Post on 19-Jul-2020
A CASE FOR THE INCLUSION OF EDUCATIONAL
GERONTOLOGY IN ADULT EDUCATION PROGRAMS IN
AUSTRALIAN UNIVERSITIES
by
CAROL ANNE (CAPPY) ENGELBRECHT
M. Ed (Ad Voc Ed), B. Ed (APD), Dip. Ed.
A thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements of the degree of
Doctor of Philosophy
School of Learning and Professional Studies
Faculty of Education
QUEENSLAND UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY
2008
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Keywords
Adult education; educational gerontology; ageing; social gerontology; older adults;
geragogy; older workers; age management; gerontology.
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Abstract
A case for the inclusion of educational gerontology in adult education programs
in Australian Universities.
At the intersection of adult education and social gerontology, and propelled by the
ageing phenomenon, educational gerontology has a critical place in the study of older
adult education. To contend with older learners’ needs, professional adult educators
require an enhanced preparation, and concomitance to a reinvigoration of current
adult learning programs to include the constructs of educational gerontology and the
geragogical imperative. Through survey and interviews, this research investigated
evidence of, and the capacity for, Australian Adult Education programs and Ageing
Research centres to meet this requirement. Results of this case study indicate a
paucity of evidence of educational gerontology in adult education programs, coupled
with significant potential for capacity development in this field through collaboration
with Ageing Research initiatives. The findings suggest an expansion of current
curriculum in adult education programs to include aspects of educational
gerontology, professional development of Adult Education academics in the
specialized area of educational gerontology, and broader adult education engagement
with external stakeholders and the ageing research community as a contribution to
social betterment.
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Acronyms ACE Adult and Community Education
AGHE Association for Gerontology in Higher Education
AMT Age Management Training
CAPS Centre for Ageing and Pastoral Studies
COTA Council of the Aged
DEST Department of Education, Science and Training
DEWR Department of Employment and Workplace Relations
HRD Human Resource Development
NARI National Ageing Research Institute
OECD Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development
OWLS Older Workers and Learners
RTO Registered Training Organisation
TAFE Technical and Further Education
VET Vocational Education and Training
WLP Workplace Learning & Performance Practitioners
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Table of Contents
Chapter 1 Background to the Study 1
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 The Australian Response to an Ageing Population 2
1.3 Focus on Later Life Adult Education 7
1.4 Purpose of the Study 9
1.5 Research Questions 9
1.6 Significance of the Study 10
1.7 Limitations of the Study 12
1.8 Structure of the Thesis 12
Chapter 2 Review of the Literature 13
2.1 Organisation of this Literature Review 13
2.2 Introduction 14
2.3 The Socio-political Context of an Ageing Australia 14
2.4 Social Theories of Ageing 17
2.5 Ageing and the Australian Workforce 20
2.5.1 Transitions to Retirement 23
2.5.2 Ageing and Organisational Learning and Development 26
2.6 Ageing and Australian Post-compulsory Education 30
2.6.1 The Preparation of Adult Learning Practitioners for an Ageing Society 31
Vocational Education and Training (VET) 31 Universities 35
2.6.2 Summary: Education and Training Challenges of an Ageing Australian Population 41
2.7 Towards a Solution: The Preparation of Adult Learning Practitioners for an Ageing Population 42
2.7.1 Adult Education and the Older Adult Learner 44
2.7.2 Lifelong Learning 49
2.7.3 Life Course Theory 50
2.7.4 Geragogy 52
2.7.5 Widening Perspectives of Older Adult Education 55
2.8 Framework of Educational Gerontology 56
2.8.1 Introduction 56
2.8.2 Model of Educational Gerontology 59
2.9 Summary of Literature Review 62
Chapter 3 Research Design and Methodology 66
3.1 Introduction 66
3.2 Rationale 66
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3.3 Research Setting 68
3.4 Research Participants 73
3.4.1 Participation 74
3.5 Procedure 76
3.6 Questionnaire Instrument 77
3.7 Conceptual Basis of the Questionnaire Items 78
3.7.1 Survey Questions 82
3.7.2 Data Collection 83
3.7.3 Units of Measurement 84
3.7.4 Telephone Interviews 85
3.7.5 Transcription 86
3.7.6 Analysis 87
3.7.7 Coding 87
3.7.8 Triangulation 88
3.7.9 Trustworthiness 90
3.7.10 Presentation of Results 90
3.8 Limitations of the Design 90
3.9 Summary 92
Chapter 4 Results and Interpretation 94
4.1 Introduction and Structure of this Chapter 94
4.2 Results and Interpretation Framework 95
PART ONE 97
4.3 Demographic Results 97
PART TWO 101
4.4 Evidence of Educational Gerontology 101
PART THREE 121
4.5 Capacity for Educational Gerontology 121
PART FOUR 149
4.6 Key Findings 149
4.6.1 Evidence of Educational Gerontology 149
4.6.2 Capacity for Educational Gerontology 150
4.6.3 Educational Gerontology Curriculum 150
Chapter 5 Discussion, Conclusion and Recommendations 152
5.1 Introduction and Structure of this Chapter 152
5.2 Conceptual Framework 153
5.3 Key Findings 156
5.4 Discussion 156
5.4.1 Evidence of Educational Gerontology 156
5.4.2 Summary 167
5.4.3 Capacity for Educational Gerontology 169
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5.4.4 Summary 180
5.5 The Wider Context 181
5.6 Advancing Educational Gerontology Curriculum 184
5.7 Conclusions 188
5.8 Significance of the Findings 190
5.8.1 Limitations of the Research 192
5.8.2 Recommendations for Future Work 193
References 195
List of Tables
Table 2.1 Education and Training Challenges of an Ageing Australian
Population 42
Table 3.1 Education Schools/Faculties offering Adult Education Programs 68
Table 3.2 Australian Ageing Research centres 69
Table 3.3 Adult Education program response rate to survey and interview 76
Table 3.4 List of Participating Australian Ageing Research Centres by State 76
Table 3.5 Conceptual Basis of Survey Items Investigating Educational
Gerontology 80
Table 4.1 Range of Research Foci 98
Table 4.2 Perceived Benefits to Collaboration with Ageing Research Centres 145
Table 4.3 Perceived Benefits to Collaboration with Adult Education Programs 145
List of Figures
Figure 2.1 Proposed Dimensions of Educational Gerontology in Australian
Higher Education 60
Figure 3.1 Proposed Dimensions of Educational Gerontology in Australian
Higher Education 70
Figure 3.2 Rate of Response by Research Location 75
Figure 4.1 Proposed Dimensions of Educational Gerontology in Australian
Higher Education 96
Figure 4.2 Primary Research Focus of Ageing Research Centres 99
Figure 4.3 Purpose of Ageing Research University Affiliation 100
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Figure 4.4 Level of Familiarity of Adult Education Academic with
Educational Gerontology 140
Figure 4.5 Level of Familiarity of Ageing Research Centre Director with
Educational Gerontology 140
Figure 5.1 Effects of Demographic Change on Education and Training to and
for the Older Adult 154
Figure 5.2 The Contribution of University Adult Education towards Education
to and for the Older Adult 155
Appendices
Appendix 1: Project introductory correspondence 210
Appendix 2: Research Protocols 211
Appendix 3: Consent Form 212
Appendix 4 (a): Sample Survey Instrument/Ageing Research Centre 213
Appendix 4 (b): Sample Survey Instrument/Faculty of Education 216
Appendix 5: Research Sample: Australian Ageing Research Centres 220
Appendix 6: Research Sample/Adult Education 222
Appendix 7: Sample NVivo Interview Transcript and Coding 223
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Statement of Original Authorship
The work contained in this thesis has not been previously submitted to meet
requirements for an award at this or any other higher education institution. To the
best of my knowledge and belief, the thesis contains no material previously
published or written by another person except where due reference is made.
Signature: …………………………………………………………………
Date: ……………………..27 July 2008…………………………………
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Acknowledgements
It is important to acknowledge that this doctoral study would not have been possible
without the ongoing emotional support and encouragement from my family, Johan,
Shilo and Romy, and my friends Marietjie, Chris, Liz, Richard and Elham. At the
theoretical level, I would like to thank Dr Tricia Fox for her initial direction, and
Professor Hitendra Pillay for providing highly effective strategic support and
supervision in the latter stages of this study. The Queensland University of
Technology’s Centre for Learning Innovation, led by Professor Carmel Diezmann,
provided significant administrative support throughout my candidature, and this is
gratefully acknowledged. I would also like to thank the participating Adult Education
Faculties and Ageing Research Centres for their contribution to my research.
This thesis is dedicated to Michael John Phillips: seafarer, judoka, optometrist,
inventor and father; and to his unwavering refusal to become old.
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Chapter 1 Background to the Study 1.1 Introduction
For much of human history demographic patterns have been fairly stable,
characterised by slow population growth and small changes in age structures, birth
rates and death rates (Bloom & Canning, 2006). Even periodic epidemics and
pandemics have had little bearing on population trends. Over the last 140 years
however, a demographic upheaval attributed to a combination of a reduction of
fertility rates and an increase in lifespan due to improved health, has occurred.
Falling fertility rates have a direct effect on the ability of a population to regenerate,
and this has been exacerbated by women giving birth at a later age (Ilmarinen, 2005)
and the lifestyle choices of one-or two-children families. Consequently, the balance
in population has shifted from young to old. For example, the median age in
Australia is expected to reach 46 years by 2051 (Access Economics, 2001) and at the
same time, one in every 5 people in the United States of America (USA) will be over
the age of 65 years (Gardyn, 2000), while China will have one-third of its population
aged over 60. Population ageing is therefore a global phenomenon for which both
developed and less developed countries are formulating and developing strategies for
survival (Ilmarinen, 2005, p. 17).
