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Anatomy & Anatomy & Physiology IIPhysiology II
Unit Four Unit Four
11stst Law of Law of ThermodynamicsThermodynamicsEnergy is neither created or Energy is neither created or
destroyed, but can change destroyed, but can change formsforms
22ndnd Law of Law of ThermodynamicsThermodynamicsWhen energy changes forms it When energy changes forms it
becomes more disordered becomes more disordered (entropy)(entropy)
Photosynthesis Photosynthesis (an endergonic reaction)(an endergonic reaction)
COCO22 + H + H22O + E CO + E C66HH1212OO66 + + OO22
Cellular respiration Cellular respiration (an exergonic (an exergonic
reaction)reaction)
CC66HH1212OO66 + O + O22 CO CO22 + H + H22O + EO + E
Cellular respirationCellular respiration
CC66HH1212OO66 + O + O22 CO CO22 + H + H22O + EO + E
PhotosynthesiPhotosynthesiss
COCO22 + H + H22O + E CO + E C66HH1212OO66 + O + O22
This energy is used to form This energy is used to form ATP!ATP!
Adenosine Adenosine triphosphattriphosphat
ee
The fuel of The fuel of living cellsliving cells
Energy released from food Energy released from food (glucose)(glucose)
Energy released to do work in Energy released to do work in cellcell
CC66HH1212OO66 + 6O + 6O22 6CO 6CO22 + 6H + 6H22O O
36ADP + 36P36ADP + 36Pii 36ATP 36ATPEE
MetabolismMetabolism
all the chemical reactions in a all the chemical reactions in a body that involve the transfer of body that involve the transfer of energyenergyanabolic - building up reactions anabolic - building up reactions
catabolic - tearing down catabolic - tearing down reactions reactions
Oxidation-Reduction ReactionsOxidation-Reduction Reactions
ATP production is the ATP production is the goal of cell goal of cell respiration!respiration!
One molecule of One molecule of glucose yields 36 glucose yields 36
ATPs!ATPs!This process is This process is actually four:actually four:
Glycolysis Glycolysis Transition Reaction Transition Reaction Krebs Cycle Krebs Cycle
Electron Transport Electron Transport SystemSystem
GlycolysisGlycolysis
Anaerobic respiration – no Anaerobic respiration – no oxygenoxygen
CytoplasmCytoplasm
MitochondrionMitochondrion
In: In:
1 1 glucose glucose 2 ATPs2 ATPs
Out: Out:
2 NADH + H2 NADH + H+ +
4 ATPs (2 net) 4 ATPs (2 net) 2 pyruvic acids 2 pyruvic acids (C(C33))
Anaerobic respiration – no Anaerobic respiration – no oxygenoxygen
MitochondrionMitochondrion
No oxygen No oxygen presentpresent
Ethanol
OR
Aerobic respiration – oxygen is presentAerobic respiration – oxygen is present
MitochondrionMitochondrionTransition Transition ReactionReaction
In: In:
2 pyruvic acids (C2 pyruvic acids (C33))
Out: Out:
2 NADH + H2 NADH + H+ +
2 Acetyl CoA (C2 Acetyl CoA (C22))
Decarboxylation – 2 Decarboxylation – 2 COCO22
Aerobic respiration – oxygen is presentAerobic respiration – oxygen is present
MitochondrionMitochondrionKrebs CycleKrebs CycleIn:In:
2 acetyl CoA (C2 acetyl CoA (C22))
Out: Out:
6 NADH + H6 NADH + H+ +
2 2 FADHFADH2 2
2 ATPs2 ATPsDecarboxylation – 4 Decarboxylation – 4 COCO22
Aerobic respiration – oxygen is presentAerobic respiration – oxygen is present
MitochondrionMitochondrionElectron Electron Transport Transport SystemSystemIn: In:
2 NADH + H2 NADH + H++ (Glycolysis) (Glycolysis) 2 NADH + H+ (Transition 2 NADH + H+ (Transition Reaction)Reaction) 6 NADH + H+ 6 NADH + H+ (Krebs Cycle) (Krebs Cycle) 22 FADH FADH22 (Krebs Cycle)(Krebs Cycle)
Out: Out:
32 ATPs32 ATPs
6 H6 H22OO
X 2 = 4 ATPs X 2 = 4 ATPs
X 3 X 3 = 6 ATPs= 6 ATPs
X 3 = 18 X 3 = 18 ATPs ATPs
X 2 = 4 X 2 = 4 ATPs ATPs
----------- -----------
32 32 ATPsATPs
Oxygen is Oxygen is the final Hthe final H++
acceptoracceptor
ATP production is the ATP production is the goal of cell goal of cell respiration!respiration!
One molecule of One molecule of glucose yields 36 glucose yields 36
ATPs!ATPs!
Glycolysis – 2 ATPs Glycolysis – 2 ATPs Transition Reaction – 0 Transition Reaction – 0
ATPs Krebs Cycle – ATPs Krebs Cycle – 2 ATPs Electron 2 ATPs Electron
Transport System – 32 ATPsTransport System – 32 ATPs
DefinitionsDefinitionsGlycogen – the animal Glycogen – the animal storage form of glucose storage form of glucose
Dehydration synthesis – the Dehydration synthesis – the assembling of organic assembling of organic molecules by extracting molecules by extracting waterwaterHydrolysis – the breaking Hydrolysis – the breaking up of organic molecules up of organic molecules using waterusing water
DefinitionsDefinitions
Glycogenesis – the formation Glycogenesis – the formation of glycogen from glucoseof glycogen from glucose
Glycogenolysis – the Glycogenolysis – the conversion of glycogen to conversion of glycogen to glucoseglucoseGluconeogenesis – the Gluconeogenesis – the conversion of non-conversion of non-carbohydrates into glucosecarbohydrates into glucose
Examples of Lipid Examples of Lipid AnabolismAnabolism
TriglyceridesTriglycerides
PhospholipidsPhospholipids
Steroids (cholesterol, Steroids (cholesterol, sex hormones, etc.)sex hormones, etc.)
