyanas) to remove the ignorance of objects {jndnavarana-karma) as
wel l . Only then may they become an omnisc ien t (kevala-jndnin) an d ,
as in the case of the Buddha, a t ta in nirvana.
Beyond Cultural Construction?:
Concentration
and Indo-Tibetan Claims for
Unmediated Cognition
Anne C. Kle in , Rice Univers i ty
Buddhis t and con temporary Wes tern in te l lec tua l t rad i t ions
share a genera l em ph as i s on the con s t ruc ted na tu re o f hu m an exper i
e n c e .
Never the less , they reach d iamet r ica l ly oppos i te conc lus ions
re ga rd ing the poss ib il i ty of c i ther an unm ed iat ed cogn i t ion or a cog
nized object tha t lies outs ide cul tur al part ic ula r i ty . T hi s pa pe r looks
a t Indo-Tibe tan , and espec ia l ly dGe- lugs -pa , p remises by which
such c la im s a re supp or te d . I focus on the ro le o f me nta l con cen t ra
t ion in the purpor ted ly unmedia ted cogn i t ions o f uncons t ruc ted
emptiness on the first and sixth bodhisattva g ro u n d s . T h ese a re
junc tu res where t rad i t iona l t ex t s examine the in te rp lay be tween con
cen t ra t ion a nd wisd om , tha t i s , be tw een w i thd raw ing the m ind in
one sense and expand ing i t s hor izons in ano ther .
Sin ce the init ia l dire ct co gnit ion of em pti ne ss occu rs on the first
g round , i t migh t seem tha t whatever reconci l i a t ion be tween ca lming
and ins ight might be required should take p lace there . However, the
rela t ion ship of these funct ions aga in be com es an issue on the s ix th
gro und wi th the deve lopm ent o f a new fo rm of con cen t ra t ion , know n
as the un co m m on a bsor p t ion of cessa t ion (*asddhdrana-nirodha-
samdpatti, thung
mong
mayin paHgogsnyoms). This is a category unique to
Prasarig ika an d in Tibet is d iscussed m ainly in dGe-lug s-pa com m en
tar ies on Candraklr t i ' sEntrance to theMiddleWay
(Madhyamakdvatdra,
dblJ
ma la 'jug pa), espec ia l ly Tsong-kha-pa ' s Clarification of (Candraklrti's)
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Thought (dbU ma dgongs pa rah gsal) a nd i n wor ks by P a n - c he n
S o - n a m - d r a k - b a , J e t s u n C h o s - k y i -g y a l -t s en , a n d J a m - y a n g - s h a y - b a .
Th is unc om m on abs orp t ion i s desc r ibed as qu i te d i s t inc t f rom the
"un kn ow ing " ces sa t ion d i scussed by Va suba ndh u and Bu ddh agh osa .
Un l ike those , th is is a w isdo m c onsc iousn ess reg ard ed as crucia l to
qual i t ies tha t charac ter ize the higher grounds ; i t i s a major ca ta lys t
of the seventh gro un d 's specia l m en ta l agi l ity an d f reedom f rom con
ceptual l imi ta t ions , as wel l as a contr ibut ing fac tor to the abi l i ty to
combine un ive r sa l ins igh t wi th pa r t i cu la r r e sponse (wisdom and
m eth od ) tha t is a s soc ia ted wi th the e igh th g roun d and above .
T h e pa pe r a rgues tha t the ro le o f ca lm ing an d co ncen t r a t ion is
c r uci a l t o un de r s t a n d in g t he un de r p inn in gs of I ndo - T ibe t a n B ud
dhis t c la ims about un m ed ia te d cogn i t ion . I a l so sugges t tha t the
m e d ia t e d /u nm e d ia t e d d i c ho tom y , im p or t a n t a s it i s, is no t t he m os t
use fu l pa rad ig m by w hich to eng age th i s Bu ddh is t ma te r ia l , and tha t
the role of concentra t ion, which has no c lear analogue in most West
ern thought , i s par t of the chal lenge to th is model .
