APES Ch. 3 Notes

Science, Systems, Matter, and Energy

IX. Matter: Forms, Structure and Quality

 Matter – anything that has

mass and takes up space. a. Elements – distinctive

building blocks of matter that make up every material substance.

b. Compounds – two or more elements held together by chemical bonds.

c. Mixture – a combination of two or more elements and compounds.

Gold (Au)Calcite (CaCO3)mixture

Building Blocks of Elements and Compounds

a. Atoms – smallest unit of matter that is unique to a particular element

b. Ions – electrically charged atoms or combinations of atoms

c. Molecules – combinations of two or more atoms of the same or different element held together by chemical bonds.

Forms of Matter

a. solid – most compact and orderly arrangement

b. liquid

c. gas – least compact and orderly arrangement

Fig. 3.5, p. 54

Energy absorbed

Melting

Freezing

EvaporationAnd boiling

Condensation

solid liquid gas

Energy released

Components of Atomsa.  Proton – positively charged subatomic particle

with a mass of 1 (in nucleus)

b.  Neutron- neutrally charged subatomic particle with a mass of 1 (in nucleus

c.  Electron – negatively charged subatomic particle with a mass of 0 (outside nucleus)

Atomic Number – totalnumber of protons in an atom  Atomic Mass – total number of protons and neutrons in an atom

HeMass # 4

Atomic # 2

Fig. 3.6, p. 55

Hydrogen (H)

0 n1 p

1e1 n1 p

2 n1 p

1e 1e

Mass number = 0 + 1 = 1Hydrogen-1(99.98%)

Mass number = 1 + 1 = 2Hydrogen-2or deuterium(0.015%)

Mass number = 2 + 1 = 3Hydrogen-3or tritium (T)(trace)

Uranium (U)

143 n92 p

143 n92 p

143 n92 p

146 n92 p

92e 92e

Mass number = 143 + 92 = 235Uranium-235(0.7%)

Mass number = 146 + 92 = 238Uranium-238(99.3%)

Atomic Number – total number of protons it an atom  Atomic Mass – total number of protons and neutrons in an atom

Fig. 3.7, p. 56

PH – (pH) – measure of the concentration of hydrogen ions [H+] in a water solution.

Concentration=.001 = 10-3 = pH = 3

Chemical Formula – shows the number of atoms of each type in a compound.

C3H8 = methane

Organic Compounds – contain both carbon (C) and hydrogen (H)

a. Hydrocarbons

b. Chlorinated Hydrocarbons

c.  Chlorofluorocarbons

d.  Carbohydrates

e.  Lipids

f.   Proteins

g.  Nucleic Acids

 

Inorganic Compounds – do not contain both carbon (C) and hydrogen (H), but may contain one or the other.

a.       NaCl

b.      H2O

c.       N2O

d.      NO

e.       CO

f.        CO2

g.       NO2

h.       SO2

i.         NH3

j.        H2S

k.      H2SO4

l.         HNO3

Matter Quality – measure of how useful a form of matter is to us as a resource, based on its availability of concentration. 

• a.  High Quality Matter – organized, concentrated, found near earth’s surface, and has great potential for use as a matter resource.

• b.  Low Quality Matter – disorganized, dilute, deep underground or dispersed in oceans or the atmosphere, and has little potential for use as a matter resource. 

• Entropy – measure of the disorder or randomness of a system or its environment

• Material Efficiency (resource productivity) – total amount of material needed to produce each unit of goods or services.

