AR 414 Unit-3 Garden Design in History - Japanese & Mughal [Compatibility Mode].pdf

GARDEN DESIGN IN HISTORY

GARDEN DESIGN IN HISTORY:

• History of Landscape & Garden Design

S.R.M UNIVERSITY LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE AND ENVIRONMENTAL PLANNING

• French Garden Design

• English Garden Design

• Japanese Garden Design

• Renaissance Garden Design

• Mughal Garden Design

• Contemporary Garden Design

“Art is a continuous process, however new circumstances may be it is virtually

impossible to create a work of art without antecedents.

The challenge of history is not whether it should be studied, but rather the

interpretation of what is constant and therefore alive today.

WHY SHOULD WE STUDY HISTORY:

interpretation of what is constant and therefore alive today.

All design therefore derives from impressions of the past, conscious or

subconscious and in the modern collective landscape form the historical

gardens.”

GARDEN DESIGN IN HISTORYTIMELINE: STYLES OF GARDEN DESIGN

Enclosed StylePre 1600

1650 1750 French Style

1600 1750 Forest Style

1725 1750 Augustan Style

1750 1790 Serpentine Style

1790 1900 Picturesque Style1600 1700

1600 1700

1800 1940 Landscape Style

1810 1910 Mixed/Eclectic Style

1830 1930 Italian Revival Style

1830 1930 Gardenesque Style

1880 1980 Arts & Crafts Style

1920 2000 Abstract Style

1980 2000 Post Modern Style1600 1700 1800 1900

1600 1700 1800

1600 1700

GARDEN DESIGN IN HISTORYGARDEN DESIGN IN HISTORY

The history of gardening extendsacross at least 4,000 years of humancivilization.

Egyptian tomb paintings of the1500s BC are some of the earliest

physical evidence of ornamental

horticulture and landscape design;

they depict lotus ponds surroundedby symmetrical rows of acacias and

Egyptian Tomb Painting

by symmetrical rows of acacias andpalms.

Another ancient gardening tradition is

of Persia: Darius the Great was said to

have had a "paradise garden" andthe Hanging Gardens of Babylonwere renowned as a Wonder of the

World. Persian gardens were also

organized symmetrically, along acenter line known as an axis

Representation-Hanging Gardens of Babylon

Egyptian Tomb Painting

In Europe, gardening revived inLanguedoc and the Île-de-France in the

13th century.

Gardens at Versailles

The formal Garden à la française,

exemplified by the Gardens of Versailles,

became the dominant style of garden in

Europe until the middle of the 18th century.

Ile de France

GARDEN DESIGN IN HISTORYThe rediscovery of descriptions of antiqueRoman villas and gardens led to the

creation of a new form of garden, the

Italian Renaissance garden in the late 15th

and early 16th century.

Spanish Public Gardens

The first public parks were built by the

Spanish Crown in the 16th century, inEurope and the Americas.

Gardens at Tivoli

It was replaced by the English landscape garden.

The 19th century saw a welter of historical revivals and Romantic cottage-inspiredgardening.

English Gardens

The purpose of the creation of the garden CHANGES OVER TIME

Embellished farms• Production

Early Park• Hunt and take long walks

• Walls and stands of trees

Modern Parks

Poetic• Egyptian and Greek mythology

• Art

• No movement

Romantic• Moving Water

• Shadows

Modern ParksUrban outdoor Space

Urban Lung

Recreation space

Picturesque• Majesty

• Grandeur

• Expansive

• Shadows

• Attention to detail

THE CENTRAL CIVILIZATION • West Asia

• Persia

THE EASTERN CIVILIZATION• Japan (1300-1550 AD)

• China

• India (1526 – 1750 AD)

THE WESTERN CIVILIZATION• Italy – The Renaissance (1300-1550 AD)

• France (1650-1750 AD)

• England (1830-1930 AD)

JAPANESE GARDEN

The art of gardening is believed to be an important part of Japanese culture for many

centuries.

The garden design in Japan is strongly connected to the philosophy and religion of the

country.

INTRODUCTIONJAPANESE

Shinto, Buddhism and Taoism were used in the creation of different garden styles in

order to bring a spiritual sense to the gardens and make them places where people

could spend their time in a peaceful way and meditate.

The line between garden and its

surrounding landscape is Not Distinct.

