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Brief History of the Uyghurs
The addition of Pinyin spellings has been includedfor standardization.
Uygur is also spelled : UIGHUR, UYGUR,
UIGUR, UIGHUIR, UIGUIR, WEIWUER
Introduction
The Uygurs are the native people of East
Turkestan, also known as Shinkiang or Xinjiang
Uygur Autonomous Region. The latest Chinese
census gives the present population of the Uyghursestimate according to Chinese official statment
8,345,622 million. But the Uyghurs estimate
themselves more than twenty millions. There are
also 500,000 Uygurs in West Turkestan mostly
known as Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan,
Turkmenistan and Tajikistan . Almost 75,000
Uygurs have their homes in Pakistan,
Afghanistan, Saudi Arabia, Turkey, Europe and
the United States.
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The Chinese sources indicate that the Uygurs are
the direct descendants of the Huns.
The name "Uyghur" is mentioned in thechronicles of the Han Dynasty (206 B.C. - 220
A.D.), Wei Dynasty (265-289 A.D.), Tang Dynasty
(618-906 A.D.), and Sung Dynasty (906-960).
Ancient Greek, Iranian, and Chinese sources
placed Uygurs with their tribes, and sub-tribes in
the vast area between the west banks of the YellowRiver in the east, Eastern Turkestan in the west,
and in the Mongolian steppe in the northeast as
early as 300 B.C..
Early History
After 210 B.C., the Uygurs played important roles
in the Hun (220 B.C. - 386 A.D.), Tabgach (Toba)
(386-554 A.D.), and Kok Turk (552-744 A.D.)
empires which were established in Central Asia.
In 670, 688, 692 A.D., the Uygurs, the Kok Turk
and the Shato joined the Tibetan Armies in theirmilitary expeditions in capturing the Chinese
invasion strongholds in north and northeast
Central Asia.
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After the fall of the Kok-Turk Empire in Central
Asia, the Uygurs established their first true state
in 744, with the city of Karabalgasun, on the
banks of the Orkhun River, as its capital.
The founder of this Uygur state was Kutluk Bilge
Kul Khagan (King or Ruler). In 747, he was
succeeded by his son Moyunchur, apowerful
leader who subdued other Turkic clans,
consolidated the monarchy, and extended his rule
in the north to Lake Baikal, in the east to Gansuand in the southwest to India.
It so happened that just as the Uygurs became
united and strong, the Chinese Tang Dynasty
under Hsuan-tsung (Xuanzong)(712- 756 A.D.)
was undergoing a sharp decline. In 751, a Chinese
army was disastrously defeated at the battle ofTalas River by the Arabs, Tibetans, and the
Uygurs. In the same year, a Chinese invasion of
the Nan-chao (Nanzhao) to the southeast was
thwarted with appalling losses to the Chinese; and
a Chinese force under An Lu Shan was defeated
by the Khitan (Qidan) in the northeast. These
disasters were but the prelude to a much more
fearful catastrophe - the rebellion of the former
trusted minister An Lu Shan which broke out in
755 A.D.
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It was under these circumstances that the Uygurs
were invited by Su-tsung (Suzong), the Hsuan-
tsung' s (Xuanzong) successor, to send armies to
help the Chinese. In this event, the Uygur forcesplayed a key role in the recapture of both Chang-
An (Chang'an) and Lo-yang (Luoyang) in 757.
The Uygurs did not hesitate to exploit the Tang
Dynastic debt owed them, by acts of appalling
pillage. The Chinese emperor agreed to pay 20,000
rolls of silk as a tribute annually to the Uygurs
and granted the Uygur Khagan one of his
daughters in marriage. She was the first of three
princesses of the Chinese imperial family to
become a Uygur khatun (wife) in the period 744-
840 A.D.
Moyunchur Khagan died in 759 and was
succeeded by his son Bugu Khagan. During his
reign, the Uygurs reached the apex of their power.
They began with China, which engaged in forced
trade of Uygur horses for Chinese silk - an
exchange which was noted frequently in Chinese
sources before 829.