PathsTerminableand Interminable
Do na ld S . Lop ez , J r . , Unive r s i ty o f M ich iga n , Ann A rbo r
T h e second of the e igh t top ics covered in M ai t r e ya na tha ' s com
m e n ta r y on t he
prajndpdramitd,
the
Abhisamaydlamkdra,
is the knowl
edge of the pa ths (mdrgajhatd), the bodhisattva'sun de r s t a n d in g o f the
minute s t ruc ture o f the pa ths o f sravakas, pratyekabuddhas, and
bodhisattvas, conjoined with th e rea l iza t ion tha t a ll these path s a re
em pty . Th is pa pe r uses Tson g-kha-p a ' s (1357-1419) co m m en ta ry on
the topics of the knowledge of the paths in his Legs bshad
gser phreng
to
c ons ide r t h r e e p r ob l e m s a r i s i ng f r om the I nd i a n M a ha ya na a nd
Ti be tan expos i t ions o f the pa th s to en l ig h ten m ent . Th e firs t is the
pers is ten ce of the comp lex of def i lemen ts , der ived by the
A bh id ha rm a , a f te r the an t id o te to those de f i lements (knowledg e of
the s ixtee n asp ec ts of the four tru th s) ha d be en effectively rep lace d
by the pa na cea of em pt in ess . T h e pap er cons ide r s severa l a rg um en ts
that m igh t acco un t for the con t inu at io n of a h igh ly s t ru c tu red sys tem
of def i lements , inc lu din g the poss ibi l i ty tha t they repre sen t B ud dh is t
ca tego r ies of pol lu t ion, ana log ou s to those in the cas te sys te m .
The second topic deal t wi th in the paper is the controversy
wi th in t he M a h a y a n a ove r t he nu m be r of ve h i cl e s. T he a r gu m e n t s
for three vehicles and for one vehicle are presented at some length,
focuss ing especia l ly on how the pr op on en ts of on e pos i t ion sou gh t to
account for s ta tements in the sutrastha t s eemed to sup po r t the o the r
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JIA BS V OL . 13 NO . 1
pos i t i on . Th i s l eads i n to a cons ide ra t ion o f t he s t r a t egy o f commen
tary in the Mahayana, especia l ly as i t sought to account both for the
pr ior t radi t ion, l abel led the Hinayana , and for those who had fol
lowed i t s pa th , the arhats.T h e ea r ly t r ad i t i on had to be su bo rd in a t ed
in order to es tabl i sh and mainta in the super ior pos i t ion of the
Mahayana , bu t t he Hinayana cou ld no t be r e j ec t ed comple t e ly .
The f inal quest ion taken up in the paper is one that fol lows
natural ly from the asser t ion that there is but one f inal vehicle that al l
sent ient be ings wi l l r ide to buddhahood: the ques t ion of whether
samsdra
wil l ever en d. Posi t ions on bo th s ides of the issue are d is
cussed a t some l eng th , and the doc t r ina l agendas t ha t under l i e t hose
pos i t ions are analyzed. Tsong-kha-pa f inds a reason to argue tha t
samsdra is endless in the do ct r in e of em pt in ess , a pos i t ion t ha t h i s
mos t impor t an t commenta to r s v igorous ly r e j ec t . The paper con
c ludes by con s ide r ing severa l m ode ls by m ea ns of wh ich the e xt ra or
d ina r i l y l ong bodhisattvapa th migh t be un der s tood , i nc lud ing the
mo de l o f na r r a t ive .
The
Encounter
andM a r g a Paradigms in Classical Ch'an:
Analysis and Implications
J o h n M c R a e , C a s e W e s t e r n R e s e r v e / C o r n e l l U n i v e r si ty
T h is pa pe r s ta tes a se t of hyp othes es and ten ta t ive con clus ions
reg ard ing the crea t ion of a new pa ra di gm for re l ig ious pra c t ice in the
H u n g - c h o u s c h o o l o f c la s si ca l C h ' a n B u d d h i s m .
O n e imp or tan t aspe ct of recent research on ear ly an d c lass ica l
C h ' a n is t he d e v a lu a ti o n of t he s u d d e n / g r a d u a l a n d N o r t h e r n /
Sou the rn d i cho to m ies as p r im ary ind ica to r s o f t he deve lo pm ent an d
t ran sfor m at ion of the school . T h e f ir st sec t ion of the pres enta t ion
wi l l r econs ide r apparen t d i scon t inu i ty be tween ea r ly Ch ' an and the
c l as si ca l C h ' a n o f M a- t su Tao-i (70 9-8 8) an d the H un g-c ho u
school . Af t er desc r ib ing the un iqu e cha rac t e r i s t i c s o f t he H un g-c ho u
school o f C h ' a n , in pa r t i cu l a r i ts app aren t ly s ing le -m inded devo t ion
to "encounte r d i a logue , " o r spon taneous r e l i g ious r epa r t ee , t he
paper g ives b r i e f de t a i l s r ega rd ing the b iograph ica l , doc t r ina l , and
prac t i ca l con t inu i t i e s be tween ea r ly and c l a s s i ca l Ch ' an .