Gardens incorporate natural and artificial

elements and thus, fuse the elements of

nature and architecture.

GENERAL CHARACTERSJAPANESE

nature and architecture.

In the Japanese garden, the viewer should

consider nature as a picture frame into

which the garden, or the man- made

work of art, is inserted.

GARDEN DESIGN IN HISTORYDESIGN PHILOSOPHY

RELIGION - Shinto, Buddhism and Taoism have influenced the garden development in

Japan. Few of the Philosophies followed are as follows:

Nature is the ideal. Gardens must strive to achieve it.

You can idealize it, even symbolize it, but you must never create something that

nature itself cannot.

JAPANESE

nature itself cannot.

Without nothing, you cannot have something. i.e. The “emptiness” of portions of the

garden, defines the elements around it. . This space of Emptiness, is called as ‘ma’. It is

the true Spirit of Yin And Yang.

Zen Ideology of “to have nothing is to have everything” is also widely used.

GARDEN DESIGN IN HISTORYDESIGN PRINCIPLE - Balance

JAPANESE

BALANCE, OR SUMI. i.e. Proportions and spaces creation are an essential Design

principle

GARDEN DESIGN IN HISTORYDESIGN PRINCIPLE - Formality

The play of Formality in the garden is symbolic based on the topographical variation

found in the Island.

• Hills (shin) is symbolized as Formal Garden

• Ponds (gyo) is symbolized as Intermediate

• Flat land (so) is symbolized as Informal Gardens

JAPANESE

Formal styles were most often found at

temples or palaces.

Daitokuji Temple, Kyoto

The intermediate styles were appropriate for residences.

DESIGN PRINCIPLE - FormalityJAPANESE

The informal style are now used mostly in

mountain retreats. The tea garden is always

in the informal style.

Intermediate Style - Residence

Informal Style – Tea Garden

Ritsurin Koen, Sanbonmatsu

The concept of wabi and sabi:

Wabi can denote the Spirit of the Place, Event or Object.

Sabi defines time or the ideal image of Place, Event or Object.

For example: A rock can be old and covered with lichens, but if it is just a round boulder

DESIGN PRINCIPLE – Concept of Time and Space - Wabi and SabiJAPANESE

For example: A rock can be old and covered with lichens, but if it is just a round boulder

it has no wabi. We must strive to find that balance

The concepts of MA AND WABI/SABI deal with Time and Space. If the garden is our

space, time is ably presented by the changing seasons.

GARDEN DESIGN IN HISTORYDESIGN PRINCIPLE

– Concept of Time and Space

JAPANESE

Seasonal Changes through the Gardens of Ryonji Temple

GARDEN DESIGN IN HISTORYDESIGN PRINCIPLE – Concept of Time and Space

JAPANESE

Seasonal Changes

through the Gardens

of Ryonji Temple

GARDEN DESIGN IN HISTORYDESIGN PRINCIPLE –Hide and Reveal - Miegakure

The fence is a tool to enhance the concept of miegakure, or hide and reveal.

Many of the fence styles offer

only the merest of visual

screens, and will be

supplemented with a screen

planting, offering just the ghostly

JAPANESE

While entering the house to view

the garden we may well

encounter sode-gaki, or sleeve

fences. This fence could screen a

specific view be it a garden or

another house.

hints of the garden behind.

To view the garden as a

whole, one must enter

it and become one

with the garden.

That way one can truly

DESIGN PRINCIPLE – Hide and Reveal - Miegakure

JAPANESE

appreciate a garden.

One must lose oneself

into the garden until the

essence of time and self

have no meaning

separately.

GARDEN DESIGN IN HISTORYDESIGN PRINCIPLE – Hide and Reveal - Miegakure

The Miegakure in a philosophical intent, requires the garden to be discovered. Discovery

does not only mean the views and vista in the gardens, but also the hidden meaning of

the different elements in the gardens.

JAPANESE

Stroll Garden, Nitobe Japanese Garden, Vancouversun, Canada

GARDEN DESIGN IN HISTORYDESIGN PRINCIPLE –

Hide and Reveal - Miegakure

JAPANESE

Stroll Garden, Nitobe Japanese Garden, Vancouversun, Canada

GARDEN DESIGN IN HISTORYDESIGN PRINCIPLE – Borrowed Landscape - Shakkei

Borrowed scenery is the principle of "incorporating background landscape into the

composition of a garden" found in traditional East Asian garden design. The term

"borrowed scenery" is Chinese in origin. It is called as Shakkei in Japanese.