Fig. 3.9, p. 57

High Quality

Solid

Salt

Coal

Gasoline

Aluminum can

Low Quality

Gas

Solution of salt in water

Coal-fired powerplant emissions

Automobile emissions

Aluminum ore

Energy: Forms and Quality:                 • Energy – the capacity to do work (move something) and

transfer heat.  • Kinetic Energy – the energy that matter has due to its

mass and speed or velocity. a.       Windb.      Flowing Streamsc.       Heat (flowing from high to low)d.      Electricitye.       Electromagnetic Radiation f.        Heat (total kinetic energy of all the moving atoms, ions,

or molecules within a given substance)g.       Temperature (the average speed of motion of atoms,

ions, or molecules in a sample of matter at a given moment)

 

Potential Energy – the stored energy that is potentially available for use (can be changed into kinetic energy). 

a.       gasoline

b.      rock at the top of a hill

c.       nuclear energy

XIII.        Two Laws of Energy

 • Law of Conservation of Energy (First Law of

Energy or First Law of Thermodynamics) - in all physical and chemical changes, energy is neither created or destroyed, but it may be converted from one form to another.  

• -energy input always equals energy output • -cannot get something for nothing in terms of

energy quantity  

• Law of Conservation of Energy – We may change various forms of energy from one form to another, but in no physical or chemical change can we create or destroy any of the energy involved. (there is no away)

Energy can b changed from one form to another

Second Law of Energy or Thermodynamics• – when energy is changed from one form

to another, some of the useful energy is always degraded to lower quality, more dispersed, less useful energy.

- heat always flows spontaneously from hot (high quality energy) to cold (low quality energy).

• - we can not even break even in terms of energy, energy always goes from a more useful to less useful form.

• You cant break even 

Fig. 3.18, p. 66

Solarenergy

Wasteheat

Chemicalenergy

(photosynthesis)

Wasteheat

Wasteheat

Wasteheat

Chemicalenergy(food)

Mechanicalenergy(moving,thinking,

living)

Energy efficiency

• Energy efficiency is the ratio of work that is done to the total amount of energy that was introduced into the system in the first place.

Energy Input – potential energy from gasoline

Energy Output-useful energy, kinetic which moves the car-waste energy, heat from friction, tires, brakes, sound

Energy efficiency is expressed in a percent, for example 70% efficient means 70% of energy is used to do work and 30% is lost as heat

• For example• Coal to electricty is 35% • Transport of electricity is 90%• Light bulb is 5% • Then when you burn coal the amoiunt of that

energy used to actually make light is• .35x.90x.05=.016 or 1.6%• 1.6% of the coal burned was used to make

light, 98.4% is lost as heat

Fig. 3.10, p. 58

Sun

High energy, shortwavelength

Low energy, longwavelength

Ionizing radiation Nonionizing radiation

Cosmicrays

Gammarays

X rays Farultraviolet

waves

Nearultraviolet

waves

Visiblewaves

Nearinfraredwaves

Farinfraredwaves

microwaves TVwaves

Radiowaves

Wavelengthin meters(not to scale)

10-14 10-12 10-8 10-7 10-6 10-5 10-3 10-2 10-1 1

Energy Quality – measure of an energy source’s ability to do useful work. 

a. High energy quality – organized or concentrated and can perform much useful work.

b. Low energy quality – disorganized or dispersed and has little ability to do useful work.

Fig. 3.11, p. 59

ElectricityVery high temperature heat (greater than 2,500°C)Nuclear fission (uranium)Nuclear fusion (deuterium)Concentrated sunlightHigh-velocity wind

High-temperature heat (1,000–2,500°C)Hydrogen gasNatural gasGasolineCoalFood

Normal sunlightModerate-velocity windHigh-velocity water flowConcentrated geothermal energyModerate-temperature heat (100–1,000°C)Wood and crop wastes

Dispersed geothermal energyLow-temperature heat (100°C or lower)

Very high

High

Moderate

Low

Source of Energy Relative Energy Quality(usefulness)

Energy tasks

Very high-temperature heat (greater than 2,500°C) for industrial processes and producing electricity to run electrical devices (lights, motors)

Mechanical motion (to move vehicles and other things)High-temperature heat (1,000–2,500°C) for industrial processes and producing electricity

Moderate-temperature heat (100–1,000°C) for industrial processes, cooking, producing steam, electricity, and hot water

