Theories and Process of Learning

Permanent change Change in behavior or knowledge Learning is the result of experience Learning is not the result of

maturation or temporary conditions (illness)

Definition of Learning

Theories of Learning Behaviourist Cognitive Social Humanistic Constructivist

Behaviorist Learning Theory Behaviourists emphasize:i) the role of experience or external

events that brings about change in behaviour; and

ii) on how the environment impacts overt behaviour.

Behavioural Theorist Watson, Pavlov, Thorndike and Skinner.

Types of Behavioural Learning Theory Contiguity Learning Theory Classical or Respondent

Conditioning Theory Operant or Instrumental

Conditioning Theory

Contiguity Learning Theory Any stimulus and response connected

in time or space will tend to be associated.

For example, a student who always fails his mathematic tests but does well in one particular test after attempting a new technique will associate the stimulus of the new technique and the response of getting a good grade.

Conditioning The process by which an

organism’s behaviour becomes associated with some stimulus in the environment, so that when the stimulus is presented, the behaviour occurs.

kinds of conditioning (a) Classical Conditioning(b) Operant Conditioning

(instrumental conditioning)

Classical Conditioning Major Theorist: Ivan Pavlov

Food Unconditioned Stimulus

Salivation Unconditioned Response (natural, not learned)

Bell Conditioned Stimulus

Salivation Conditioned Response (to bell)

Before conditioning, ringing the bell caused no response from the dog. Placing food in front of the dog initiated salivation.

During conditioning, the bell was rung a few seconds before the dog was presented with food.

After conditioning, the ringing of the bell alone produced salivation

Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)A stimulus that elicits a response without conditioning

Unconditioned Response (UCR)Automatic response elicited by the unconditioned stimulus

Conditioned Stimulus (CS)A neutral stimulus that when paired with an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) elicits a similar response

Conditioned Response (CR)A response that is learned by pairing the originally neutral conditioned stimulus (CS) with the unconditioned stimulus (UCS)

Stimulus Generalization: Once the dog has learned to salivate at the sound of the bell, it will salivate at other similar sounds.

Extinction: If you stop pairing the bell with the food, salivation will eventually cease in response to the bell.

Spontaneous Recovery: Extinguished responses can be "recovered" after an elapsed time, but will soon extinguish again if the dog is not presented with food.

Discrimination: The dog could learn to discriminate between similar bells (stimuli) and discern which bell would result in the presentation of food and which would not.

Higher-Order Conditioning: Once the dog has been conditioned to associate the bell with food, another unconditioned stimulus, such as a light may be flashed at the same time that the bell is rung. Eventually the dog will salivate at the flash of the light without the sound of the bell.

Operant Conditioning• The term "Operant" refers to how an

organism operates on the environment, and hence,

• operant conditioning comes from how we respond to what is presented to us in our environment.

• It can be thought of as learning due to the natural consequences of our actions.

• The learning process involved in operant behaviour is called operant conditioning because we learn to behave in certain ways we operate on the environment

Operant Conditioning (Skinner)

• According to Skinner, an organism must first make the desired response and then a “reward” is provided.

• The “reward” reinforces the response and makes it more likely to recur.

• The response is instrumental in bringing about its reinforcement.

• Learning is then said to occur when the participant must make a response to produce a change in the environment.

• Learning occurs when voluntary behaviour is strengthened or weakened by consequences or antecedents.

Thorndike's Experiment

• He put a cat in a cage with a latch on the door and a piece of salmon outside of the cage.

• After first trying to reach through the cage and then scratching at the bars of the cage, the cat finally hit the latch on the door and the door opened.

• With the repetition of this experiment, the amount of time and effort spent on the futile activities of reaching and scratching by the cats became less and the releasing of the latch occurred sooner.

The "law of effect"• stated that when a connection

between a stimulus and response is positively rewarded it will be strengthened and when it is negatively rewarded it will be weakened.

The “Law of Exercise”• held that the more an S-R

(stimulus response) bond is practiced the stronger it will become.

The "law of readiness" • Learning is dependent upon the

learner's readiness to act, which facilitates the strengthening of the bond between stimulus and response.

• Thus, an athlete who is highly motivated and eager to learn is more likely to be receptive to learning than one who is poorly motivated. See also

Principles of Behavioural

Learning Theories• Positive Reinforcement or reward:

Responses that are rewarded are likely to be repeated.

• Negative Reinforcement: Responses that allow escape from painful or undesirable situations are likely to be repeated.

• Extinction or Non-Reinforcement : Responses that are not reinforced are not likely to be repeated. (Ignoring student misbehavior should extinguish that behavior.)

• Punishment: Responses that bring painful or undesirable consequences will be suppressed, but may reappear if reinforcement contingencies change. (Penalizing late students by withdrawing privileges should stop their lateness.)

Types of Consequences• Positive or negative• Something can be given or taken away• Good consequences:

– Something positive given, something negative taken away

• Bad consequences– Something negative given, something

positive taken away

Types of Punishment• Presentation Punishment

– Detention– Extra work

• Removal Punishment– Loss of recess– Loss of privileges

Kinds of Reinforcement & PunishmentKinds of Reinforcement & PunishmentBehavior encouraged Behavior suppressed

Something Given

Something TakenAway

PositiveReinforcement:

Praise/reward

PresentationPunishment:

Detention/extrawork

NegativeReinforcement

Avoid losingpoints

Removal Punishment

Loss of recess/grounded!