The nex t sec t ion ana lyzes t he "encounte r pa rad igm" fo r r e l i
g ious pra c t ice im pl ied in c lass ica l C h 'a n in te rm s of i ts ext rem ely
pers ona l i s t and an t i - r i tua l i s t in tern al iza t ion of the no rm s of spi r i tu a l
teaching. This i s fo l lowed by a descr ip t ion of the h ighly ra t ional ized
( i .e. ,
h i e ra rch ica l and p rogress ive ) marga p a r a d i g m " a tt r i b u t e d t o
t r ad i t i on a l Ch inese Bud dh i sm an d re j ect ed by c l a s si ca l Ch ' a n .
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The conc lus ion of fe rs a hypothes i s regard ing the impl ica t ions of
the em ergen ce of the en co un te r pa r ad igm wi th in th e contex t of
Chinese socia l and inte l lec tual his tory. Speci f ica l ly , the paper argues
tha t the theor ies o f the an th rop olog i s t M ar y Do ug las (as a rgue d
especial ly in Natural Symbols) reg ard ing re l ig ious cosmo logy an d
soc ia l s t ruc ture provide an exce l l en t s t a r t ing po in t fo r unders tanding
t h e r ol e o f C h ' a n B u d d h i s m in t h e T ' a n g / S u n g t r a n s i ti o n .
The Sudden and CompletePath ofT ien-t ai Chih-i
Da nie l B. S tevenso n , But le r Un ivers i ty
T h e s ix th and seventh cen tu ry in C hi na have t rad i t iona l ly been
reg ard ed as a wa te rshed in the h i s tory of Eas t As ian B ud dh ism , a
per iod of g rea t sys tem at ic chan ge ou t o f w hich em erged the bas ic
pa t t e rn s of tho ug ht an d pra c t i ce tha t have s tood as a ha l lm ark of
Eas t Asian Bu dd hism do wn to the presen t day . O n e of the mo st s ig
ni f icant t rends to take shape dur ing this era was a shi f t towards a
" s p e e d y " (chi) o r " s u d d e n " (tun) model of the bodhisattvacourse . Fa r
from be ing sole ly a m at te r of do ct r ina l in terest , of co nc ern on ly to
the scholas t i c e l it e , the v i s ion of a "s ud de n" en l igh te nm en t was
above a l l a vis ion of a re l igious path. As such, i t in i t ia ted responses
t h ro ugh ou t a ll a spe c t s of t he Bu ddh i s t t r a d i t i on pra c t i c a l a nd
ins t i tu t iona l , a s we l l a s in te l l ec tua land became a p ivo ta l s t ruc ture
a ro un d w hich en t i re p ro gr am s of re l ig ious cu l tu re were forged . T hi s
paper wi l l d i scuss one such programtha t desc r ibed in the wr i t ings
o f Ch i h - i ( 5 3 8 - 59 7) , t he g re a t a r c h i te c t o f T ' i e n - t ' a i Bu ddh i s t
t hough t a nd p ra c t i c e .
C hih - i i s the au th or of one of the most com preh ens ive and
w i de ly r e a d s t a te m e n t s of t he " su dd e n " a pp roa c h t o Bud dh i s t p r a c
t i ce ever p roduced in Asiathe Mo-ho chih-kuan
([Treatise
on]
the great
calming and discerning).
T h is w ork delves in to al l ar ea s of rel igio us l ife,
and thus offers pr ice less insights into both the conceptual models
tha t in formed T ' i en - t ' a i p ra c t i ce and the ne tw ork of sp i r i tua l d isc i
p l ines th r ou gh w hich these m ode l s were ac tua l i zed in the T ' i en -
t ' a i c ommuni t y .
Re l y i ng p r i ma r i l y upon t he Mo-ho chih-kuan, the paper ske tches
a ho l i s ti c p i c t u re o f Ch i h - i ' s " s ud de n" p ro g ra m o f sp i r i t ua l de ve l op
ment , which above a l l s t r ives to convey the ways in which this model
resona ted wi th , and he lped to in tegra te , a l l d imens ions of T ' i en- t ' a i
religious life.
T h e pa pe r beg ins wi th a d i scuss ion of Ch ih- i ' s v iews reg ard ing
the en l igh ten ed m ind a nd it s re la t ion to the or d in a ry h u m an con di -
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JIA BS V OL . 13 NO . 1
t ion. Having e l ic i ted the bas ic f ramework upon which his v is ion of
the sud de n ap pr oa ch is s t ru c tu red , it then takes up his subi t is t pa th
itself
T h e va r ious s tages o f sp i r i tua l deve lopm ent on tha t pa th a r e
ou t l ined and ju nc tu res co ns ide red to be c ruc ia l a r e p in po in ted . By
working into the discuss ion such bas ic formula as the Twenty- f ive
Pre l im inary Ex ped ien ts and the Ten M odes o f M edi ta t iv e D isce rn
m e n t {shih kuan-fa), the pa pe r t rea t s in de ta i l the in tegra ted pro gra m
of spir i tua l d isc ipl ine s des ig ned to affect th ese t ran sfo rm at io ns . T h e
paper conc ludes wi th obse rva t ions on the va r ious ways in which
these mo dels of re l ig ious prac t ice w ere ref lec ted in the in s t i tu t io nal
s t ru c tu re an d pa t te rn s of re l ig ious life seen in the ear ly T ' ie n- t ' a i
c o m m u n i t y .
