American Views of Iran - Iranian Views of America: Symbolic Estrangement in

Action

William O. BeemanDepartment of Anthropology

University of Minnesota, Twin Cities

Cultural Filters

• All nations have an actual history and a symbolic history, which may differ considerably from each other

• Human relations are also viewed through similar cultural filters

• The United States and Iran view the world—and each other--differently through these filters

INTERPERSONAL FILTERS

Intimacy and distance—Baten/Andarun and Zaher/Birun

ANDARUN/BATEN

Baten and Zaher

Baten/Andarun• Free physical behavior• Intimate language• Reduced ta’arof• Priority on “sincerity”

• Emotional expression• Spiritual • Black or Green

Zaher/Birun• Restricted physicality• Formal language• Increased ta’arof• Emphasis on “zerang” behavior• Restricted Emotionality

• Material • Red

Inside and OutsideGuyand marā ke mei-parastam hastamGuyand marā ‘āref o mastam hastamDar zāher-am negāh besyāri makonKandar bāten chenānke hastam, hastam

They say of me how wine’s great friend I amThey say of me how wise and drunk I amDon’t look too close at my external state

Internally, that which I am, I am Omar Khayyam

Musical performance

Daramad Chahrmezrab Avaz Avaz Taraneh Reng

Baten

“Outside”

“Inside”

HIERARCHY

Dimensions of Different Social status

Balanced Reciprocity

• Both parties practice self-lowering AND other-raising.• In this way, one humbles one’s self and raises the

other. • Since this is mutual, the individuals achieve a degree

of stable equality while preserving respect. • This is an optimal negotiating position for both

individuals. Good bargaining, where everyone enjoys one’s self.

Balanced reciprocity in hierarchy

Party 1 Party 2Other raising

Self Lowering Self Lowering

Persian “to give”کردن لطفکردن مرحمتکردن محبت

دادن

تقدیم کردن

Gift o

r reward

Offerin

g or s

ervi

ce

lotf kardanmarhamat kardanmohabbat kardan

dadan

taqdim kardan

Persian “To say”

Self lowering

Other raising

عرض کردن

فرمودن

گفتن

STASIS

Movement

Separation creates a more “outside” and more polite communication

Ta’arof

• That's right, Taarof for us is a kind of martial arts battle, but with a major difference. It is all about outdoing kindness towards each other. It often ends up with the craftiest winning. But with one very strange difference, the winner loses and the loser wins.

The move

• "Holy shit! I bet he paid for our lunches!" he said.• "No Way!" I said, knowing it was only true.• The waitress returned with the tea, a growing sly

smile on her face, as she must have seen both our mouths. Agape. Farhad was closer and took a shot anyway, knowing it was pointless, "Can you also bring the bill when you get a chance." he said.

• "No need, your friend has already taken care of it." she said, full on smiling now.

The denouement• "Ah Shit!" Fardad said, smiling now.• "That Bastard!" I said, laughing "Agha, don't worry, I swear I will track

him down, find him, and we will buy him such a lunch, even if it kills me."

• "You'd better. Or I will kill you!" Fardad said, biting his lower lip.• So run Behzad run. Because even if you don't stop running, which

you will, we will catch up with you, and when we do, you'll pay for your move, with a lot more than a measly joojeh-kabab. You may have bested the two of us with your mighty and masterful move, clearly you are a Pahlavan worthy of our salute and respect. But know this, we will find you and repay your kindness, with a kind of kindness you can only dream of. You will come to fear our kindness the next time we meet! And it will be soon!

Contrasts with American Discourse

American Discourse

• Suppresses Hierarchy—everyone uses first names• Superiority is achieved, based on merit • Believes that intimacy is reserved for entirely

personal contexts• Distrusts flattery• Distrusts hedging and equivocation (as in avoiding

refusals)• Distrusts excessive generosity with no clear tie to

functionality. Hospitality is bounded

Contrasts

United States• Hierarchy is based on

achievement, economic and physical superiority, and is suppressed

• Intimacy is a hard-won achievement, but available to anyone.

• Negotiation is based on recognized mutual interest

Iran• Hierarchy may be based on

achievement but is inherent in human relations and is always explicit

• Intimacy is a passionate desire but structurally difficult to achieve

• Negotiation is based on cleverness

Iranian filters—Martyrdom

• The Martyrdom of Imam Hossein in Karbala in 680 CE is a “master trope” for Shi’ism and especially in Iran.

• The illegitimate Sunni rulers Mu’awiyeh and Yazid repress the legitimate spiritual authority of Hossein, who is martyred.

• Martyrdom is a continual framework for the interpretation of contemporary Iranian history

The 12 Imams

PoisonedPoisoned

Poisoned Martyred

Poisoned

In occultation since 872 CE

Poisoned

PoisonedPoisonedPoisonedPoisoned

Poisoned

Ta’ziyeh—the ultimate martyrdom

Ta’ziyeh in Cultural terms

• The Sunni rulers in Damascus are hierarchically and materially superior, but are illegitimate because they do not care for those under them

• Imam Hossein and his family are spiritually superior and legitimate because of their willingness to sacrifice themselves for “baten” values

Cultural Truth in Ta’ziyeh

• Demarcation of Baten and Zaher – Use of color– Use of vocal style – Contrast in motives and actions of characters

• Martyrdom is the ultimate triumph of the Baten over the Zaher.