In tandem with the ageing population, the extended lifespan has been
accompanied by an increase in the number of years that people have with good
functional and unrestricted capacity, with resource implications for the worker-
dependant ratio (the number of workers in a family relative to their dependants), and
economic prosperity (Bloom & Canning, 2006). These authors admit that while the
economic implications of this phenomenon are undeniable, there are additional
lifecycle dimensions to demographic change such as educational activities,
retirement patterns, and savings decisions which will alter as the ratio of workers to
dependants also changes. Adult education specialists working within the theory of
educating older adult learners could help ensure that older learners make use of
opportunities that different life situations, such as transitions to retirement, or career
changes can offer (Schneider, 2003). Therefore, to address the predicted education
and training needs associated with an ageing demographic, this study introduces the
specialist area of study known as educational gerontology as a potential support
mechanism for the holistic development of older adults as individuals and as ongoing
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participants in workplaces, institutions and communities. To identify Australia’s
readiness for accommodating a specialised form of older adult education known as
educational gerontology, this study examines whether Australian universities have
the potential for, and capacity to, apply educational gerontology constructs through
established adult education programs.
1.2 The Australian Response to an Ageing Population
The political response to the ageing Australian population includes the “National
Strategy for an Ageing Australia” issued by the Department of Health and Ageing
(2002), and the Productivity Commission’s (2005) report “Economic Implications of
an Ageing Australia.” From an economic perspective, reports have been published to
prepare entrepreneurs in the retail and leisure industry sectors for the older
consumer’s “silver dollar” (Access Economics, 2001). For business, scope for more
flexible working arrangements for older workers has been provided in the 1996
Australian Workplace Relations Act and applied by the Department of Employment
and Workplace Relations (DEWR). The 2004-2005 federal budget allocated $12.1
million dollars to support the Mature Age Employment and Workplace Strategy,
designed to increase workforce participation by mature aged Australians and
addresses both labour supply and employer demand (Department of Employment and
Workplace Relations [DEWR], 2007).
Concepts of “old” have become more significant as life expectancy increases
alongside work participation. Age cohorts used in the forthcoming Australian Bureau
of Statistics Census Thematic “Ageing In Australia” (ABS Cat No 2048.0: due for
release in 2008) will include revised age classifications with “younger old”
representing persons aged 65-74 years, and the “very old” as those aged 85 years and
over. Persons aged over 75 years are classified in the “old” group. The “younger
old” classification dovetails neatly with the Australian pension age of 60 years,
which has been amended in recognition of the potential role that post-retirement
people might play in contributing to the economy (Australian Bureau of Statistics
[ABS], 2003).
The National Reform Agenda formulated for meeting predicted Australian
skill shortages, has resulted in government reports such as “Skilling Australia – New
Directions for Vocational Education and Training” issued by the Department of
Education, Science and Training (Department of Education, Science and Training
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[DEST], 2005) which was supported by the 2005-2006 federal budget in a policy
document titled “Backing Australia’s Skills: Reinvigorating the Vocational Training
and Education System.” While this publication is developed for a generalised
audience, the $1 billion directed to initiatives in career education, training for skills
excellence, scholarships, residential support, and support for general workplace
preparation (Choy, Haukka & Keyes, 2006) will inevitably have some spin-off
benefits for the “younger old”’ Australian who might experience career transitions,
or a return to work after retrenchment or retirement. For the adult education sector,
Adult Learning Australia published a policy briefing paper titled “Adult learning and
Australia’s ageing population” (McIntyre, 2005), which synthesises these varied
policies and translates them into a formula for older adult learners. McIntyre states:
The educational component of this policy meshes with other political agendas
for change to industrial relations law, retirement and superannuation policies,
welfare-to-work reform and the role of employment services and changed
Federal-State arrangements for the funding of vocational education and
training. (p. 7)
Demographic data supports the prediction that increasing numbers of older
people will require education and training in a wide range of content areas, to enable
them to enjoy a full and active life (Calder, 1993). The National Ageing Research
Institute (NARI) defines active ageing as “a process of optimising opportunities for
physical, social and mental wellbeing throughout the life course in order to extend
life expectancy” (p. 7).
Field and Leicester (2000) set a significant benchmark in respect of education
for the older person, by contending that adult and lifelong learning are fundamental
to successful ageing. Moving from active ageing, NARI defines successful ageing as
“one’s ability to maintain a physically healthy state, mental and physical functioning
and social engagement” (p. 7).
Ilmarinen (2005) asserts that the ageing population will require many
professional services, and these may have to be staffed by older people themselves
for others in their age group. Similarly, academics in higher education will need to
be prepared for a changing student profile as greater numbers of older adult students
participate in education. From a different perspective, undergraduate students will
need specific preparation for an ageing population, particularly those who will be
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working in the social and health sciences, as new graduates will in turn require skills
in managing older clients (Glista & Petersons, 2003). In the private sector,
workplace trainers, supervisors and managers will require skills in working with
older adults, older workers, and older learners. This is especially relevant in
situations where aged-specific cognitive and instructional strategies apply, and where
training interventions might be daunting for the older individual as they encounter
technological advancements and other workplace changes. This situation is not
limited to vocationally-oriented learning. As Chappell, Hawke, Rhodes and Solomon
(2003) note, the ordinary citizen can also benefit through skilful presentation and
design of community education projects, with the added benefit of reducing negative
stereotyping and ageism in society. Training quality for older learners is a critical
issue in light of the increasing skill shortages emerging both nationally and
internationally (Jorgensen, 2004); and if not advanced, the combination of these two
factors has the potential to derail the government’s Mature Age Employment and
Workplace Strategy (DEWR, 2007).
The impact of an “Ageing Australia” policy document which highlights the
current and potential increase in numbers pursuing training and education is negated
to a significant extent by a paucity of evidence of a specific policy framework for
establishing education and training standards relevant to older Australian learners,
irrespective of their learning setting. It appears that there exists a lack of coincident
policy directive to establish professional benchmarks for older adult learning within
agencies responsible for a variety of Australian learners. The current adult learning
policies are targeted at the younger adults with little regard for older adults who,
while being adults, are a very different cohort (Settersten, 2003). These shortcomings
allow for an assertion that despite strategies promoting healthy, successful or active
ageing, there is currently a lack of fluency in translating these policies into quality
standards relevant to the education and training needs of older people. In a report
commissioned by the now defunct Australian National Training Authority
(Australian National Training Authority [ANTA], n.d.), it was revealed that there
was no specific accreditation for providers of training to older people, nor was there
an established standard for good practice of training older workers (Cameron, 2004).
Some broader practice standards are beginning to emerge, with accredited workplace
trainers offered the opportunity to attend one-day seminars on Age Management
developed by the Department of Employment and Workplace Relations; private
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sector seminars offered by management consulting firms such as the Australian
Institute of Management (AIM); and mature-age workplace and employment services
offered through private organisations. Training quality issues are exacerbated by
inconsistencies in recognition of prior learning practices which are problematic for
older learners with diverse experiences (Fox, 2005; Gelade, Batts & Gerber, 2003).
It could be argued that there is a causal link between training quality standards and
the low older adult training participation rate in Australia, as education and training
participation rates fall dramatically for the individual who is aged 54 and older
(Chappell, Hawke et al., 2003). As a result of this biased approach towards younger
adults, older adults are denied the opportunity for a third age of learning, in which
fuller autonomy and self-fulfillment is possible due to the relinquishment of the
pressure of family and as career obligations ease (Findsen, 2003). This bias also
obfuscates one of the principal outcomes in the Commonwealth Government’s
National Strategy for an Ageing Australia, namely the “achievement of independence
and self-provision” (Department of Health and Ageing, 2002, p. 3). The current
approach suggests firstly that achieving independence and self-provision is the
domain of younger adults, and secondly that these objectives are achievable solely
through productivity-driven approaches.
The role of education and training quality gains further significance when
seen in the context of lifelong learning in which learning is seen as encouraging
education for citizenship (political); encouraging wider participation (social);
emphasising education’s relevance to economic prosperity (vocational); and
recognising the importance of self-determination and personal development (liberal)
(Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development [OECD], 2004). Given
that our life course consists of “multiple learning points as we age” (Settersten,
2003), lifelong learning is integral to successful and active ageing.
Australian universities are irrevocably linked to the ageing phenomenon due
to their recognition of lifelong learning and their role as social change agent
(Anderson, 1999). Reasoning behind this statement is that education faculties within
Australian universities who provide adult education programs have the infrastructure
to systematically prepare for the older population from the existing platform of adult
education. Appreciating that adult learning draws from several fields ranging from
adult basic education, to human resource development, and from educational
gerontology to continuing professional education (Merriam, 2004), higher education
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is a suitable conduit to achieving professional skills required by each of these areas.
Theoretically, adult education is based on the facilitation of learning, originally
formulated on Knowles’ (1980) principles of adult learning and subsequently refined
by Brookfield (1986) and Darkenwald and Merriam (1982) which address
motivation, self-direction and content relevance in adult learning. While interest
initially centered on the humanist goals of personal growth and self-development in
adult learning, more recently it has shifted away from the individual, to focus on the
socio-political context of adult education, where according to Merriam (2004)
assumptions about the conditions that shape the learning context are critically
questioned. Merriam (2004) states that, in a critical orientation to adult learning,
“diversity is acknowledged, the status quo is challenged, inclusion is a goal, and
emancipation from oppressive social structures makes possible a context in which
learning can thrive” (p. 213).