JAPANESE

Gardens located at the Zhishan Garden

GARDEN DESIGN IN HISTORYJAPANESE

Garden at Tenryu-ji

• Natural: that should make the garden look as if it grew by itself

• Asymmetry: that creates the impression of it being natural

• Odd numbers: It supports the effect of the asymmetry

• Simplicity: that follows the idea of 'less is more'

• Triangle: that is the most common shape for compositions made of stones, plants,

BASIC RULES IN THE DESIGN OF JAPANESE GARDENSJAPANESE

• Contrast: that creates tension between elements

• Lines: that can create both tranquility and tension

• Curves: that softens the effect

• Openness: that indicates interaction between all elements

GARDEN DESIGN IN HISTORYBASIC ELEMENTS IN JAPANESE GARDENS

• STONE LANTERN represents four natural elements: earth, water, fire and wind

• WATER BASIN Stone water basins, (tsukubai) were originally placed in gardens for

visitors to wash their hands and mouth before the tea ceremony.

• FISH swimming in ponds, have a decorative and philosophical meaning

• GARDEN BRIDGE, called a moon bridge, whose purpose is to reflect artistic

feelings.

JAPANESE

feelings.

• BAMBOO FENCES

• SEASONAL PLANTS

• MEANDERING PATHWAYS

• ROCKS AND SANDS

GARDEN DESIGN IN HISTORYSTONE LANTERN:BASIC ELEMENTS IN JAPANESE GARDENS

GARDEN DESIGN IN HISTORYWATER BASIN:BASIC ELEMENTS IN JAPANESE GARDENS

GARDEN DESIGN IN HISTORYGARDEN BRIDGE:BASIC ELEMENTS IN JAPANESE GARDENS

GARDEN DESIGN IN HISTORYBAMBOO FENCES:There are three types of fences:

• The short fence which extends from the house into the garden

• An inner fence and an outer fence.

• Short fences or sodegaki are screens that hide unwanted views or objects.

� They are about 6 or 7 feet high.

� Add color and texture to the garden.

�Materials used are bamboo, wood and twigs of bamboo or tree.

BASIC ELEMENTS IN JAPANESE GARDENS

�Materials used are bamboo, wood and twigs of bamboo or tree.

GARDEN DESIGN IN HISTORYSEASONAL PLANTS:

Garden of the 10th to 12th centuries contained Cherry, Plum Trees, Pines and Willows.

Influence of the Zen sect and watercolor painting from Southern China transformed the gardens

to be colorful Japanese garden in the Middle Ages.

Flowers, flowering plants and shrubs were regarded as signs of frivolity and were replaced by

evergreen trees that symbolized eternity.

GARDEN DESIGN IN HISTORYPATHWAYS - TOBI-ISHI :BASIC ELEMENTS IN JAPANESE GARDENS

Stepping- stones are found near the

veranda or entrance of the house or tea

room. The visitor of the house or room is

expected to place his shoes on the step-

stone before entering.

GARDEN DESIGN IN HISTORYROCKS AND SAND:

Stones are fundamental elements of Japanese gardens.

Stones used are not quarried by the hand of man, but of stones shaped by nature

Used to construct the garden's paths, bridges, and walkways.

Represent a geological presence where actual mountains are not viewable or present.

They are placed in odd numbers and a majority of the groupings reflect triangular

shapes

GARDEN DESIGN IN HISTORYROCKS AND SAND:BASIC ELEMENTS IN JAPANESE GARDENS

GARDEN DESIGN IN HISTORYFISH:BASIC ELEMENTS IN JAPANESE GARDENS

GARDEN DESIGN IN HISTORYSCENERY METHODS

The Japanese garden can include three possible methods for scenery:

The first is the reduced scale scenery method. The reduced scale method takes actual

natural elements and reproduces them on a smaller scale.

The second technique called symbolization and it involves generalization and

abstraction; this could be accomplished by using white sand to simulate the ocean.

Borrowed views is a technique that refers to artistic use of elements that imply scenes

other than those actually portrayed. An example of this would be a painting of a house in

the city with a seaside dock in the middle of the street to imply a seascape scene.