Visionand Cultivation on the Path to Liberation in Early Buddhism
Alan Sponberg , S tanford Univer s i ty
One of the mos t innova t ive con t r ibu t ions to sys temat iza t ion of
Bu ddh is t so te rio logy was the in t rodu c t ion of the d i s t inc t ion be tw een
a p ath of v is ion
(dars anamfga)
and, following i t , a path of cult ivation
(bhdvandmdrga). T h is b ip ar t i te m odel of the pa th to l ibera t io n or igi
na t e d w i th t he Va ibha s ika - S a r va s t i va d a s c hoo l a nd w a s s ub
sequent ly ex pa nd ed by the Yog acar ins to beco m e the core o f the
m atu re five-stage pa th theory of M ah ay an a B ud dh ism . Louis de l a
Val lee Pouss in was perhaps the ear l ies t Western scholar to note the
pecul iar i ty of th is development , d iscuss ing i t in the context of a
bro ad er survey of do cu m en ts r e flec ting the t ens ion be tween wh a t he
in te rpre ted as a " r a t iona l i s t " f ac t ion and a "mys t ica l " f ac t ion among
ear l ier Buddhis t soter iologis ts . Fol lowing Pouss in ' s lead, Er ich
Frauwal lner , for example , took a much s t ronger pos i t ion on the ques
t ion , a s se r t ing tha t the d iv i s ion represen ts the V a ibha s ika com m it
m ent to a r a t iona l i s t so te r io logy in jux tap os i t ion to the " m ys t ic a l "
tendency he sees to p reva i l in the Pa l i Abhidhamma.
In exa m in in g the Va ibhas ik a theory , th i s pa pe r sugges t s tha t the
inclus ion of the pat h of cul t iva t ion is m ore signif icant a nd inno vat ive
th an the not ion of a specif ic m om en t of cogn i t ive ins ight (ndna-das-
sana), the l a t t e r hav ing c lea r p receden t in impor tan t canonica l ve r
s ions not cons idered by Frauwal lner . This , in turn , sugges ts tha t the
rea l qu es t ion to be ra ised here is w ha t led the la ter A bh id ha rm ik as
to insis t on a path of cult ivation
subsequent
to the moment o f ins igh t
in to the Four Noble Tru th s tha t ha d been the cu lm ina t io n of the s tan
da rd ea r ly acco unts o f the pa th , a ques t ion a l l the m ore in t r igu ing
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given the fac t tha t the Va ibhas ikas do indeed de m on st ra te a mark ed
te nde nc y towa rds r a t iona l i sm in m a ny o the r r e spe c t s .
T h is issue be co m es less pro ble m atic i f seen not in term s of
" r a t iona l i sm " ve r sus "m ys t i c i sm , " bu t a s a B uddh i s t a t t e m pt to
m e d ia te a long- s t a nd ing d i spu te be twe e n those S ou th As ia n wa nde r
ers (parivrdjakas) who sought de l ive rance in a moment of l ibe ra t ing
cogni t ive ins ight and those wh o pursu ed ins tead a process of re
demptive pur if ica t ion. Histor ica l ly , i t is this divis ion between vis ion
and pur i f ica t ion tha t reemcrges throughout ea r ly Buddhis t so te r io l -
ogy , a process inde pen de nt of mo vem ent tow ards ra t ion a l i sm . In th is
con text , the Va ibha s ika inn ova t ion of cu l t iva t ion after l ibe ra t ing
ins ight ind ica tes the s t ren gth of the pur i f ica t ion the m e in B ud dh ism ,
despi te in junc t ions aga ins t ex t reme psychologica l a sce t ic i sm. I t a l so
ref lec ts the increasingly psychological turn in which the l ibera t ing
valu e of insigh t requ ired a pe r iod of de ep er cul t iv a t ion to ful ly ext i r
pa te greed , ha t red , and de lus ion . Even more s t r ik ing then than the
app rec ia t ion of ra t ion a l i sm evident in th is ph ase of Bu ddh is t so te r io l -
ogy is the app rec ia t ion of the un co ns cio us levels of af fl ic t ion not
immediate ly accessible by even the most direc t insight into rea l i ty .