Clearly adult learning is a rich and complex field, and with emerging issues
of “global perspectives of spirituality in the service of protecting our planet”
(Merriam, 2004, p. 215), it is drawing attention to the interconnectedness of
humanity and the spiritual in learning experiences. It is possible that this perspective
might incorporate (and re-emphasise) one specific adult learning theory for learning
in later life: transformational learning (Mezirow, 1981) leading to self-actualisation.
This is because Merriam (2004) describes transformational learning as the mental
construction of experience, inner meaning and reflection. Recent research into the
older adult learners’ search for ontological and existential meaning indicates that
reflexivity enables learners to “devise answers that help shape the experience and
influence important milestones” (Russell, 2007, p. 364). Mezirow (cited in Russell,
2007) believes that transformational learning takes place with a combination of
factors that can include “trigger events or disorienting experiences that can be sudden
or occur over time, engagement with other people for the purposes of confirmation
and affirmation, and a change in perspective” (p. 366).
An example of a trigger event is retirement, because this experience is
acknowledged as a significant marker of one’s life course (Walker, 1996). However,
the challenge of confronting one’s mortality while transitioning out of highly-
delineated social roles such as employment has the potential to erode self-worth
(Tougas, Lagace, De La Sablonneire & Kocum, 2004), impacting on the affective
domain of any future adult learning that might be undertaken. This domain includes
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emotions, feelings, values and senses (Russell, 2007) and makes the experience
unique to each learner. Given that the socio-cultural context is vital to understanding
the lived experiences of adult learners, the relevance of multidisciplinary concepts to
learning later in life is starting to strengthen, necessitating an extension of established
adult education programs to adequately respond to an ageing demographic.
1.3 Focus on Later Life Adult Education
The required focus on later life learners necessitates a convergence of pedagogical,
philosophical, physiological and sociological domains. Specifically, an extension of
adult education for later life Australians will require wider interdisciplinary input,
and an orientation that takes into account both the biological condition of the ageing
learner, the sociological issues (setting, context, relationships) in which the learning
occurs, and the psychological framework of the older individual. This integrated
approach is termed as a biopsychosocial orientation (Whitbourne, 2001). Much of
the new knowledge on the adult learner already comes from multi-disciplinary fields
within and beyond education and include: educational anthropology, educational
psychology, educational gerontology, industrial psychology, sociology, training and
women’s studies (Moseley & Dessinger, 2007). For later life learners however, this
does not go far enough in providing a more robust platform for developing/
maintaining learning capacities, and generating advocacy for a more specialised
educational appreciation based on geragogy, which is the process of teaching older
adults (John, 1988). Accumulated personal experience, social class, gender, ethnicity,
geographical location and ability (Findsen, 2003) affects older adults in much the
same ways as these issues affect younger adults. However, it is argued that where
these factors are juxtaposed with physical changes, self-identity erosion and
changing social roles, the impact of rapidly changing contexts and workplace settings
(Hodkinson, Ford, Hawthorn & Hodkinson, 2007) and the impending end of life, this
combination of factors warrants specific educational appreciation for the older adult.
Appreciating that the emphasis on cumulative advantage does not in itself create
difference between older adults and adults, Settersten (2003), provides several
commonalities of old age that sets this cohort apart from general adults. These
include:
� The presence of normative decline in physical and cognitive capacities;
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� Increased prospects of health conditions and the resulting concern reflected in
individuals’ self-definitions;
� Diminishing time left to live and the need to contend with one’s mortality;
� Bereavement associated with deaths of parents, spouses and friends;
� More restricted but intense social relationships and networks;
� Being perceived or treated by others in ageist ways;
� Increased interiority, desire for integrity, and search for meaning in life; and
� Greater acceptance of things that cannot be controlled in life, coupled with
greater fear of losing control over one’s life (p. 175).
Educational gerontology consolidates the concept of difference of older
people by supporting engagement specifically with older adult learners (Engelbrecht,
2006; Findsen, 2003). This is due to the fact that educational gerontology is
concerned with learning beyond andragogy (adult learning), and focuses specifically
on the process of geragogy in which the processes of older adult learning are the
focus. Geragogy is about encompassing the strategies employed in teaching older
adults (Formosa, 2002), and is premised on the fact that as one ages, the power-load
margin shifts in response to altering physical, social, mental, economic and personal
skill levels and the load factors such as career and self-concept experienced in later
life (Hiemstra, 2002). It is an approach supplemented by the biopsychosocial
framework of social gerontology (Walker, 1996) which is concerned with the social
policy implications of demographic change (Powell, 2001). Moreover, it views the
individual learner in their unique social, emotional and intellectual context (Withnall
& Percy, 1994). Specifically, educational gerontology is concerned with the study
and practise of instructional endeavours for a general or specific public about ageing
and older people (Glendenning, 2001). It is applied through education for older
adults exclusively, through public education about ageing, and through the education
of professionals and paraprofessionals in the field of ageing (Berdes, Zych &
Dawson, 1992). Educational gerontology has three distinct, yet inter-related aspects:
� educational activities about ageing and older people (gerontology) to a wider
public;
� educational activities (programs) designed for persons 45 years and older; and
� educational preparation for those intending to work in professional or
paraprofessional capacities within the aged sector (Walker, 1996, p. 9).
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1.4 Purpose of the Study
The impact of an Australian ageing population and the contribution of the study of
educational gerontology in meeting social issues associated with the changing
demographic provided the impetus for this study. It has been noted that there is no
specific policy framework for accommodating training concepts and processes
specific to older adult learners. As an initial strategy to address this shortcoming, the
purpose of this research is to examine activities in Australian university Adult
Education programs and Ageing Research Centres to determine whether
complementarities exists between the two entities in terms of adult education
knowledge and how this extends to gerontology content knowledge. This information
is considered vital for capacity-building to meet the learning needs of older
Australians. Details of the study will not only examine the nexus between the two
disciplines of adult education and gerontology gleaned from the Centres of Ageing
Research and Australia adult education academics, but will also analyse the
feasibility of specialized study in educational gerontology.
1.5 Research Questions
Despite the existence of Education Faculties offering adult education programs and
university-affiliated Ageing Research centres that focus exclusively on the aged
sector, it is not clear whether traditional adult education programs articulate with
these centres in any way, or whether their programs translate into the paradigm of
educational gerontology. This is an important issue, as the literature suggests that
these two university domains are potentially essential stakeholders in the learning
and development of older adults. Also, in the context of workplace skill shortages,
social imperatives associated with successful ageing, moral sensitivities linked to
equity and active citizenship, and the overarching humanistic orientation of this
study, this research is both valuable and timely for examining the need for the
professional development of those working with older learners. As a result the
research questions in this study include:
� What evidence of the practice of educational gerontology exists in Australian
university Adult Education programs and Ageing Research Centres?
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� What capacity exists in these two disciplinary domains for the application of
educational gerontology principles?
� What elements of educational gerontology are required for the development of
curriculum content that extends current adult learning concepts for those
preparing to work in the aged sector?
1.6 Significance of the Study
Considering the rapidly changing demographic indicating an ageing population
(OECD, 2004), this study is timely and significant. Globally, governments are
making large investments in addressing the perceive risk to labour shortage but the
same cannot be said about the investment in education relative to social and
wellbeing issues of older adults. Details and information from this research will
inform greater understanding of the demographic imperative to improve the learning
experiences and opportunities of the older person in Australia, consistent with Field
and Leicester’s (2000) assertion that adult and lifelong learning are regarded as
fundamental to successful ageing. Reaching an older age does not mean the end of
growth, a view reiterated by Settersten (2003) when he states that “the lives of old
people share the unfinished quality of never being or feeling fully made, of still being
conditioned by longings and strivings, even – or especially – in the face of a more
limited time horizon” (p. 176).
This study also extends the understanding of the educational needs and
processes to support older adult learners. There has been a rapid expansion of
knowledge about ageing, and dissemination of this information is necessary to
prepare and update those currently working in the aged sector (Glista & Petersons,
2003). From an educational perspective, growing interdisciplinary knowledge about
older learners from gerontology, sociology and education, necessitates more
integrated programs about older adult learners’ development for utilization in
curriculum content and design. In addition, incorporating geragogical strategies into
current practices has the potential to improve quality standards in the professional
preparation of those entering the older adult learning and community sectors,
including those from other faculties. Geragogical strategies include those proposed
by Formosa (2002) as a process specifically committed to the transformation of
ageism, to the encouragement of empowerment through education, and which
A Case for Educational Gerontology in Adult Education
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embraces non-traditional classroom techniques such as Socratic dialogue, structured
reminiscence and critical expression, in fostering empowerment in the older adult
learner or worker. A deeper understanding of the older adult learner will also be of
benefit to academics as the profile of students enrolled in university programs alters
to reflect population age changes.
The multidisciplinary nature of educational gerontology, drawn from
sociology, gerontology and andragogy, enables this study to encourage greater
collaboration across disciplines capable of producing a rich body of synthesised
knowledge. The results of this study will contribute to developing an informed view
of ageism, a situation in which older citizens are stereotyped and disadvantaged on
the basis of chronological age (T.D Nelson, 2002), by advocating for a specialised
approach to the development of older adults as contributing members of society.
With an overarching goal of empowerment for the older adult, this research will
assist in negating prevailing declinist and disengagement theoretical models of old
age (Powell, 2001; Thomas, 2004) and encourage academics and practitioners to
adopt an active ageing perspective. Results of the study can identify practical
education and training solutions to meeting economic demands particularly where
older Australians in the 45 to 65 years and older age bracket are expected to return
to, or remain in, work in greater numbers (ABS, 2003). For example, in a report on
training disadvantaged older workers (classified by Gelade et al. (2003) as being over
the age of 45, and employed for at least two weeks in their lifetime due to various
challenges) have enormous potential for learning. They state that “older people have
skills that are not recognised as transferable, but effective training can draw out such
skills and relate them to new learning” (p. 22).