GARDEN DESIGN IN HISTORYTYPES OF JAPANESE GARDENS

1.KARESANSUI GARDENS - DRY GARDENS

2.TSUKIYAMA GARDENS - HILL GARDEN / STROLL GARDEN

3.CHANIWA GARDENS - TEA GARDENS

GARDEN DESIGN IN HISTORYTYPES OF JAPANESE GARDENS - KARESANSUI GARDENS - DRY GARDENS

The rocks/gravel used

Also known as rock gardens and waterless stream gardens.

Influenced by Zen Buddhism and can be found at Zen temples of meditation

Found in the front or rear gardens at the residences.

There is no water present in these gardens. Raked gravel or sand simulates theessence of water

The rocks/gravel usedare chosen for theirinteresting naturalshapes.

Plants in this garden areof much less importance(and sometimesnonexistent)

GARDEN DESIGN IN HISTORYKARESANSUI GARDENS - DRY GARDENS

Rocks and moss symbolize ponds,

islands, boats, seas, rivers, and mountains

in an abstract way.

Gardens were meant to be viewed from a

single, seated perspective.

Rocks in Karesansui are often associated

with Mountains such as Mt. Penglai or Mt.

JAPANESE

with Mountains such as Mt. Penglai or Mt.

Lu. Karesansui.

Stones are usually off-white or greythough the occasional red or black stone

were added later.

RYOAN – JI TEMPLE - KYOTO

KARESANSUI GARDENS - DRY GARDENS

Ryoanji, Peaceful Dragon Temple, founded in 1450s, is a built in a Buddhist temple.

The garden measures of 30M long X 10Mwide.

JAPANESE

Entrance to the Temple

GARDEN DESIGN IN HISTORYKARESANSUI GARDENS - DRY GARDENS – Ryoanji Temple

JAPANESE

1. Sanded Ground

2. Moss

3. Stone

4. Earth Wall

5. Tile Pavement

6. Ornamental Gate

7. Verandah

Ground Floor Plan – Ryoanji Stone Garden

GARDEN DESIGN IN HISTORYKARESANSUI GARDENS - DRY GARDENS – Ryoanji Temple

Ryoan-ji (or The Temple of the Peaceful Dragon) is a Zen temple located in northwest

Kyoto, Japan. The temple is one of the Historic Monuments of Ancient Kyoto, a

UNESCO World Heritage Site.

The garden has 15 rocks that are placed

on a wide expanse of land covered with

white gravel.

The rocks are covered with moss, which

adds a green tinge to the whole landscape.

JAPANESE

adds a green tinge to the whole landscape.

However, even though the rocks are 15,

you will only see 14 of them no matter what

angle you look at it, except at the topview.

The creator of this masterpiece

strategically placed all 15 rocks so that

people can only see 14 of them.

This is related to Zen Buddhism. In Buddhism,

the number 15 signifies wholeness orcompleteness.

In the rock garden, if you can see all 15, it

means you have already attainedenlightenment.

The garden it is one of the most visited places

in Japan for its sheer brilliance and

KARESANSUI GARDENS - DRY GARDENS – Ryoanji TempleJAPANESE

in Japan for its sheer brilliance andsimplicity.

GARDEN DESIGN IN HISTORYJAPANESETYPES OF JAPANESE GARDENS - TSUKIYAMA GARDENS - HILL / STROLL GARDEN

These gardens appeared in Japan during

the Edo Period, (1600-1854), at the villasof nobles or warlords

They strive to make a smaller gardenappear more spacious.

The gardens use Shakkei-BorrowedScenery and Meigkure-Hide & Reveal to

bring the near-by mountains as a part of the

garden.

Ponds, streams, hills, stones, trees,flowers, bridges, and winding paths are

used frequently in this style.

Often existing landscapes arereproduced on a smaller scale, or animaginary landscape is created.

