ARISTOTLE

ARISTOTLE (384-322 B.C.)

Founder of every science or domain of study known to humans Physics Literary Criticism Chemistry Anthropology Biology Ethics Metaphysics Political

science Metereology Psychology Logic

Original contributions to philosophy after Aristotle Augustine – Theory of the Will

Thomas d’Aquino – Phil. of Human Nature

Hegel – Dialectic, elaboration of Aristotle

Marx – Political Economy & Social Psychology

– first major advance beyond Aristotle

- but based on Aristotle,

- called «the Aristotle of the 19th century»

Heidegger – Phenomenology – Aristotelian psychology

Modernists reject Aristotle

Descartes – his skepticism became basis of individualistic exploitation of community

Locke – skepticism leads to theory of property rejecting Aristotle’s understanding of individual within community

Smith – complete rejection of Aristotle’s theory of moral economy – Bush-style free enterprise

ARISTOTLE (384-322 B.C.) born Macedonia 15 yrs after d. of Socrates student at Plato’s Academy at age 17 Collaborates with Plato on dialogues

- disagreed over essential realities of our world - Forms vs. Substances (living organisms)

Leaves Academy after Plato’s death pursues research in biology Tutor of Alexander Founds Lyceum in Athens (334 BC)

Raphael, The School at Athens.Vatican museums.

Nicomachean Ethics

Reading next 2 weeks

The complete ‘good’(NE i.7—key chapter)

- ‘what is intrinsically worth pursuing is more complete than what is worth pursuing for something else’

- the ‘intrinsically choiceworthy’ ‘most chiceworthy of all things’

- ‘self-sufficient’

= Happiness (eudaimonia), but this is ‘commonplace’—what does it mean?

Happiness (eudaimonia)

Eudaimonia ‘living well,’ ‘doing well’

‘Not a state’ of mind (EN x.6), ‘an activity rather than a state’ So Aristotle doesn’t mean the way you feel

eating ice cream or going shopping Aristotle: Maybe, we can understand

happiness if we understand function of human

Aristotle on function (ergon) in general ‘Everything is defined by its ergon and

capacity’ (Politics, Bk.i, ch. 2.1253a23)

Ergon = function, work, product Homonymous

E.g., function (ergon) of house builder is to build houses (product= ergon) for other members of the community: this is her/his work (ergon).

Aristotle on function (ergon)—cont. E.g., a doctor is the ergon he actualizes:

it is easy, Aristotle says, to know various remedies for illness, but how to dispense them and to whom and when, ‘that much a function (ergon) is what it is to be a doctor’ (NE v.9.1137a16).

If something loses its function, ceases to be. An eye that loses capacity to see no longer an

eye, except homonymously

What is function of human being? (NE i.7)

Functions of craftsmen Flute player, carpenter, doctor

Not function of individual parts, or function(s) we share with animals or plants

Function of living thing involves activity (energeia), the actuality of living

= activity of the soul or life-principal (psuche) Since reason distinctive of humans, ‘function

of human involves activity in accord w. reason’

Function performed well if performed in accordance with virtue of the thing E.g., knife, goat

Conclusion about happiness ‘the human good turns out to be activity of soul

in accord with virtue’ Let’s examine the parts of this statement:

‘Soul’ (Psuche) ‘Virtue’ (arete)

Psuche = ‘soul’ or ‘life-force’

Nothing to do with religion Greek belief that all living things possess

some life principal or force Plants, animals, humans – all have soul, but

differ in capacities Ensouled things are substances. Psuche is form of the thing What does it mean to say soul is ‘form’?

Form and matter

Aristotle says everything that exists in our world is a composite of form and matter

Form is nature or whatness of a thing Example of bronze sphere, as teaching tool

to introduce more advanced case of form as soul.

Form & matter II

The form sphere provides shape for bronze scrap to be worked into bronze sphere.

Sphere is whatness of bronze sphere.

Soul understood by its capacities, i.e., what organism can do.

Capacities of psuche

Nutritive – shared with plants & animals Perceptual & locomotive – shared w animals Intellective/rational – distinctly human

For happiness to be human, must involve exercise of intellective/rational capacity Aristotle says people who do not live by

intellect cannot be happy (EN x.9)

Intellective capacity

Activity (energeia) of Intellective capacity is form-generating & form-perceiving.

Same forms that are nature or whatness of things are forms in intellect by which we perceive those things.

We acquire forms through experience with things that embody them. E.g., bronze sphere embodies form ‘sphere’.

Aristotle rejects skepticism So, Aristotle argues that knowledge is based

on an identity between the knower and the known. That is one result of his theory that all things

are composites of form and matter.

Ergo, Aristotle rejects skepticism of Descartes.

Virtue

Remember Aristotle’s definition of happiness: ‘activity/actuality of soul in accord with virtue’

He adds: ‘and if there are more virtues than one, then in

accord with best and most complete virtue’ (i.7)

Cf. list of virtues, right column last table Best and most complete virtue is JUSTICE.

Justice

“Justice is the only virtue that seems to be another person’s good, for it is related to another, for it does what benefits another” (EN 1130a3-4).

Justice not a matter of fairness, but rather of helping another.

Justice in economic relations

Primary example of justice in Aristotle’s theory of exchange:

a person wealthier or more powerful helps another in their mutual exchange of goods, s/he loses money to the other in the transaction.

Conclusion: what is happiness?

Happiness is fulfillment of the human function of activity of soul in accordance with the virtue of justice to benefit others as much as I am able.