Interest in the development of older adult workers has increased due to the
need to offset the skills shortage and declining numbers of younger employees, a
situation likely to increase the need for workplace re-training for the older employee
(Sheen, 2003) and considered a vital component in stabilising the economy
(Jorgensen, 2004). Finally, this study will advance educational gerontology as a
specialised extension to the education of older adults, leading to further research into
the potential applications of this area in the public arena.
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1.7 Limitations of the Study
This research is limited to Australian universities that provide Adult Education
programs and to University-affiliated centres focused on Ageing Research. The
findings will therefore be subject to the influences, policies, regulations, personnel
and political context of universities as organisations intent on both research and
teaching. Consequently, the insights and findings will only be applicable to
organisational units who participated in this study.
Limitation is also acknowledged in the methodology undertaken for this
research in that, while interview and surveys yield timely and rich data, the logistics
of accessing participants located across Australia was challenging requiring the
adoption of telephone interviews. The researcher acknowledges that the reliance on
telephonic communication, through which the nuances of administrative culture and
behavioural signals may be overlooked, has the potential to distort meaning. To
mitigate this limitation, the researcher triangulated the survey data with the interview
responses to increase its conformity.
1.8 Structure of the Thesis
Chapter two contains a review of the literature related to the socio-political setting of
an ageing Australian population, and a consideration of particular educational aspects
relevant to and for older adults. This chapter also introduces a model of the specialist
area of educational gerontology as a proposed solution to the educational challenges
identified, together with a template of typical activities associated with the practical
application of this field. Through a synthesis of the literature on educational
gerontology, the proposed model and template, the chapter concludes with a
formulation of three research questions.
Chapter three describes the design of the research, including sampling,
development of the data collection methods, and analytical framework.
Chapter four presents the results of the surveys and interviews in a tabular
format to enable comparison across both types of research settings, according to each
individual element associated with educational gerontology, and cross-referenced to
each of the research questions.
Chapter five contains a discussion of the findings, leading to the presentation
of the conclusions, limitations of the study and opportunities for further research.
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Chapter 2 Review of the Literature
2.1 Organisation of this Literature Review
To adequately address the complexity of issues associated with the development of
educational gerontology curriculum awareness and inclusion, it is necessary to
analyse concepts from a variety of perspectives, emanating from social, educational
and institutional domains. Brady (1990) describes this as a situational analysis, a
process in which both internal and external factors are analysed to determine
justification for curriculum innovations and to determine where new content might
rest. Internal factors include the abilities and aptitudes of individuals, the particular
values, strengths and capacities of the educators, the political ethos, structure and
relationships of the education institutions, material resources, and perceived
shortcomings in the existing curriculum (Brady, 1990). External factors affecting
innovative curriculum include cultural, political and social changes and expectations,
changing educational systems and policies, the changing nature of the subject matter,
the potential contribution by institutions, and flow of resources (Brady, 1990). This
review of literature is organised around the theme of situational analysis.
Firstly, the literature review provides an overview of the Australian socio-
political context within which an educational gerontology initiative might reside,
including coverage of recent policy documents, research reports and legislation
pertinent to the ageing demographic. This is followed by a description of established
sociological theories of ageing to provide a link to understanding the concepts
underlying Australia’s political response. From this sociological perspective, the
chapter then analyses emerging workforce issues such as retirement and ageism,
followed by an assessment of potential institutional platforms for the delivery of
educational gerontology programs to address these challenges. Having generated a
potential delivery mechanism, this review then discusses the extension of adult
education theory to include a more specific focus on empowering the older adult
learner, thereby generating a platform for the introduction of educational gerontology
as an innovative area of study and research. These details then set the stage for an
enquiry into Australia’s capacity to embrace such an innovation in response to
significant demographic change.
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2.2 Introduction
This research focuses on older adult learners, a specialised field which is grounded in
the discipline of social gerontology (Withnall & Percy, 1994) and more recently,
applied through practice underpinned by educational gerontology (Engelbrecht,
2006; Merriam, 2004). The overarching concept to this study is that ageing, unlike
previous conceptualizations of it being a purely physiological event, is now viewed
from a biopsychosocial perspective, which comprises a view of development as a
complex interaction of biological, psychosocial and social processes (Whitbourne,
2001). Underpinned by a human development focus, and the implications of
educational challenges associated with successful and active ageing and maintaining
older adults in the workplace, this study is primarily focused on:
� understanding the nature and demand for specialised knowledge and skills
necessary for preparing practitioners intending to work in and for the aged
sector;
� upskilling those who currently hold training and development positions
within industry; and
� developing curriculum for university programs such as workplace training
and development degrees.
2.3 The Socio-political Context of an Ageing Austra lia
An increased awareness of the impact of an ageing Australian population emerged
around 2000 when a range of demographic-based reports were published indicating
that the current Australian population was expected to live almost ten years longer
than similar research indicators from the 1960s (ABS, 2005). In addition, of
particular interest to industry stakeholders, was the prediction that between 1998 and
2016 in Australia, only 20% of the labour force growth would be represented by the
20-44 years old age group. The economic impact of these demographics was
reiterated by findings from the Federal Government Treasurer’s 2002 report The
Intergenerational Report, 2002–2003 (Commonwealth of Australia Federal
Treasurer’s Report, 2002). This report outlined the likely consequences of a
changing age structure in lowering participation in the workforce and thereby
slowing economic growth (McIntyre, 2005, p. 8). More recently, Federal
Government budget allocations for the 2005-2006 financial years were directed to
support the “Skilling Australia” agenda. This is a policy designed to reduce the skills
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deficit and meet industry labour force demands, with the allocation of over $1 billion
dollars to a variety of initiatives addressing skill development. Economic responses
were not the only indicators of the need for a national response to the skills shortage.
Also advanced was the need to increase research and knowledge of the ageing
phenomenon, and it was identified as a major research area. This revised focus can
be evidenced in the increase in Australian Research Council and National Health and
Medical Research council 2004 funding associated with the ageing workforce and is
exemplified in 2005 projects such as the Ageing Well, Ageing Productively Research
theme. These interdisciplinary projects support and reinforce the valuable
contribution that universities might make to the social and economic changes
underway, and which are relevant to an ageing population. Finally, the 2006 Federal
budget introduced sweeping changes to superannuation rules that enable, and
encourage, older workers to pay less tax on retirement if they extend their working
lives to 60 years of age (Commonwealth of Australia, 2006).
Access Economics (2001) stressed the possibility of rising health care
expenditure unless extensions to workforce participation and better utilisation of the
“silver dollar” were implemented. As an outcome of these financial predictions,
strategic document reports were published by the Federal Government in which
specific goals necessary for providing opportunities for, and removing barriers to,
participation in society for older people including older adult workers were stated
(Access Economics, 2001). Some of these reports included the National Strategy for
an Ageing Australia in 2001, which outlined several education and training
requirements for the nation. These include a better-utilised workforce, more
inclusive recruitment practices, an improvement in the general attitudinal approach
of employers towards older employees, more opportunities for training and
professional development of older workers, removal of real and perceived barriers to
social participation, and a general focus on service and infrastructure such as housing
and health care.
In 2003, an address to the Economic and Social Outlook Conference focused
on specific strategies for “Keeping Older Workers in Work” (Bishop, 2003). It noted
that Australia was still lagging behind in the participation rates of mature age
workers despite government policy being introduced to support extended working
lives. This address identified that one out of every three retired members of the
National Seniors Association wanted to return to work in some capacity, indicating a
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Chapter 2 16
rich resource of untapped skills in Australia and reiterated an earlier report by the
ABS that stated that, despite the majority of growth being identified in the older age
brackets, it had been found that the highest rate of job-seeker discouragement was
found to be in the 55-64 age group, particularly from the declining industry sectors
such as manufacturing and mining (ABS, 2003). This report also highlighted
barriers to participation for older workers and the negative outcomes from
employment discouragement for those over 55 years of age, including depression,
loneliness, isolation and illness. This reinforced the linkage between productivity and
good health, with employers urged to integrate health initiatives into Human
Resource practices. Similarly, the link between education and mental health,
longevity, well-being and successful ageing is well documented (Herzog & House,
1991; Mirowski & Ross, 2005; Walker, 1996). In fact, Mirowski and Ross (2005)
assert that
the health-related consequences of education cumulate on many levels, from
the socioeconomic (employment, job quality, earnings, income and wealth)
and behavioural (habits such as smoking and exercising, beliefs such as
perceived control over one’ personal life, personal relationships) to the
physiological (blood pressure, cholesterol levels, aerobic capacity),
anatomical (body fat, joint deterioration, arterial fatty plaque) and perhaps
even intracellular (insulin resistance, free radical damage). (p. 27)
Successful ageing is described in terms usually reflecting the academic
discipline of the investigator, but current definitions often overlap with concepts of
healthy ageing, positive ageing, productive ageing, active ageing and ageing well
(Bowling, 2007, p. 264). In a search of empirical reports on this topic, Bowling
(2007) found that when the studies adopted a social functioning stance, numerous
associations appeared between activity (social and productive), multiple roles and
self-perceived competence, efficacy, better health and functioning, autonomy,
enhanced emotional well-being and life satisfaction in old age (p. 267). Consistent
with this multiplicity of roles, Ilmarinen (2005) introduced the term “worklife,” as an
indicator of a more contemporary integrated view of a person’s daily activities,
where work and learning are acknowledged as consisting of a major part of one’s
social experience. This integrative orientation suggests that, to be an effective
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contributor to the advancement of older adults, the political perspectives on ageing
must be viewed against an understanding of the social theories of ageing.