Low-temperature heat(100°C or less) for

space heating

• Law of Conservation of Matter – We may change various elements and compounds from one physical or chemical for to another, but in no physical or chemical change can we create or destroy any of the atoms involved. (there is no away)

XII.  Nuclear Changes – occur when nuclei or certain isotopes spontaneously change into one or more different isotopes.• Natural Radioactive Decay – a nuclear change in which

unstable isotopes (radioactive isotopes or radioisotopes) spontaneously emit fast moving chunks of matter called particles, high energy radiation, or both at a fixed rate.

 a. Gamma Rays – a form of high energy electromagnetic

radiation (ionizing energy)b. Alpha Particles – fast moving positively charged chunks

of matter consisting of 2 protons and two neutrons 9 (ionizing particle), harmful when inhaled or ingested, can cause skin cancer.

c.  Beta Particles – High speed electrons (ionizing particle), can damage internal organs even when not ingested or inhaled.

  

Waves

2 protons & 2 neutrons

Negative particle like an electron

Fig. 3.12, p. 62

Sheet of paper

Block of wood

Concretewall

Alpha

Beta

Gamma

Radioactive decay series of Uranium

• Half Life – the time needed for one half of the nuclei in a radioisotope to decay and emit their radiation to form a different isotope (results in a series of different radioisotopes until a non-radioactive isotope is formed)

Fig. 3.13, p. 62

Fra

ctio

n o

f o

rig

inal

am

ou

nt

of

plu

ton

ium

-239

left

1

1/2

1/4

1/8

0240,000 480,000 720,000

Time (years)

1sthalf-life

2ndhalf-life

3rdhalf-life

Fig. 3.14, p. 63

Radon55%

Other1%

Consumerproducts

3%

Nuclearmedicine

4%

MedicalX rays10%

Thehumanbody11%

Earth8%

Space8%

Natural sources 82%

Human-generated 18%

Effects of Ionizing Radiation• Causes: • 1.  Penetrating a Cell• 2.  Altering a cellular chemical by knocking an

electron loose.• 3.  altering molecules needed for normal

chemical functioning • Types: • 1. Genetic Damage – mutations to DNA

molecules that alter genes and chromosomes. (possibly passed to following generations)

• 2. Somatic Damage – to tissues, which cause harm during a lifetime (burns, cancers)  

Effects of Ionizing radiation

Effects of Nonionizing Radiation (Electromagnetic Radiation)• – Not Known• Sources:• 1. Power Lines• 2. Electrical Appliances • Possible Effects:• 1. Cancer (childhood leukemia, brain

tumors, breast cancer)• 2. Miscarriages• 3. Birth Defects• 4. Alzheimer’s Disease

Effects of Cell Phones

Useful Applications of Radioisotopes 1. Radiocarbon Dating – estimates

age of carbon containing substances from dead plants and animals.

2. Tracers – in pollution detection (pipelines)

3. Nuclear Medicine – diagnosis and treatment of disease (cancer)

 

http://id-archserve.ucsb.edu/Anth3/Courseware/Chronology/08_Radiocarbon_Dating.html

Fig. 3.15, p. 64

Fission fragment

Fission fragment

Energy

n n

n

n

Uranium-235nucleus

Unstablenucleus

Fig. 3.16, p. 64

n

U23592

9236 Kr

Ba14156

n

n

n

9236 Kr

U23592

U23592

Ba14156

9236

Kr

Ba14156

9236

Kr

Ba14156

n

n

n

n

n

n

n

n

U23592

U23592

U23592

U23592

n

Fig. 3.17, p. 64

Fuel Reaction Conditions Products

D-T Fusion

Hydrogen-2 ordeuterium nucleus

Hydrogen-3 ortritium nucleus

Hydrogen-2 ordeuterium nucleus

Hydrogen-2 ordeuterium nucleus

D-D Fusion

+

+

+

+

Neutron

Energy

+ +

Helium-4nucleus

+ +

Helium-3nucleus

Energy

Neutron

++

+ +

100 million ˚C

1 billion ˚CNeutron

Proton+