In 762 Bugu Khagan sent to the Middle Kingdom
where he helped the Tang Dynasty in the final
battles against the rebellion which had racked it
for so long.
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In 779, Bugu Khagan was killed by his first cousin
and chief minister Baga Tarkan. Bugu Khagan's
Sogdian allies and advisors had wanted him to
take advantage of the death in 779 of EmperorTai-tsung (Taizong) and the state mourning
involved in it, to undertake an invasion of China.
Bugu Khagan agreed to do this. His first cousin
Baga Tarkan opposed the plan; and when he saw
the tide turning against him, murdered Bugu
Khagan and set himself on the throne. Baga
Tarkan, believed at this stage China could have
been conquered by the Uygurs. But he did not
believe that Uygurs would be able to preserve
their cultural identity if they once conquered
China, a vast and populous country even then.
After the death of Baga Tarkan in 789 and
specially after that of his successor, Kulug Bilge
Khagan in 790, Uygur power and prestige
declined.
In 795, the rule of the Uygur state passed to
another clan. Under this new clan the Uygurs
became more and more steeped in religion, which
softened them and planted seeds of
advancedculture which characterized the Uygurs
of later ages.
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The most important ruler of this clan was Kutluk
Bilge Khagan, whose successful military exploits,
both before and during his reign, are reported in
the Karabalgasun inscriptions. He did not succeed, however, in restoring the Uygur empire to its
former power.
With Kutluk Bilge Khagan's death in 805, the
forces of disintegration of the Uygur state
gathered momentum. War broke out abroad with
the powerful Kyrgyz neighbors to the north; whileat home, court intrigue eroded the power of the
royal family; rebellions broke out, and, to add to
everything, a bad season and severe winter in 839
killed much of the livestock upon which the Uygur
economy was so dependent. In 840, the Kyrgyz,
invited by a rebel chief, attacked the tottering
state, killed the Khagan, and took the capital.
This first part of Uygur political history shows the
Uygurs as the protectors of the Chinese empire for
almost a century. On the other hand, the
relationship was not really a friendly one. There
was abiding resentment on the Chinese side. The
reason was that the Middle Kingdom was obliged
to be protected by a "barbarian" people. The
Uygurs, for their part, never gave the Chinese the
respect which the latter would have liked.
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After the fall of the first Uygur empire, a group of
Uygurs emigrated to the west banks of the Yellow
River in Kansu (Gansu); a second group
emigrated via Yetti Su to the Southern part ofKhan Tengri or Tianshan in Eastern Turkestan;
the third and the largest group emigrated to the
northern part of Khan Tengri where their
ancestors are still living.
The Kanchou (Ganzhou) Uyghur Kingdom
The Kanchou (Ganzhou) Uyghur Kingdom, which
was established in today's Kansu province of
China, in 850, never became a major power, but
the Chinese had great respect for it as seen from
the Chinese court praise Kanchou (Ganzhou)Uyghur King when an Uyghur and a Tibetan
ambassador visited the Chinese capital in 911.
Nevertheless, this kingdom was absorbed in 1228
by the Tankuts who established a state in the area
known as Western Hsia.
Several thousand of these Uyghurs still live in the
Kansu (Gansu) area under the name yellow
Uyghurs or Yugurs, preserving their old Uyghur
mother tongue and their ancient Yellow sect of
Lamaist Buddhism.
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The Karakhoja Uyghur Kingdom
The Uyghurs living in the northern part of KhanTengri (Tianshan Mountains) in East Turkestan
established the Karakhoja Uyghur Kingdom
(Qocho) near the present day city of Turfan
(Turpan), in 846. The Chinese recognized this
kingdom and sent Wang Yen (Yan) De in 981 to
Karakhoja as their ambassador. Wang Yen (Yan)De stayed in Karakhoja for three years.
The Karakhanid Uyghur Kingdom
The Uyghurs living in the southern part of Khan
Tengri, established the Karakhanid UyghurKingdom in 840 with the support of other Turkic
clans like the Karluks, Turgish and the Basmils,
with Kashgar as its capital.