Koishikawa Korakuen is a Japanese garden

in Tokyo, Miniature, of Mt. Lu in China

GARDEN DESIGN IN HISTORYTSUKIYAMA GARDENS - HILL / STROLL GARDEN – Shugaku-in Imperial Villa

JAPANESE

Middle Garden

Lower GardenUpper Garden Pond & Waterfall

GARDEN DESIGN IN HISTORYJAPANESETYPES OF JAPANESE GARDENS - CHANIWA GARDENS - TEA GARDENS

A. Kikugetsu Villa

Plan of Tea Garden Ritsurin Koen

A. Kikugetsu Villa

B. Crescent Bridge

C. South Pond

D. South Park

E. Folkcraft House

F. Mt. Shiun

G. East Gate

H. North Park

GARDEN DESIGN IN HISTORYCHANIWA GARDENS - TEA GARDENS – Tea Garden at Ritsurin Koen

Sand Garden near Kikugetsu Villa South Pond behind Kikugetsu Villa

Crescent Bridge Bridge behind Kikugetsu Villa

Ninnaji Temple Garden Kyoto.

MUGHAL GARDENS OF INDIA

MUGHAL EMPIRE : 1526 – 1750

EMPERORS : Babur, Humayun, Akbar, Jahangir,

Shah Jahan, Aurangazeb

The Persian influence is prominent in the

Architecture and Landscape.Design

Persian BackgroundPersian concept of garden includes:

INTRODUCTION

Persian concept of garden includes:

• “ Paradise garden”• 4 water channels divides the garden into

4 quarters, Char-bagh structure

• Muslim Art – geometric, based on

calculations.

Indian background:• Hindu art – organic, rhythm of nature &

humanity; complex & diverse.

• Fusion - Indo Islamic themes

The basic quadripartite structure of

a Persian Garden with the Water

Feature in the Centre

The garden in Islamic Style of architecture is not just another feature it has a well-defined meaning and it symbolizes the spirituality.

According to the holy Koran, A GARDEN IS SYMBOLIC OF PARADISE.

Islam being a religion that was founded in the region of Arabia always gave value to the

vision of a lush green, well laid out, and watered garden and in due course came to

symbolize these gardens.

PHILOSPPHY:

In Islam, it is believed that there are four rivers in paradise,

• Water,

• Milk,

• Wine, And

• Honey.

From this concept the Char Bagh Style of garden planning took root

GARDEN DESIGN IN HISTORYEXPRESSION OF GARDEN

Pleasure Garden – Nishant, Kashmir

The Mughal Gardens in India were expressed

as either Pleasure Gardens & Tomb

Gardens.

The examples of these are found at Agra,

Delhi & Kashmir

Symbolism was expressed basically in the

relationship of circle, octagon and square.

Tomb Garden – I’timad ud dulha, Agra

Pleasure Garden – Rashtrapati Bhavan,

relationship of circle, octagon and square.

GARDEN DESIGN IN HISTORYSYMBOLISM IN GARDEN

• The Garden attempts to emulate Eden, with 4 Rivers and 4 Quadrants that represent The World.

• Intersection of channels symbolizes meeting of god

• The conception of the Border Landscape was both

Original and on also on Grand Scale

Water Feature - Humayun’s Tomb

GARDEN DESIGN IN HISTORYMUGHAL GARDENS IN INDIA

PLEASURE GARDENS

• Shalimar Bagh, Kashmir

• Nishat Bagh, Kashmir

TOMB GARDENS

• Humayun’s Tomb, Delhi,

• Taj Mahal, Agra

GARDEN DESIGN IN HISTORYCOMMON FEATURE OF MUGHAL GARDEN:

• Straight tile-lined channels of water

• Bubbling fountains

• Trees for shade and fruit

• A Pavilion or gazebo

• Strong emphasis on flowers in beds.

GARDEN DESIGN IN HISTORYDESIGN CRITERIA

SITING & RELATIONSHIP:

• Great importance were given to Location of Site.

• Visual Impact influenced the spatial organization.

• According to the context, Gardens were planned as extroverted space drawing

in the surrounding landscape - Borrowed Landscape.

• Geographic “Edge” were exploited & enhanced

FUNCTION:

• Private gardens of pleasure.

• Users: Emperor, his family & nobles.

• Function: Recreation, Pleasure & Social Gathering.

• Spatial Organization: No defined function for spaces – flexible.

SPATIAL ORGANIZATION:

• Walled garden.

• Organized on a grid of rectilinear geometry.

• Dominant axial alignment.

• Visual axis links 2 natural elements – Lake & Mountain range.

SCALE:

• Garden are in Human Scale.

• No Built Components dominates the garden – they are in subtle relationship and Harmonious Relationship.

• Change of level s gives containment.

WATER:

• Water used as strong Unifying Element,

• Water channel divides the garden into 4 major directions.