2.4 Social Theories of Ageing
Understanding the ways in which social theory has influenced our understanding of
ageing over the last thirty years is useful because it enhances our ability to scrutinise
emerging social gerontology theories and provides an insight into the likely
consequences of social policy for older adults (Powell, 2001). It also frames this
research study because social gerontology is naturally multidisciplinary and cuts
across and through human and social sciences, rendering it a principal contributor to
theory surrounding old age (Hooyman & Kiyak, 2002; Whitbourne, 2001).
The first theoretical construct in understanding society’s perspective on
ageing is functionalism, first postulated as a solution in the post war era as an
antidote to the shortage of younger workers in the USA and United Kingdom.
Powerful forces, emanating from the State and applied through a political and
economic conceptual platform, created the notion of an ageing population becoming
a social problem (Powell, 2001) unless society had certain functions to maintain its
well-being. Functions were required in both employment and in one’s personal life,
but these functions were largely politically created for socio-economic reasons.
Walker (2005) while describing this theoretical approach as “accommodating a
growing body of social gerontology research” (p. 816) admits that it neglects the
issues of gender, and “overlooks entirely agency or purposive individual human
action” (p. 816). Functionalism therefore has the potential to homogenise older
adults and makes them “helpless pawns of what were assumed to be inevitable
biological processes” (Walker, 2005), or as Townsend (1981) suggests “acquiescent
functionalism” (p. 6). In such an orientation, the causes of problems with ageing are
“attributed to difficulties in individual adjustment to ageing, retirement or physical
decrescence, all the while acquiescing to the states, the economy and inequality”
(p. 6).
Out of functionalism emerged both disengagement and activity theory, where
older adults were intended to gradually disengage from work roles and prepare for
the ultimate disengagement: death (Powell, 2001). Retirement, or transition as it has
recently been termed, is an illustration of a disengagement process. Walker (1996)
states that retirement is “an event, period and social institution . . . [that comprises a]
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social character and image with which the individual will need to interact, raising
issues of identity, activity, power and purpose” (p. 24). Activity theory is the
counterpoint to disengagement, since it claims a “successful old age can be achieved
by maintaining roles and relationships” (Powell, 2001, p. 2). In the 1950s,
advocating activity was deemed an ethical and academic response to disengagement
and effectively recast retirement as “joyous and mobile” (Powell, 2001, p. 2).
Problems exist with activity theory in that it neglects issues such as power, inequality
and conflict between age groups. For example, this approach might impose on the
older person a choice—to either be active or to disengage—and if activity is chosen
then intergenerational issues might arise as they enter settings dominated by other
age groups, such as in the workplace. Further complications in this typical scenario
arise when factors such as race, class and gender are included (Phillipson & Biggs,
1998) because older adults are not homogenous (Bowling, 2007).
As a further extension of functionalism, a political economy of old age
emerged, in which the capitalist complexity of modern society was used to explain
how old age was constructed to foster the needs of the economy. Unfortunately, this
theoretical line creates a platform for legitimising “burden” groups, particularly
where the concepts such as rising costs of health care, and superannuation shortfalls
are concerned (Powell, 2001). Ironically, the terms “burden” and “asset” increase in
profile when older adult learners are linked to the state of the economy and, as
Phillipson (1998) suggests, in times of economic hardship older adults are regarded
as outcasts not required in the workforce, a view that society conveniently reverses in
times of economic largesse.
Phillipson and Biggs (1998) describe how these political economy
perspectives continued to proliferate in the 1990s, augmented by scholarly
contributions towards a more humanistic perspective. They state that, collectively,
“these intellectual trends may be seen as illustrating the emergence of a critical as
opposed to a traditional gerontology” (p. 12). In critical gerontology, which has
Marxist theoretical origins, an awareness of the structural pressures and constraints
affecting older adults exists, together with concern over the absence of meaning in
their lives. This arose because of work such as that of Townsend (1981) who
identified a “structured dependency that was embedded in institutional ageism” (p.
23), and illustrated through concepts of retirement, pension status, institutional
residences and passive forms of community care. Concerns of this nature generated
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a focus on empowering older adults through the transformation of society, or the
development of new rituals and symbols to facilitate changes through the life course
(Phillipson & Biggs, 1998). Examples of socially-instituted rituals include
education, work, and retirement (Walker, 1996). It is therefore interesting to
consider how, in the light of existing social theories, ageing is being socially
constructed in Australia, how education and training is being marketed to this cohort,
and how closely industry is aligned to current economic and political objectives.
Specifically, it is useful to consider the following current social indicators in
Australia: older adults are being urged to stay in work for longer, in different careers
and in different capacities on a part-time or casual basis “to alleviate skill shortages
and the economic social and political pressures of supporting increasing numbers of
old people” (Lear, 2004, p. 203). The concept of active ageing is being promoted
through policy documents (World Health Organisation, 2002); workplaces are being
populated by increasingly intergenerational teams (Hankin, 2005) in which conflict
and tensions are emerging (Heath, 2006); participation rates in education and training
have been shown to decline dramatically after the age of 55 (OECD, 2004); and for
those in, or wishing to re-enter the workplace, ageism prevails in some areas of
human resource development practices (Encel & Studencki, 2004).
A more popular social theory of ageing has been continuity theory (Bowling,
2007). It holds that people who age successfully are those that carry forward their
values, lifestyles and relationships from middle to later life. According to Atchley
(cited in Bowling, 2007) it is important for the older adults to adjust and adapt to the
challenges of ageing by substituting and redistributing activities. Such a perspective
is consistent with lifespan theory, which suggest that changes occur gradually over
the years and that many psychological and social characteristics are stable across the
lifespan. However, to focus solely on a sociological basis to determine successful
ageing neglects the psychological basis of motivation and self-efficacy, both critical
to developing a sense of personal mastery or empowerment. To address this,
Bowling, (2007) asserts that a developmental model of successful ageing is more
suitable, as it is related to development over the life course. This author states that
six criteria are integral to meeting the challenges in older age. These include
“positive interactions with others; a sense of purpose; autonomy; self-acceptance;
personal growth; and environmental fit” (Bowling, 2007, p. 270). Clearly, this
presents engagement through work as one opportunity to achieve all the criteria
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underpinning successful ageing. However, the ideal model of successful ageing is a
multi-disciplinary one that accommodates a range of sensitivities to life events such
as work and retirement (Bowling, 2007), so it is timely therefore to springboard from
this theoretical stance on successful ageing to analyse some of the workforce issues
associated with an ageing Australia.
2.5 Ageing and the Australian Workforce
There are numerous definitions of an older worker. However, Findsen (2003) states
that “there is no single definition of adult and there is no corresponding argument on
who is an older adult” (p. 1), acknowledging that each culture has its own markers of
determining who is to be labelled “older.” Interestingly, one of the most recent
discussions regarding a definition of older worker is provided by Moseley and
Dessinger (2007) who argue that this definition is expanding. They state that
“research on life and workplace trends, the normal ageing process, and the influence
of perceptions from the workplace all confirm that the age span of Older Workers
and Learners (OWLS) is expanding – OWLS are getting younger and older” (p. 7).
For the purposes of this study, an older worker is 55 years and older, because
this is an age around which crucial decisions regarding the role of paid work and
impending retirement are made, particularly in Western societies, and which signals
transition into older adult. In addition, the largest segment of the global OWL
population is currently aged fifty-five plus (Mosely & Dessinger, 2007) making this
age more significant as a benchmark.
Workers over the age of 65 currently comprise one third of the labour force in
Australia, with higher proportions in the education, agriculture, forestry and fishing,
health and community services, electricity, gas and water supply and storage
industries (ABS, 2005). In another ABS report on older workers and methods of
sustaining the future labour force, it is predicted that the greatest increase in
workforce participation is expected to occur in the female 50 – 59 age group (ABS,
2003), a phenomenon linked to changes to superannuation taxes dependant on
retirement age. While the current focus maybe on 45 years and older, as this aging
phenomenon keeps progressing, this age group will also slide and soon become the
55 plus age bracket.
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Given the objective to extend the working lives of older Australians, Sheen (2003)
from the National Council of The Ageing (COTA) reported on a series of strategic
ageing workshops to determine policies and programs necessary to overcome
barriers to full participation. These barriers included ongoing negative attitudes
towards older workers, poor access to training and education, legal barriers relevant
to discrimination, and financial disincentives. Recommendations from this report
included the establishment of employment services for mature age people, the
establishment of an advocacy body for older workers, the development of education
programs such as “Transition to Work,” and the establishment of stronger links with
employer groups to foster better business practices in regard to Australia’s ageing
workforce (p. 8).
As workers age, there is a reduction in participation in physically demanding
and manual jobs which has been exacerbated by technological advancement (OECD,
2004). This form of redundancy may have precipitated involuntary retirement if
these workers do not have readily transferable skills and education for other
occupations. OECD statistics support this assertion by stating that 40% of older
workers have not completed upper secondary school and only 20% have a tertiary
education (OECD, 2004). Unfortunately, participation rates in education and
training suffer a further decline after the age of 55 (OECD, 2004). Australian
workplace practices are not exempt from this phenomenon, evidenced by the Hudson
report titled “The Ageing Population: Implications for The Australian Workforce”
(Jorgensen, 2004) in which organizational management practices are shown to
require a more sophisticated and inclusive approach to cater for the changing worker
profile. Drawing from the significant contribution of social gerontologist Matilda
White Riley (Riley, Kahn, & Foner, 1994), Findsen (2003) describes this workplace
phenomenon in a sociological framework, referring to it as “structural lag” (p. 3)
where there is a “mismatch or imbalance between the transformation of the ageing
process from birth to death and the role, opportunities or places in the social structure
that could foster and reward people at the various stages of their lives” (p. 3).