In 934, during the rule of Satuk Bughra Khan, the
Karakhanids embraced Islam 19 . Thus, in the
territory of East Turkestan two Uyghur kingdomswere set up: the Karakhanid, who were Muslims,
and the Karakhojas, who were Buddhists.
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In 1397 this Islamic and Buddhist Uyghur
Kingdoms merged into one state and maintained
their independence until 1759.
Manchu Invasion
The Manchus who set up a huge empire in China,
invaded the Uyghur Kingdom of East Turkestan
in 1759 and dominated it until 1862. During this
period the Uyghurs revolted 42 times against theManchu rule with the purpose of regaining their
independence. In the last revolt of 1863, the
Uyghurs were successful in expelling the Manchus
from their motherland, and founded an
independent kingdom in 1864. The kingdom was
recognized by the Ottoman Empire, TsaristRussia, and Great Britain. But for fear of Tsarist
expansion into Eastern Turkestan, Great Britain
persuaded the Manchu court to conquer East
Turkestan. The money for the Manchu invasion
was granted by the British Banks.
Large forces under the overall command of
General Zho Zhung Tang (Tso Tsung-t'ang / Zui
Zongtang), attacked East Turkestan in 1876. After
this invasion, East Turkestan was given the name
Xinjiang which means "new territory" or "New
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Dominion" and it was annexed into the territory
of the Manchu empire on November 18,1884.
In 1911, the Nationalist Chinese, overthrewManchu rule and established a republic.
The Uyghurs, who also wanted to free themselves
from foreign domination, staged several uprisings
against the nationalist Chinese rule during this
period. Twice, in 1933 and 1944, the Uyghurs were
successful in setting up an independent EastTurkestan Republic. But these independent
republics were overthrown by the military
intervention and political intrigues of the Soviet
Union. It was in fact the Soviet Union that proved
deterrent to the Uyghur independence movement
during this period.
In 1949 Nationalist Chinese were defeated by the
Chinese Communists. After that, Uyghurs fell
under Chinese Communist rule.
Uyghur Civilization
At the end of the 19th and the first few decades of
the 20th century, scientific and archaeological
expeditions to the region along the Silk Road in
East Turkestan led to the discovery of numerous
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Uyghur cave temples, monastery ruins, wall
paintings, statues, frescoes, valuable manuscripts,
documents and books. Members of the expedition
from Great Britain, Sweden, Russia, Germany,France, Japan, and the United States were amazed
by thetreasure they found there, and soon detailed
reports captured the attention on an interested
public around the world. The relics of these rich
Uyghur cultural remnants brought back by Sven
Hedin of Sweden, Aurel Stein of Great Britain,
Gruen Wedel and Albert von Lecoq from
Germany, Paul Pelliot of France, Langdon
Warner of the United States, and Count Ottani
from Japan can be seen in the Museums of Berlin,
London, Paris, Tokyo, Leningrad and even in the
Museum of Central Asian Antiquities in New
Delhi. The manuscripts, documents and the booksdiscovered in Eastern Turkestan proved that the
Uyghurs had a very high degree of civilization.
Uyghur Script
Throughout the centuries, the Uyghurs used threekinds of scripts. When they were confederated
with the Kok Turks in the 6th and 7th centuries,
they used the Orkhun script, which was actually a
Kok Turk invention. Later, the Uyghurs dropped
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this script and adopted their own script which
became known as the Uyghur script. This script
was used for almost 800 years not only by the
Uyghurs, but also by other Turkic peoples, theMongols, and by the Manchus in the early stage of
their rule in China. As the Mongols did not have
their own written language, the Uyghur script was
adopted by Chengiz(Genghis) Khan's Empire, for
all sorts of correspondence. Guyuk Khan's (1246-
1248) letter to the Pope of that time was written in
Uyghur script. The Uyghurs were also
instrumental in shaping Mongol administration,
which was formidable by any standards. They
manned Mongol chanceries and, probably because
of their knowledge of languages, were often
charged with visiting foreigners. Both Plano
Carpini and Rubruck mention them. The Uyghursalso emerged as teachers of the royal family,
governors in China, ambassadors in Rome,
today's Istanbul, and Bagdat, scholars in Tebriz
and officers in the army. After embracing Islam,
the Uyghurs adopted the Arabic script, but
common usage of the Arabic script came only in
the 11th century.