See Woolfolk, Figure 6.1, p. 212

Reinforcement Schedules

C on tin u ou s

In te rva l R a tio

F ixed

R atio In te rva l

V ariab le

In te rm itten t

Typ es o f R e in fo rcem en t S ch ed u les

PowerPoint 6.10 Schedules of Reinforcement

 Schedule ExampleContinuous • An algebra teacher guides students through steps for solving

equations and praises students for every correct answer. • A person sticks a key in a reliable lock, and the door opens every

time.Fixed-ratio The algebra teacher says, “As soon as you’ve correctly done two

problems in a row, you may start on your homework, so you’ll befinished by the end of the period.”

Variable-ratio

• A student raises her hand to answer questions, and sometimes she’s called on, and sometimes she isn’t.

•  A person sticks a key in an unreliable lock, and sometimes the door opens quickly, and at other times it opens only after a number of attempts.

Fixedinterval

Students are given a quiz every Friday, and they receive their scoreevery Monday.

Variable-interval

Students are given unannounced quizzes, and sometimes the quizzes are

returned the next day, and at other times they are returned a day or two ater.

PowerPoint 6.11 Reinforcement Schedules and Examples

Controlling Antecedents

• Providing previous information about expected behaviors

• Signaling when a behavior should be emitted

• Cueing: Lights off means “Be quiet!”• Prompting: Verbal reminder after

students do not get quiet after lights were turned off: they missed the cue.

Applied Behavior Analysis

• Baseline behavior• Target behavior• Classroom application:

1 - Specify the desired behavior2 - Plan a specific intervention3 - Keep track of the results

PowerPoint 6.18 Applied Behavior Analysis

Applied Behavior Analysis

1. Identify target behaviors.

2. Establish a baseline for the target behaviors.

3. Choose reinforcers and punishers (if necessary).

4. Measure changes in the target behaviors.

5. Gradually reduce the frequency of reinforcers as behavior improves.

Interventions: Encouraging Positive Behavior

• Teacher attention• Premack principle• Shaping• Positive practice• See Guidelines, Woolfolk,

Coping with Undesirable Behaviors

• Negative reinforcement: “No recess until…”• Satiation: “I would like 1000 of those

perfect spit wads, please!”• Reprimands: soft & private• Response cost• Social isolation• Punishment• See Guidelines, Woolfolk,

Coping with Undesirable BehaviorsCautions: Use a two-pronged

approach:Punishment for undesired

behaviorClarify and reinforce desired

behavior

Effective Punishers:•Desists

•Timeout

•Detention

•Response Cost

Ineffective Punishers:•Physical Punishment

•Embarrassment and humiliation

•Classwork

PowerPoint 6.17 Effective and Ineffective Punishers

Discussion

1. Teachers should be allowed to use canes in the classrooms. Discuss.

2. Corporal punishment should not be encouraged in school. Do you agree?

Behavioral Approaches to Teaching & Management

Teaching: Mastery Learning

• Students must demonstrate competence before moving to next unit

• Mastery means 80–90% correct

• Focuses on basic skills

Behavioral Management

• Group consequences

• Token reinforcement

• Contingency contracts

Recent Approaches: Self-Regulated Learning• Self-management

– Set goals and make the goals public– Note: Standards and effect on

performance– Evaluate & record performance– Promote self-reinforcement– See Family & Community Partnerships,

Woolfolk, p. 236

Recent Approaches: Cognitive Behavior Modification & Self-

Instruction• Similar to self-regulated learning• Adds thinking and self-talk• More cognitive than behavioral

approach

Cognitive Behavior Modification & Self-

Instruction• Teaching self-talk:

– Demonstrate & supervise– Talk out loud while practicing, student imitates– Whisper while practicing, student imitates– Work toward private speech while practicing

See Woolfolk, Figure 6.6, p. 237

Reflection Question• What is a habit you would like to

change? How would you implement the steps of cognitive behavior modification to change your habit?

• Make a graphic organizer or flow chart to illustrate your goal and steps toward meeting that goal.

Problems & Issues• Extrinsic rewards may lead to loss of

interest in learning for learning’s sake• Decrease in motivation• Motives for influencing student behaviors: control?• See Point/Counterpoint, Woolfolk pp. 239

DIVERSITY AND

CONVERGENCESDIVERSITY• fears, anxieties• unique reinforcers/punishers • Diversity models in texts, posters, etcCONVERGENCES• Consequences change behaviors over time• Effective recognition of behavior is important• Students can become more self-managing

SummarySummary Learning occurs when experience causes a relatively Learning occurs when experience causes a relatively

permanent change in the individual’s knowledge or permanent change in the individual’s knowledge or behavior. Some of these evidences may be found behavior. Some of these evidences may be found through:through:

early explanations of learning: Contiguity and early explanations of learning: Contiguity and classical conditioningclassical conditioning

Operant ConditioningOperant Conditioning Applied Behavior AnalysisApplied Behavior Analysis Behavioral Approaches to Teaching and ManagementBehavioral Approaches to Teaching and Management Observational Learning and Cognitive Behavior Observational Learning and Cognitive Behavior

ModificationModification Problems and IssuesProblems and Issues Diversity and ConvergenceDiversity and Convergence

Review QuestionsDefine learning.How does a neutral stimulus become

a conditioned stimulus?Discriminate between generalization

and discrimination.What defines a consequence as a

reinforcer? As a punisher?How are negative reinforcement and

punishment different?

Review Questions

• How can you encourage persistence in a behavior?

• What is the difference between a prompt and a cue?

• What are the steps in applied behavior analysis?

• How can the Premack principle help you identify reinforcers?

• When is shaping an appropriate approach?

Review Questions• What are some cautions in using

punishment?• What is mastery learning?• Describe group consequences, token

programs, and contracts.• What are the steps in self-management?• What are the main criticisms of

behavioral approaches?