Essentially, age structures lag behind changes in people’s lives, resulting in a
dialectic whereby social structures, norms, organisations and institutions have failed
to keep pace with what people actually do in their lives (Findsen, 2003, p. 3).
Seen within the paradigm of productive ageing where education and training
outcomes are linked to economic value, Walker (1996) wrote “issues like updating
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knowledge, retraining for new endeavours, or achievement of untapped potential will
become paramount for some older Australians” (p. 25). This is not to deny the
complementarities between individual productive employment and individual health
and well-being. Clearly, work is considered generally beneficial to overall health.
The nature of the work however needs to be individually appropriate, a finding
supported by Herzog and House (1991) through their research examining the impact
of paid work and retirement on physical and mental health in older workers. They
state that “the more choice people have about whether to work, and the more choice
employed people have about their work schedules, the better will be their physical
and psychological health and well-being” (p. 4).
In essence, Herzog and House (1991) caution over applying a broad
employment-as-activity strategy without consideration of a wider range of issues.
They comment that “it is not just whether older adults are productively active, but
whether they are active at the level and in the form that they would like to be” (p. 4).
During this extended working phase, the older adults are likely to encounter
technology advances, changes in job design, alteration and adaptation to physical and
intellectual capabilities, changes in personal relationships, and will be entering new
social groups and recreational pursuits as the transition to full retirement unfolds
(Walker, 1996). According to Herzog and House (1991), the adaptation strategies
undertaken by older workers
…portray older individuals as actively choosing and adjusting behaviours and
aspirations in order to maintain a sense of competence in a changing
environment and a changing body, and that choices are made in accord with
individual preferences and long-standing orientations. (p. 4)
Clearly, rigid environments in which only certain forms and levels of
productive behaviours are accepted, as retirement approaches, are likely to impair
older worker’s adaptive capabilities, their psychological health, and the process of
ageing well. This raises the question of how transitionary arrangements out of full
time employment and into retirement might facilitate - and support - continuity and
adaptation in the process of ageing successfully.
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2.5.1 Transitions to Retirement
Walker (1996) has suggested that retirement is more subject to change in response to
social forces as it is essentially a socially-created phase of our lives. However,
retirement is no longer characterised by a negative state—an absence of employment.
Rather it is viewed as an evolution “from an event to a transition” (Moseley &
Dessinger, 2007, p. 51), seen as life after full-time work, embracing a more self-
directed focus, and reflected in a diversity of activity limited only by personal
resources (Walker, 1996). Transition employment, which is increasingly being
adopted in Australia, is described as employment leading to or immediately after
official retirement from full-time work (Pillay, Fox, Kelly & Tones, 2006). It may
involve a lifestyle interspersed with periods of leisure and learning, and work
interspersed with periods of flexible working arrangements such as part-time,
seasonal, occasional, and project work (Stein, 2000). Termed “bridge employment”
(Stein, 2000, p. 2) due to its partial retirement mode, it allows older workers to
practice retirement to fill specific labour marker shortages, or to try a variety of
occupational positions. Either way, this dynamic phase involves “education and job
design as a means by which the older segment of the community can enter, re-enter,
and advance in the workplace” (p. 4).
In an Australian study investigating the transitional employment options of
older workers, Pillay, Fox et al. (2006) found that the majority of older workers are
amenable to participating in transitional employment involving part-time work.
Findsen (2003) states that employers however have needed to confront the
idea that older workers do not need (re)training because of the assumption that they
have “less time left with the company, or are less capable of learning” (p. 11),
particularly where it relates to cost benefits of the training investment. Bishop
(2003) states that older workers can be successfully trained and retrained, and this is
supported by empirical findings (Roberson, 2003; Schneider, 2003) which further
disprove this myth. In addition, research by Pillay, Kelly and Tones (2006) indicates
that older workers are less likely to want to retire early, preferring to be trained in
alternative jobs that are possibly less physically demanding. They assert that this
result indicates a preference for training in new work roles rather than participating
in “ongoing training in current jobs some of which are approaching obsolescence”
(p. 301). Critically, this research indicates that older workers are amenable to
change, and express a genuine interest in further learning and job redesign.
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It follows then that Australian workplaces will require the adoption of more
contemporary human resource development (HRD) practices to manage the expected
diversity in post-retirement employees. This is consistent with the view that, in an
ageing population, new work roles will often have to be learnt in post-retirement
(Jarvis, 2001). Moseley and Dessinger (2007) state that workplace learning and
performance practitioners (WLP) need to “maximize the learning and performance
potential of Older Workers and Learners” (p. 11) by expanding education and
training efforts to meet their needs. This is a reiteration of an earlier view of Bishop
(2003) who states that adult and vocational training practices need to adjust to the
changing demographic, with Roberson (2003) in agreement that workplace educators
are required to adapt strategies to meet the needs of older learners in workforce
development.
Some organisations will require a significant shift in attitudes towards older
workers, a view supported by Encel and Studencki (2004) who revealed a high
incidence of workplace ageism and ongoing age discrimination in Human Resources
and recruitment practices across Australia. While research findings from Pillay,
Kelly and Tones (2006) indicate that older Australian workers perceive more
organisational support than younger workers, this finding is limited to public sector
workplaces where competition may be regarded as less fierce than in the private
sector or in small business. It is argued that business competition leads to increased
emphasis on productivity, technological knowledge, and adaptability, and the older
worker may consequently be less attractive to employers in this regard.
Understanding ageism, and its origins, can assist in developing pathways to avoid
this damaging practice.
Ageism
Ageism is defined as “a set of beliefs, attitudes, social institutions, and acts that
denigrate individuals or groups, based on their chronological age” (Whitbourne,
2001, p. 14). Originating from myths and folklore (Thornton, 2002) through
pressure from society in response to significant historical events, and from politics
and the execution of power and control (Powell, 2001), ageism has devastating
consequences for older Australians. Ageist practices produce unfavourable
outcomes and work to displace older people from their communities, and place them
in situations of being undervalued, unproductive, less capable and dependant
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Chapter 2 25
(Palmore, 1998). The prevailing perception of older people is one of unfavourable
comparison to younger people. Tougas, Legace, De La Sablonniere & Kocum,
2004) report on the feeling of discontent experienced when invidious comparisons
are made with younger individuals, and conclude that this experience erodes self-
identity and damages a positive self-concept. Seen from a continuity perspective,
negative experiences in the workforce negatively affect people in their retirement
years, which can exaggerate health problems, loneliness and financial difficulties
(Weaver, 1999). Calder (1993) regards this as a serious obstacle in enabling the vast
potential of human worth to be put to use for individual betterment. Ageism is also
prevalent overseas. Ilmarinen (2005) documents research findings that identify the
contradiction between adult education and worklife in the European Union, where at
the same time that the importance of experience-based knowledge has increased, the
appreciation of the most experienced group of employees has decreased (p. 223). In
contemporary society negative perceptions of older people appear to be reinforced
through policies that stage-manage the withdrawal from productive roles by
extending working lives, through everyday language constructs that portray older
people as feeble or burdensome, and through over-medicalisation of the ageing
process (Thornton, 2002).
From an Australian perspective, Encel and Studencki (2004) confirm from
their research that ageism prevails in workplaces. In investigating older workers
success in the job market, it was found that “mature Australian workers experience
systematic discrimination by employers based on their age . . . [and that there are]
few success stories regarding positive policies to address this situation” (p. 34). Reio
and Sanders-Reio (1999) confirm the challenges inherent in the workplace by
describing the most obvious and serious form of ageism as being in the area of
employment: from hiring and promotions, to firing and compulsory retirement.
While Pillay, Kelly and Tones (2006) have found that Australian older workers in
local governments perceive the existence of organisational support, this study does
not examine employment exits or re-entry experiences of older employees in this
setting. Age discrimination and other barriers associated with entry into the
workforce by older adults are therefore at odds with recent superannuation legislation
that encourages workers to stay employed until reaching the age of 60 by offering tax
incentives. Extended working lives might create increased opportunities for
A Case for Educational Gerontology in Adult Education
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unpleasant experiences for those electing to remain in the workforce. In a personal
communication with this researcher, Olsberg stated:
Australia is a totally youth-oriented society, and lots of the difficulties are
about that focus on the primacy and the value of a youth orientation. At one
level of the spectrum, a denigration of the old, and at the other, an invisibility.
(Personal Communication, 16 September 2006).
Because Bennington (2001) reported a high degree of naivety amongst older
Australian adults regarding age discrimination at the recruitment phase of
employment, education and training is seen as having a vital role to play in preparing
consumers and educators to think differently about ageing (Weaver, 1999); in
retraining, in adjusting to technological change (Powell, 1998), and in reducing
ageism (T.D Nelson, 2002; Thornton, 2002). Seen from this equity perspective, and
given the political emphasis on productivity after traditional retirement patterns, the
role of the organisation in fostering training and development to overcome potential
workplace ageism is therefore becoming more significant. Consequently, exactly
how organisational professionals apply their skills to overcome these workplace
learning and development challenges requires some clarification.
2.5.2 Ageing and Organisational Learning and Develo pment
Human Resource Development (HRD) has been expanding its legitimacy relative to
the fields of adult education, vocational education and management and
organisational sciences (Kuchinke, 2000). Moseley and Dessinger describe those
responsible for workplace learning as “workplace learning and performance
practitioners” (WLP) (p. 12). Regarded as an applied field, the HRD professional has
been described as an “organisational problem-solver, change agent, designer,
empowerer, and developer of human capital” (Kuchinke, 2000, p. 3). Another
description of WLP practitioners includes “manager, analyst, intervention selector,
intervention designer and developer, intervention implementer, change leader, and
evaluator” (Moseley & Dessinger, 2007, p. 12).