• Potential of water is understood & exploited in various forms - canals, water

falls, chutes, fountains, tanks/ ponds.

• Pavilion with throne set in the centre of a tank surrounded by spouting jets of

water.

• Functionally the water is used to cool the surrounds

• “ Form & Quality of Water itself” is a profound concept..

• Chadhar - salb with intricate carving on which water ismade to run over, creating ripples - gives form to water.

• Chinni kana - small niches behind the falling water.Lamps were placed during evening.

• Pleasure to Senses were through:

• Sounds of varied quality,

DESIGN CRITERIA

WATER:

• Sounds of varied quality,

• Sprays from fountains;

• Foam at foot of chadhar,

• Ripples & glitter of swift flowing water.

VEGETATION:

•Vegetation used as a very Subtle Element.

•Function: Aesthetic & Utilitarian Purpose.

•Planting done as Clumps, Avenues, Edges, Beds, etc..

SYMBOLISM :

• Square: material things.

• Circle: eternity.

• Octagon: Evolved from circle.

• Vegetation: immortality & renewal of life.

• Water: symbol of life.

GARDEN DESIGN IN HISTORYTOMB GARDEN – TAJ MAHAL, Agra

Introduction :

From the Entrance gateway, a sprawling garden is viewed in front till the plinth of the Taj.

The Taj Garden covers most part of the Taj Complex.

Taj Complex occupies a Total Area of 580m by 300 m, the Taj Garden alone covers300 m by 300 m.

The guiding principle in creating thisgarden is of Symmetry

The char bagh, separated by the

watercourses originating from the A.

Central, raised pool, were divided into B.

16 flowerbeds,

There were 400 plants in each bed.

All the trees, either cypress (signifying

The channels were stocked with colorful

fish and the gardens with beautiful

birds. Royal guests were invited to the

tomb - so the stables and guesthouses

were also built.

The garden today is only peaceful region in

the entire complex and the best for framing

death) and fruit trees (signifying life)

were planted to maintain symmetry.

the entire complex and the best for framing

photos of the tomb with foliage.

The Taj Mahal Complex can be most

conveniently divided into 5 sections.

1. The 'Moonlight Garden'.

2. The Terrace Area , containing the

mausoleum, mosque and jawab .

3. The Char Bagh garden Gardens.

4. The Jilau Khana containing

accommodation for the tomb attendants

and two subsidiary tombs.

5. The Taj Ganji, was originally a bazaar

Moonlight Garden:

Taj Gardens:

TOMB GARDEN – TAJ MAHAL, Agra

Taj Gardens:

GARDEN DESIGN IN HISTORYPLEASURE GARDEN – SHALIMAR BAGH, Kashmir

Introduction :

• Shalimar Bagh was built in 1642 by Shah Jahan

• The garden occupies 12.4 Hectare( 31 Acres), 587M x 251M.

• The Garden has 3 Terraces, a central water canal.

• These gardens lacked high walls as found in the rest of the country.

• A central channel runs axially through the central of the garden from the

highest point to the lowest point.

• The central channel is called as the Shah Nahar which feeds the 3 terraced

gardens..

• There are 3 Terraced Garden, with Fountains and Chinar lined Vistas.

• The garden was linked to the Open Dal lake through a 1.6Km long and 11M

wide Channel.

Beginning at the Top Of The Garden, the

canal runs through each of the Baradaris

(pavilions) in the garden.

At each terrace, the canal flows into a

Larger Pool, highlighting its baradari.

Within the Shalimar Bagh, each of the

three terraces had a different function and

level of privacy:

1. A Public Garden (First Terrace),

2. A Private Garden, also called the

Emperor's Garden (second

terrace) and

3. The Zenana (harem) garden, on

the third terrace 1

The Shalimar Bagh is well known for

Chini Khanas, or arched niches,

behind garden waterfalls.

They are a unique feature in the

Bagh. These niches were lighted at

night with oil lamps, which gave a

fairy tale appearance to the water

falls.

However, now the niches hold pots

of flower pots that reflect their

colours behind the cascading water.

“Success of Mughal garden is that it has transcended time boundary and fits well even in today's context and looks the same way as 400 years back”

AR 414 Unit-3 Garden Design in History - Japanese & Mughal [Compatibility Mode].pdf

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