Uyghur Literature
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The first Uyghur literary works were mostly
translations of Buddhist and Manicheist religious
books. Besides, during the expeditions some
narrative, poetic, and epic works were alsodiscovered. Some of these books have been
translated into German, English, Russian, and
Turkish. After embracing Islam, Uygurs
continued to preserve their culture dominance in
Central Asia.
In this period hundreds of Uyghur scholars, wellknown to the world, emerged. Hundreds of
valuable books were written. One hundred and
thirty of these important works were discovered
later. Among these works Uygur scholar Yusuf
Has Hajip's book Kutatku Bilik , Mahmud
Kashgari's Divani Lugatit Turk , Ahmet
Yukneki's Atabetul Hakayik , are very famous.
Yusuf Has Hajip's Kutatku Bilik , was written in
1069-1070. It is a unique example of a work that
explains social, cultural, and political lives of the
Uygurs during this period. Mahmud Kashgari's
Divani Lugatit Turk , which was also written in
this age, bears knowledge as to the dialects of
various Turkic people living at that time. It also
gives information about the dialectical differences,
their social upbringings, their customs,as well as
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the regions they inhabited. the author of this
encyclopedic dictionary wandered amidst all of
the Turkic peoples before he compiled his work,
studied all the data and thus provided a soundacademic basis. Divani Lugatit Turk , is one of the
main source for Turkic Studies today.
Religion
Prior to Islam, like most of the Turkic peoples inCentral Asia, the Uyghurs believed in religions
like Shamanism, Manicheism and Buddhism.
Buddhism entered East Turkestan at the
beginning of our era. It quickly spread among
Turkic peoples, but it was the Uyghurs who
founded Buddhism in Central Asia. The ruins ofthe famous monasteries known as Ming Oy or
Thousand Buddhas built by the Uyghurs can still
be seen in the cities of Kucha, Turfan(Turpan) ,
and Tunhuang(Dunhuang) , where Kanchou
(Ganzhou) Uyghurs or the Yellow Uyghurs still
live.
The Uyghur king Kul Bilge Khagan (678-712)
ordered a Budddist monastery to be built in the
city of Bay in East Turkestan. In the city of
Kucha, there were more than 50 Buddhist
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temples, libraries and welfare programs for the
support of the poor. In the city of Hoten, there
were 14 large monasteries without counting the
smaller ones.
When Uyghur king Bugu Khagan traveled to
China in 762, he met some Manicheist priests.
They succeeded in converting him to their religion
and four of these priests returned with him to
Karabalgasun. Shortly after, Bugu Khagan
imposed Manicheism as the state religion. Thiswas a political step rather than a religious one. He
hoped that by adopting this characteristically
Sogdian religion to direct the future of his people
away from the cultural influence of the Chinese
who were also Buddhists.
The Uyghurs embraced Islam in 934, during thereign of Satuk Bughra Khan. He was the first
Turkic ruler who embraced Islam in Central Asia.
At this time, instead of temples, mosques were
built. Almost 300 mosques were built only in the
city of Kashgar. Among them, most famous are
the Azna Mosque, built in the 12th century, Idgah
(Id Kah) Mosque built in the 15h century, and
Appak Khoja Mosque, built in the 18th century.
In the city of Kashgar alone there were 18 big
Madrasas (mosque schools), and up to two-
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thousand students enrolled in these schools in any
given year. these schools were one of the
important facilities not only for teaching the
Uygur children reading, writing, and subjectsIslamic in nature, but also such familiar subjects
as mantik (logic), arithmatik (arithmetic) ,
hendese (geometry), hai'a (ethics), astronomiye
(astronomy), tibb (medicine), and falaha
(agriculture) . The Mesudi Library built in the
15th century, had a collection of almost 200,000
books.