Primarily regarded as person-centered, in which the individual’s needs and
goals are emphasised, the activities of the HRD professional have been described as
largely influenced by production-centered forces, where organisational roles require
competence and where performance increases are defined by the organisation
A Case for Educational Gerontology in Adult Education
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(Kuchinke, 2000) in a competitive marketplace. Due to international competition
and the effects of the knowledge economy, Moseley and Dessinger assert that
“training older learners will become a fundamental component of organisational
effectiveness over the next three decades” (p. 11).
Organisations that learn how to train older workers effectively could “stand to
gain a significant competitive advantage over those that ignore these demographic
trends” (Callahan, Kiker & Cross, 2003, p. 664). For organisations concerned with
knowledge management amidst high retirement rates, there is the added imperative
to effectively marshal the accumulated experience of older adults as trainers and
mentors, a skill-harnessing strategy requiring an essential knowledge of older
learners by the workplace practitioner (Findsen, 2003), particularly in the pre-
retirement phase where individual needs have overtaken regular retirement patterns.
As Ilmarinen (2005) states, “turning experience into knowledge and competence,
requires more information about the processes through which experiences create
additional value rather than negative facilitation” (p. 224).
The proliferation of short seminars such as “Age Management” as developed
by Department of Employment and Workplace Relations (DEWR) and offered to
HRD practitioners through agencies such as the Australian Institute of Management
(http://www.aim.com.au) is therefore not surprising.
The economic rationale underpinning HRD activities is rejected by Bierema,
Runona, Watkins, Cseh & Ellinger (2004) who identified a number of myths that
portray HRD professionals as being behaviourally- and performance-focused. Of
these, the myth that “HRD is synonymous with capitalism and human capital theory
exclusively” (p. 21) is of concern, because such an approach has the potential to
further undermine empowering training and development practices more suitable for
older workers and learners. Pillay, Boulton-Lewis and Wilss (2003), in setting the
stage for an investigation into the older employee’s conceptions of work and learning
in the workplace, describe the creation of learning organisations and learning
factories as being indicators of the “new capitalism” (p. 1). The factors inherent in
such a stance include: productivity that is increasingly dependant upon science and
technology; increasing priority on quality of information and management; a shift
from product manufacturing to information processing; a shift from mass production
to adaptable specialisation; increased innovation and adaptation to change; a global
market; and rapid developments in technology (Pillay et al., 2003). In such a fast-
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changing organisational environment, it is argued that productivity-centered training
will continue to dominate as a solution to retaining existing employees due to the
shortage of employment applicants skilled in the new capitalist environment.
However, embedding a “culture of retention” (Moseley & Dessinger, 2007, p. 60) in
the organisation can place obligations on the individual older worker to stay in
employment should they wish to leave. Incumbent HRD and WLP professionals are
therefore facing a tough task to overcome obstacles at individual and organisational
levels as the workforce changes, a view reiterated by Hankin (2005) who reminds us
that future associated challenges include generational diversity and employees with
changing expectations such as personal growth, empowerment and life balance.
Admittedly, HRD and WLP practices encompass more than just training
interventions (Bierema et al., 2004; Moseley & Dessinger, 2007) but it remains
questionable whether more reflective emancipative processes, more suitable to older
workers but that might take longer to complete, would be adopted especially for
older workplace cohorts. This is consistent with the view of Baumgartner, Lee,
Birden and Flowers (2003) who assert that the problems of universality are likely to
be more prominent in HRD and WLP than in generalised adult education settings, as
individualised self-direction and internal motivation are traditionally discouraged
amongst learners from marginalised groups.
Intergenerational learning practices and strategies are also expected to
become critically important with workplace teams comprising diversity in age,
experience and expectations (Hankin, 2005). It must be noted that these challenges
will test traditional management practices as the diversity of the organization
increases, a fact stressed by Ryan Heath (2006) author of “Please just F*off it’s our
turn now: Holding Baby Boomers to Account.” Controversial in its content, the
essential message conveyed in this popularised Australian publication is that young
“twenty-somethings” approach work opportunities in a far more adaptable and
technology-sophisticated way than a “Boomer Manager, who will normally have to
see and grip something to understand it” (Heath, 2006, p. 10). While Heath (2006) is
clearly over-generalising, the publication does reflect a growing tension between
generations in the workplace. Increased tension of this nature was first predicted
during the post war era, particularly where older adults were often regarded as a
social burden (Powell, 2001). This may in fact be exacerbated as older cohorts gain
further political power as the population ages. While training younger and older
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adults together may in some situations be appropriate and beneficial, the instructor
should organise the training beyond the terms of younger people (Ilmarinen, 2005,
p. 226).
Other factors such as job type, job complexity, learning culture, stereotyping
and the construction of meaning by the older adults (Hodkinson et al., 2007) can also
impact on the success of training interventions. The learning context, Hodkinson et
al. (2007) assert, is not just the workplace but “a combination of formal and informal
learning participation and part of a generative social practice” (p. 16). For example,
in a challenge to the universal approach to workplace learning, De Long (2004)
advocates the use of a storytelling technique in “creating the right environment and
mechanisms for sharing knowledge” (p. 101). Considered a natural behaviour, and a
fact of organisational life, he states that “stories can be effective for transferring both
implicit knowledge about how things get done, as well as deeper tacit knowledge that
reflects the values shaping behaviours” (p. 102).
While the risk exists that such processes might be considered unreliable,
especially in the analysis-versus-narrative debate, and may be more time-consuming
in the productive workplace paradigm, De Long (2004) defends this applicability of
the strategy by describing how NASA, IBM and the World Bank have effectively
used the technique, albeit through sophisticated case studies and a high level of
analysis.
The challenges noted in consideration of the older worker and learner can be
mollified by developing skills in those practitioners charged with developing the
older person through training and education. While these practitioners emanate from
various disciplines such as training, human resources, quality, and human
performance technology, Moseley and Dessinger (2007) state that “they are
champions or advocates of learning and performance and masters of practical
workplace-based learning and performance interventions and change strategies”
(p. 12). Achieving such a level of professionalism in workplace learning and
performance practitioners automatically assumes some measure of post-compulsory
qualifications awarded at the institutional level. What is not yet clear, however, is
how these current post-compulsory offerings are aligned with the needs of an ageing
population.
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2.6 Ageing and Australian Post-compulsory Education
Bloom and Canning (2006) assert that lifecycle dimensions to demographic change
will extend to include formal educational activities which will inevitably alter as the
ratio of workers to dependants also changes. This section provides a broad overview
of the existing post-compulsory educational domains available for the development
of knowledge and skills of education and training practitioners relevant to an ageing
population. Withnall and Percy (1994) predicted that “in future we shall need to
develop different perspectives and approaches as successive cohorts of people reach
later adulthood with different life and educational experiences, changing social
values, different priorities and possibly different patterns of behaviour” (p. 22).
Given the demographics indicating that Australia’s population is ageing, it
has been determined that Australia is “suddenly facing a significant people-
development challenge” (Engelbrecht, 2006). Also termed human development, it is
defined here as development of human potential in older adults, through education
and training, irrespective of the setting. It introduces educational activities that are
specific to and for older people and which reflects a convergence of two disciplines:
adult education and gerontology. Collectively, this creates the platform for the
emergence of educational gerontology as a specialised subset of adult education.
With some foresight, Glendenning (2001) predicted the emergence of educational
gerontology as an academic research area focused specifically on education for older
adults, and acknowledged the potential solution this presents to the human
development challenges identified earlier. This view is shared by Weaver (1999)
who considers that education is well placed to respond to social forces associated
with the ageing demographic. Reinforcement of this educational and academic
imperative is provided by Thornton (2002) who states that
…academic and policy studies are seriously needed about education of, and
for, an ageing population, and about change in social institutions to minimize
institutional lag while maximizing sense of community. Studies in
educational gerontology and “critical gerontology” must be included in multi-
disciplinary studies about ageing. (p. 311)
In Australia, these human-development challenges can potentially be met
across three established post-compulsory educational domains: through the national
Vocational Education and Training (VET) sector, through universities concerned
with preparing adult educators, and through private training providers—despite the
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statement that “the sectorisation of Australia’s education and training system and its
Federal-State division of funding responsibilities have created obstacles to widening
lifelong learning opportunities” (McIntyre, 2005, p. 19).
However, there is growing recognition of the relevance of adult learning and
lifelong learning amongst all of the various educational domains, and scope certainly
exists for meeting the education and learning needs of a broad range of older people.
This is a justifiable perspective, appreciative of the view that lifelong learning is
characterised by multiple entry points of learning and acknowledged as inevitably
part of the life course (Settersten, 2003). However, irrespective of the nature of each
post-compulsory education sector, the common thread across all of these domains is
the need for a thorough preparation of practitioners, intent on occupying a variety of
educational and training roles, to foster the achievement of full human potential of
older adults across a range of contexts. Given the critical role of the skilled
practitioner in the achievement of empowerment in older adults, a consideration of
where this practitioner preparation might be optimally achieved warrants further
consideration.
2.6.1 The Preparation of Adult Learning Practitione rs for an Ageing Society
The professional preparation of adult educators, or workplace learning and
performance practitioners (WLPs) (Moseley & Dessinger, 2007, p. 12) can occur
within three domains in Australia. These include Vocational Education and Training
(VET), universities, and private sector organisations.