• Ta’ziyeh is likewise the ultimate ritualization of triumph in hierarchy. Imam Hossein is the most abject of heroes, but in his sacrifice, he humiliates the illegitimate rulers and triumphs.

Martyrs of Iran-Iraq War

By the end of the war between 700,000-800,000 Basij volunteers were sent to the front. In 1985 the IRNA put the number of basij at 3 million.

Martyr Murals

Javad Bahonar

Hojatoleslam Mohammad Javad Bahonar (Persian: باهنر 5 ,محمدجوادSeptember 1933 – 30 August 1981) was an Iranian scholar, Shiite theologian and politician who served as the Prime minister of Iran from 15 to 30 August 1981 when he was assassinated by Mujahideen-e Khalq MEK, also known as MKO. He was the first Iranian cleric Prime Minister.

Ayatollah Dr. Seyyed Mohammad Hosseini Beheshti

Ayatollah Dr. Seyyed Mohammad Hosseini Beheshti (Persian: محمدبهشتی was an Iranian (October 24, 1928 - June 28, 1981) ,(حسینی

scholar, writer, jurist and one of the main architects of the constitution of the Islamic Republic in Iran. He was the secretary-general of the Islamic Republic Party, and the head of Iran's judicial system. He was assassinated together with more than seventy members of the Islamic Republic party on June 28, 1981 by the Mujaheddin-e Khalq or MEK.

Neda Agha Soltan in 2009

The United States as Illegitimate Usurper

• Inherits Britain’s role as manipulator of Iran from the 19th Century through World War II

• Overthrow of Mossadeq in 1953• Support of the Shah and repression in his regime• Supporter of Saddam Hussein in the Iran-Iraq War• Fomenter of “regime change” under the Bush

administration• Attempt to destroy Iran’s economy and humiliate

Iran’s technological achievements

APPLYING CULTURAL FILTERS

American Cultural Filters

• The United States was not a world power until after World War II

• Margaret Mead wrote extensively about American feelings of cultural and military inferiority before the war, and the over-the-top bravado shown after the War

• The United States is still trying to prove its superiority in the world. American exceptionalism is embraced proudly by many Americans

American Foreign Policy Models

• 1. The world consists of nation states• 2. The world is organized bilaterally• 3. The world is run by strong men• 4. Power and money are the only important

factors in foreign relations• 5. Negotiations take place between strong-

men leaders of bilaterally-oriented nation states talking about money and power.

Iranian Foreign Policy Models

• 1. The world is complex—Nation States are beside the point.

• 2. Neither East Nor West—the world is definitely not bilateral, but is defined according to specific issues.

• 3. The world is governed by broad-scale forces such as religion and justice

• 4. Power and money are less important than cultural and spiritual values such as justice and legitimacy.

• 5. Negotiations should take place in broad political contexts with a broad group of actors and deal with the preservation of mutually respectful goals rather than material matters.

The Cold War

• The United States conceived of the Soviet Union as a grand enemy

• Virtually all American foreign and military policy was driven by opposition to “Communism” for thirty years—including foreign aid, cultural policy, international reform

• Iran was a major part of the U.S. Strategy to contain the Soviets

Key Events

American Interpretation• Overthrow of Mossadeq as

protection against Soviet incursion and protection of oil resources

• Support of Shah as helping the Iranian people to modernize while protecting American foreign policy interests

Iranian Interpretation • Overthrow of Mossadeq as

illegitimate usurpation of Iranian government

• Support of Shah as indirect control of the Iranian nation by successor to British Empire

Key Events-2

American Interpretation• Iranian Revolution was a

rejection of modernity and Western cooperation

• Hostage crisis was a criminal act

• Support of Hezbollah was an attack on Israel and a support of global terrorism

Iranian Interpretation• Iranian Revolution was a

purge of corruption and illegitimacy

• Hostage crisis was a defense of Iranian sovereignty

• Support of Hezbollah was aimed at helping Shi’a Muslims defend their community

Key Events-3

American Interpretation• Iran’s nuclear program is

designed to manufacture an atom bomb

• Economic sanctions are designed to force Iran to give up its nuclear program

Iranian Interpretation• Iran’s nuclear program is

designed to provide peaceful nuclear energy through a 40 year effort and demonstrate its technological prowess.

• Economic sanctions are yet another attempt to control its government

Other factors

• Estrangement prevents deeper understanding of cultural dynamics for both nations

• The merging of U.S.-Israeli relations and U.S.-Iranian relations under the Bush administration has added another level of complexity

• International media culture has magnified both positive and negative interpretations for both Iran and the United States.