ProstaglandinsProstaglandins
WaxesWaxes
Examples of Protein AnabolismExamples of Protein Anabolism
GlycoproteinsGlycoproteins
HemoglobinHemoglobin
EnzymesEnzymes
CollagenCollagen
AntibodiesAntibodies
Cholesterol MetabolismCholesterol Metabolism
Cholesterol is a lipid that has Cholesterol is a lipid that has several functions in the body:several functions in the body: # enhances cell membrane # enhances cell membrane flexibilityflexibility # structural basis for bile # structural basis for bile saltssalts # structural basis for # structural basis for steroid steroid hormoneshormones # structural basis for # structural basis for vitamin Dvitamin D
Cholesterol MetabolismCholesterol Metabolism
Approximately 85% of the Approximately 85% of the body cholesterol is produced body cholesterol is produced by the liver and the by the liver and the remaining 15% comes from remaining 15% comes from the dietthe dietAs it is a lipid, it is insoluble As it is a lipid, it is insoluble in plasma so it is combined in plasma so it is combined with proteins to form with proteins to form lipoproteinslipoproteins
Cholesterol MetabolismCholesterol Metabolism
LDL (low density LDL (low density lipoproteins)lipoproteins) - high % of lipids to proteins- high % of lipids to proteinsHDL (high density HDL (high density lipoproteins)lipoproteins) - high % of proteins to lipids- high % of proteins to lipids
Cholesterol MetabolismCholesterol Metabolism
LDLs transport cholesterol to LDLs transport cholesterol to tissues to be used in their tissues to be used in their membranes, hormone membranes, hormone synthesis or storagesynthesis or storage
LDLs also stimulate the LDLs also stimulate the production of more production of more cholesterol in the tissuescholesterol in the tissues
Cholesterol MetabolismCholesterol Metabolism
HDLs transport excess HDLs transport excess cholesterol from the tissues cholesterol from the tissues to the liver to be catabolizedto the liver to be catabolized
Therefore, HDLs can reduce Therefore, HDLs can reduce cholesterol amountscholesterol amounts
Cholesterol MetabolismCholesterol Metabolism
Dietary saturated fats Dietary saturated fats stimulate the liver to produce stimulate the liver to produce more cholesterol and inhibit more cholesterol and inhibit its catabolization and its catabolization and excretionexcretion
HormonesHormones
Biological regulatory Biological regulatory compounds secreted by compounds secreted by endocrine glands that alter endocrine glands that alter the metabolism of the body the metabolism of the body cells they targetcells they target
Hormones function to Hormones function to regulate body metabolism, regulate body metabolism, growth and reproductiongrowth and reproduction
Endocrine SystemEndocrine System
Lipid Lipid Based Based
HormonHormone Actione Action
Non-Lipid Based Hormone Non-Lipid Based Hormone ActionAction
HomeostatiHomeostatic Control c Control
of of Hormone Hormone SecretionSecretion
Homeostatic Control of Homeostatic Control of Blood GlucoseBlood Glucose
Imbalances in the Imbalances in the Homeostatic Control of Homeostatic Control of
Metabolic HormonesMetabolic Hormones
Cretinism is caused by Cretinism is caused by hypothyroidism in infancyhypothyroidism in infancy
Cretinism - individual is small, Cretinism - individual is small, malproportioned and exhibits malproportioned and exhibits sever mental retardationsever mental retardation
Imbalances in the Imbalances in the Homeostatic Control of Homeostatic Control of
Metabolic HormonesMetabolic Hormones
Gigantism is caused by Gigantism is caused by hypersecretion of GH during hypersecretion of GH during childhoodchildhood
Gigantism - individual exhibits Gigantism - individual exhibits abnormally long growth in the abnormally long growth in the length of boneslength of bones
Imbalances in the Imbalances in the Homeostatic Control of Homeostatic Control of
Metabolic HormonesMetabolic Hormones
Dwarfism is caused by Dwarfism is caused by hyposecretion of GH during hyposecretion of GH during childhoodchildhood
Dwarfism - individual exhibits Dwarfism - individual exhibits abnormally short growth in abnormally short growth in the length of bonesthe length of bones
Imbalances in the Imbalances in the Homeostatic Control of Homeostatic Control of
Metabolic HormonesMetabolic Hormones
Acromegaly is caused by Acromegaly is caused by hypersecretion of GH in adultshypersecretion of GH in adults
Acromegaly - individual Acromegaly - individual exhibits abnormal thickening exhibits abnormal thickening of bones and growth of of bones and growth of connective tissues in the face, connective tissues in the face, hands & feet, changing their hands & feet, changing their appearance appearance
Imbalances in the Imbalances in the Homeostatic Control of Homeostatic Control of
Metabolic HormonesMetabolic Hormones
Diabetes mellitus Diabetes mellitus (Type I & Type II)(Type I & Type II) ~ destruction of pancreatic ~ destruction of pancreatic beta beta cellscells ~ reduced sensitivity of ~ reduced sensitivity of insulin insulin receptors in body cell receptors in body cell membranesmembranes
Imbalances in the Imbalances in the Homeostatic Control of Homeostatic Control of
Metabolic HormonesMetabolic Hormones
Hypoglycemia - low blood Hypoglycemia - low blood glucoseglucose
Hyperglycemia - high blood Hyperglycemia - high blood glucoseglucose