Post on 27-Mar-2015
Argumentative /Persuasive Reading & writing
Reading an ArgumentConsidering Rhetorical
Context(Author,Audience,Date/Place
of Publication)
Guidelines for Determining Rhetorical Context
Who wrote this argument,and what are his/her training,personal background,and political learning?
Who is the intended audience? Where did it appear originally? When was the argument written? Why was the article written?
A Step-By-Step analysis of Toulmin Method of evaluation of logical pattern
Analyze the ClaimIdentify the ClaimLook for Qualifiers: Absolute,Relative,or Universal /”typically” /“usually” /“most of the time”Find the ExceptionsSummarize the ClaimAssess the arguer’s refutationsNote the Counter Arguments
Argumentation versus Persuasion These words are often used
interchangeably. Argumentation: the process of forming
reasons and of drawing conclusions and applying them to a case in discussion. An argument involves the process of establishing a claim and then proving it with the use of logical reasoning, examples, and research.
Persuasion: the tactical process of moving to a belief, position or a course of action.
Argument
Good argumentative writing is more defined when utilized with other forms of writing such as description, a short narrative, classification, cause and effect, etc.
Styles of argumentative of writing
Toulmin model: Follows the pattern of a claim (proposition/thesis), data (support) with qualifiers, warrant, and a
concession. Rogers’ model: Use of Rogerian
arguments to come to a conclusion that mixes both views of the issue to reach a
common ground.
the uses….
Everyday life Workplace Academic environment Reading and Listening- (current
events)
The basics of an argument
Your position and know the purpose of your essay
Analyze your audience Reasons Evidence: Research your topic
Audience
Write with sincerity towards audienceusing an ethical appeal
Don’t write with an arrogance or with disregard to opposing viewsTry starting in introduction, gaining confidence of audience
This approach will show your concern and fair-minded purpose
Writing an argumentative Choose an interesting controversial
issue Focus on a question related to your
topic Choose a position Acknowledge opposing positions Investigate topic and get informed
The Thesis… Outlines and gives a clear and concise
main idea of essay Can’t be a declared fact (won’t be
argumentable) Declares something is fact, by providing
evidence throughout essay Supports a policy Calls for action Asserts value
Obtaining information
By reading Conversation with others Use your own observations Questionnaire Periodicals Always cite sources used Make sure the information you receive
is relevant and credible and valid
Evidence
Includes: Established Truths
Historical, scientific, and geographical facts
Authoritative point of view Primary sources Statistics Personal experience/Examples
Managing evidence
Reliability How much endorsing evidence? Contradictory How well established is evidence? Does it support/fit your claim? Allow it to be conclusive
The Three Persuasive Appeals
Logos:Logic- the appeal to reason
Pathos:Emotion- the appeal to emotion
Ethos:Credibility- the appeal of one’s character
Logos: reasoning strategies
Induction: A process through which the premises provide some basis for the conclusion.
Deduction: A process through which the premises provide conclusive proof for the conclusion. Reductio ad Absurdum: (to reduce to absurdity) To question a position by showing that its consequence are problematic if carried to their logical end.
Questions of Credibility
Has the reader been able to rely on what you have said in the past? If they are unfamiliar with you…
Do you know what you’re talking about? Are you familiar with all sides of the issue?
Have you done your research on the issue?
Have you documented your researchthoroughly and accurately?
Have your thoughtfully addressedthe opposition?
Some Ways to Use the Three AppealsCredibility Logic Emotion
Show that you are fair- and open-minded
Point to other “experts” or an authority other than yourself
Cite research Show why people
should listen to you and you believe
Rely primarily on facts
Use deductive or inductive reasoning to reach your conclusion
Use classical argument, including reason and evidence to support your claim
Use emotionally charged or highly connotative words
Appeal to peoples fears, concerns, passions, vanity, sense of justice, and so forth
Take advantage of rhythm and refrain in language
Syllogism The simplest sequence of logical
premises and conclusions every syllogism contains at least three
parts: a major premise (global assumption) a minor premise (specific claim) a conclusion
IF A=B and B=C, then A=C
Enthymeme
shorten version of syllogism a syllogism without stating either
the major or minor premise (it is implied)
less formal than the syllogism sometimes more persuasive are often “because” statements
Fallacies= mistakes made in the logic of arguments
Common fallacies found in arguments include: Hasty Generalizations- a conclusion based on insufficient or
biased evidence
Non Sequitur- “It does not follow” Slippery slope- the snow ball effect Card Stacking-presenting part of the claim
Stereotyping Ad populum- an emotional appeal that speaks to positive
(such as patriotism, religion, democracy) or negative (such as terrorism or fascism) concepts rather than the real issue at hand
Fallacies (cont.)
Either/OrBegging the claim- conclusion that the writer should prove is validated within the claim( Circular argument)
Arguing Off the point The argument ad Hominem- “attack the person’s
character than their opinion” Appeal to crowd Guilt by association Post Hoc, ergo Propter Hoc-”after this, therefore
because of this” Faulty analogy: assuming two unlike things are similar
when in fact they are not Red Herring
Avoid also…
Strawman tactics- pointing out and focusing on flimsy weaknesses of opposing side.
Anonymous authority- refers to a source of authority but does not name the source nor explain its legitimacy.
This will show that you are trying to prove your position by disregarding other facts.
True argument vs. valid argument true argument- argument that has
conclusion that people commonly consider to be fact based on their worldly experience or wide-spread belief
valid argument- argument that has a conclusion that logically follows its underlying assumption regardless of whether the assumption is true or not
Revising
Consider the objections of the opposing appeal
Do you capture the audience? Is evidence appropriate to the argument? Are the authorities qualified to be used as
a source? Is the proposition clearly stated? Is it free of fallacies?
Tips of writing an essay
Avoid emotional language Be able to determine difference between a
logical conclusion and an emotional point of view
Don’t make up evidence Cite your sources Make an outline- DO THE WRITING PROCESS Be prepared to defend your side by knowing
the strongest arguments for the other side.
Concluding
Restate your position. Summarize your main points. Predict the consequences if it does
or does not prevail. Prepare to end your essay possibly
with an emotional appeal.
The End!