Uyghur Economy
The Uyghurs adopted a sedentary life style earlier
that the other Turkic peoples. Thus, the Uyghursknew how to cultivate land as early as 2nd century
A.D. The Uyghurs were engaged in a much more
advanced agriculture by the 7th century. They
raised wheat, maize, corn millet, potatoes, sesame,
sugarbeet, peanuts,peaches, grapes, melons and
cotton. The fields were irrigated with water
brought from far distances by the "kariz" (watercanals) built by the Uyghurs. These "kariz" are
still in use today around the city of
Turfan(Turpan) today.
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Cotton was one of the principle local products of
commercial value. Cotton and products
manufactured from cotton contributed to the
prosperity of the region.
Another product of commercial value was carpets.
The cities of Hoten, Kashgar, and Turfan(Turpan)
were carpet manufacturing centers.
Uyghur Medicine
The Uyghurs had an extensive knowledge of
medicine and medical practice. Sung (Song)
Dynasty (906-960) sources indicate that an
Uyghur physician, Nanto, traveled to China, and
brought with him many kinds of medicine not
known to the Chinese.
There are 103 different herbs for use in Uyghur
medicine recorded in a medical compendium
completed by Li Shizen (1518-1593), a chinese
medical authority. The Tartar scholar Rashit
Rahmeti Arat has written two valuable books in
German
entitled Zur Heilkunde der Uighuren (Medical
Practices of the Uygurs) , in 1930 and 1932,
relying on Uyghur documents discovered in East
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Turkestan. In his book, Arat gives important
information on Uyghur medicine and medical
treatment.
Among other documents he studied he found a
very important sketch of a man with an
explanation of acupuncture. Relying on this
document, some western scholars claim that
acupuncture was not a Chinese, but a Central
Asian invention and the Uyghurs perfected the
method.
Traditional Uyghur medicine, which can be traced
back for more than 2,700 years through written
records, is still very popular in East Turkestan
today.
Architecture, Art, Music and Printing
In the fields such as architecture, art, music and
printing the Uyghurs were also advanced.
Scholars, archaeologists and Chinese envoys who
traveled through East Turkestan have oftenexpressed their high estimation of the level of the
Uyghur civilization.
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For instance, Wang Yen(Yan) De, who served as
Chinese ambassador to the Karakhoja Uyghur
Kingdom between the years 981-984, wrote the
following in his memoirs: "I was impressed withthe extensive civilization I have found in the
Uyghur Kingdom. The beauty of the temples,
monasteries, wall paintings, statues, towers,
gardens, housings and the palaces built
throughout the kingdom cannot be described. The
Uyghurs are very skilled in handicrafts made
from gold and silver, vases and potteries. Some
say that God has infused this talent into these
people only."
Albert Gruenwedel:
"Turfan(Turpan) is without doubt a forgotten
Asian city ofextraordinary interest. The size of itis remarkable: the inner, holy city, consisting only
of temples and palace, measures 7,400 feet at the
widest point of the still extant walls. Hundreds of
terraced temples and grandiose vaulted edifices
cover an extensive area of lane."
Fredinnad de Sassure:
"Those who preserved the language and written
culture of Central Asia were the Uyghurs."
Albert von Lecoq:
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"The Uyghur language and script contributed to
the enrichment of civilizations of the other peoples
in Central Asia. Compared to the Europeans of
that time, the Uyghurs were far more advanced.Documents discovered in East Turkestan prove
that an Uyghur farmer could write down a
contract, using legal terminology. How many
European farmers could have done that at that
period ? This shows the extent of Uyghur
civilization of that time."
Lazlo Rasonyi:
"The Uyghurs knew how to print books centuries
before Guetenberg invented his press."
Wolfram Eberhard:
"In Middle Ages, the Chinese poetry, literature,theater, music and painting were greatly
influenced by the Uyghurs."
Russian scholar Pantusov writes that the Uyghurs
manufactured their own musical instruments;
they had 62 different kinds of musical instruments
and in every Uygur home there used to be aninstrument called a "dutar".
This Uyghur power, prestige and civilization
which dominated Central Asia for more than a
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thousand years went into a steep decline after the
Manchu invasion of East Turkestan, and during
the rule of the Nationalist and specially during the
rule of the Communist Chinese.
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