Vocational Education and Training (VET)
Vocational Education and Training (VET) have established a fundamentally central
position in the provision of vocationally-relevant programs to the general Australian
learner population (Choy et al., 2006). Providers under the VET paradigm include
Technical and Further Education Institutes (TAFE) and include Adult and
Community Education (ACE) programs, Registered Training Organisations (RTOs),
private providers such as the Australian Institute for Care Development, church
groups such as the Uniting Church of Australia (Browne & Russell, 1996) and
community learning through associations such as the Association of Independent
Retirees. Chappell, Hawke et al. (2003) undertook a major study to define the
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conceptual framework for better understanding the issues surrounding older adults,
and to identify future areas of research that would be of greatest benefit to policy
makers, VET practitioners and the Australian community. One of the key
recommendations emanating from this report is that “VET must look to adapt all
aspects of its provision in order to produce policies and practices that acknowledge,
support and value older worker’s participation in education and training” (p. 4).
The Department of Employment and Workplace Relations (DEWR) response
to these recommendations can be linked to the 2005 Mature Age Employment and
Workplace Strategy, which includes a variety of VET-linked programmes including
Jobwise Workshops, Jobwise Self-Help groups, Wise Workforce, and a range of co-
operative industry initiatives under the Mature Age Industry Strategy to improve
recruitment and retention measures for mature age job seekers and workers. The
Jobwise online portal provides information for both employers and mature age job
seekers, and lists Mature Age Employer Champions, and a Mature Age Employment
Practical Guide (see http://www.jobwise.gov.au). Finally, Age Management
Training (AMT) has recently been developed to provide practical solutions to
maintain an aged balanced workforce (DEWR, 2007) where over 230 VET trainers
have been accredited to deliver AMT courses to their clients.
Programmatically, there exist some challenges for VET and the increasing
numbers of older adults. For example, in a systematic review of research into
mature-aged and skill development activities in the VET sector, Thomson, Dawe,
Anlezark and Bowman (2005) determined that while policymakers in VET should
continue to encourage skills development for the mature-aged as a means of
improving their productivity and longevity in the labour market, they “need to be
mindful that skill development activities alone are not likely to be sufficient” (p. 7).
They reason that recognition that more individualised tailoring of skill development
activities are required due to diverse learner circumstances; that a better
understanding of skill development particulars are needed to determine which
strategies work best with which group; and that organisational culture, including the
context of learning, was ultimately responsible for an increase in productivity and a
“more engaged, better skilled and more-co-operative workforce” (p. 18). This is an
argument supported by recent research into career aspirations of older workers
conducted by Pillay, Kelly and Tones (2006) whose findings confirm that “a one size
fits all training programme will not benefit all older workers because patterns of
A Case for Educational Gerontology in Adult Education
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learning preferences and attitudes, and flexible work options varied according to
education level, gender and job type amongst older workers” (p. 304).
In addition, Pillay, Kelly and Tones (2006) confirm the crucial role of the
organisational culture in fostering a positive approach to learning, by stating “older
workers perceived their workplace to be more supportive compared to their younger
peers” (p. 304) with the conclusion that this provided a direct link to older workers in
this workplace being “open to change” and interested in further learning (p. 304). It
is Thomson et al. (2005) who provide the final word on the readiness of the VET
sector, where they state that “many other factors may influence an individual’s
choice to undertake education and training or take early retirement [and that]
integrative strategies, not just skill development activities, are needed to improve
productivity or attachment to the labour market of the mature-aged” (p. 18). The
strategies identified by Thomson et al. (2005) include integrating across social,
political and educational areas by “changing social attitudes and behaviours towards
older workers, addressing political disincentives to work, and tailoring skill
development activities for the mature-aged to suit their circumstances” (p. 7).
Given that integration across disciplines is therefore a key factor in managing
an older adult cohort, it is also doubtful whether VET, as an educational domain, is
yet able to adequately respond to the ageing population. This is due to recurring
policy re-arrangements and programs weighted towards vocationally-based education
and training, where assessment is based on pre-identified competencies. In an
overview of the British national training system, Roodhouse (2004) acknowledged
that competence assessments instigate an over-emphasis on the standard of
competence, and encourage lack of concern regarding socio-political issues.
Roodhouse (2004) states: “It is suggested that the content of standards fosters a
suffocating assessment experience devoid of critical engagement with the social and
political issues which determine much professional activity” (p. 30).
Therefore, a highly systemised training curricula does not adapt well to
changing social contexts, particularly where the stakeholders are themselves
dynamically part of the change. Systemised training programs are “still perceived to
be mechanistic, reductionist, tedious to complete and not developmental”
(Roodhouse, 2004, p. 33). Consequently, a prescriptive vocational training
curriculum is potentially harmful to older adults as it does not foster the required
interdisciplinary collaboration between adult education and social gerontology. It is
A Case for Educational Gerontology in Adult Education
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argued therefore that VET programs are potentially diametrically opposed to the
theory of critical gerontology, where older adult learners are encouraged to “engage
in free thought” and where teaching older adults involves “the application of specific
principles and techniques that enable people to make personal change” (Cusack,
1999, p. 22) and achieve empowerment.
Appreciating that there are mainstream providers who have provided a token
level of educational support, the harsh reality is that “there are still more agencies
that have neglected older adults’ learning needs” (Findsen, 2003, p. 10). Despite the
Council of Australian Governments’ commitment to developing skills through the
National Reform Agenda (COAG, 2006), (which includes human capital and
competition and regulatory reforms), and the recent DEWR accreditation under the
auspices of Age Management Training Strategy (DEWR, 2007), there appears to be
no clear framework relevant to professional development in preparing for older
adults for these organizations to follow, a view supported by Choy et al. (2006) in
their analysis of the role of Adult and Community Education (ACE), a subset of
TAFE programs. In discussion of the urgent need for skilled workers and the need
for Australia to find pathways and opportunities for positive economic outcomes,
they readily admit that “the current arrangements under ACE are limited in meeting
the expanding needs in these areas” (p. 10).
This is an important omission as Cameron (2004) notes that no formal quality
indicators have been presented for the good practice of training older adults in VET.
Ilmarinen (2005) encapsulates the challenge in a global setting by stating:
Current practices and principles of adult education in worklife do not
encourage and support ageing adults to participate in training. Training has
usually been directed towards young adults and those with good basic
education. Therefore, the ageing workforce is a major challenge to adult
education instructors. Both the development of methods supporting the
learning of ageing people and changes in attitudes of adult education
instructors are required. (p. 224)
Development of ageing-relevant skills among incumbent and intending adult
educators is therefore emerging as an issue. Calder (1993) specifically targeted adult
educators when she called for a professional infrastructure to “bark, broker and boost
A Case for Educational Gerontology in Adult Education
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education for older learners” (p. 12). Findsen (2003) reminds us of the imperative to
professionalise older adult education by stating that
…educational programs less often relate to fostering vocational skills (though
this might change with the growing need of retired adults to find further
income); still less are they concerned with developing critical capacities of
elders to challenge the social order. (p. 8)
In terms of professionalisation therefore, it appears that, as yet, there is little
specific training undertaken by VET adult educators and trainers in preparation for
this burgeoning audience, nor is there an established standard for good practice of
training older workers (Cameron, 2004) which has the potential to weaken
professional preparation generally.
Further questions of quality for older adults in the VET sector continue,
highlighted by a report by Gelade et al. (2003) that detailed good practice for training
disadvantaged unemployed older Australians, identifying a low incidence of training
programmes “specifically for mature learners” (p. 8). Gelade et al. (2003) suggest
that “it indicates that there is room for expansion of programmes to this target group”
(p. viii). While these recommendations seem comprehensive, there exists no clear
concept of exactly how VET might foster standards of good practice in education and
training relevant to older adults. The solution may well be found in the adoption of
educational gerontology principles. It is argued that educational gerontology
provides the interdisciplinary platform required for an integrative (and more holistic)
approach to older adult learning, includes research activities both to and for older
adults, and suggests a more adaptable range of skills not yet covered by the
qualifications framework underpinning VET. Universities, then, appear to offer the
disciplinary capabilities associated with the integrative requirements of educational
gerontology. It is not clear however, whether their current institutional arrangements
are aligned with the needs of an ageing demographic and the associated social
changes.
Universities
Higher education, especially in universities generally, has been experiencing massive
reform and change (Kazar, 2001). Since 2002 and the publication of “Higher
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Education at the Crossroads” (DEST, 2002), Australian universities have been under
intense scrutiny in an effort to sustain competitiveness and respond to pressures
associated with globalisation and the knowledge economy. However, a more recent
perspective on the role of universities is provided by Winter, Wiseman and Muirhead
(2006) who describe their primary function as “sites of citizenship” (p. 212) and
social change agents where the emergence of a knowledge economy has placed new
pressures on universities to cater for the needs of lifelong learners. Quite possibly,
this signals the need for a re-emphasis on the humanities, a contemporary version of
the liberal model of universities where knowledge is created for the intrinsic value of
humans in order to understand both themselves and the world (Hammersley, 1992).
If the goal of self-empowerment of the older adults is genuinely sought, and if
critical gerontology is adopted as an overarching philosophical stance to ageing, then
liberal Universities are important, due to the fact that such an approach is “relatively
unconstrained by extraneous demands, such as those deriving from the political
interests of the state or of powerful religious groups or economic groups in society”
(p. 168).
It is argued that by contributing to the concept and practice of lifelong
learning for older people, universities automatically accept the value of the older
learner, and by implication must widen their charter to include broader sociological
issues such as community development. This is consistent with the view that
universities should be “a campus that is newly-committed to serving the communities
and constituencies that surround and support it” (Ward, 2003, p. 15). Therefore, this
requires universities to move beyond a purely functionalist role where education is
assessed on functional outcomes (e.g. reproductive or economically-driven) as
dictated by democratic capitalism (Kempner & Taylor, 1998) and into a role of
promoting “active citizenry” (p. 301). In such an approach, the value of higher
education is to be found in how well it facilitates students to function within a
democratic society, particularly where those students might positively influence
“individuals who do not share the dominant culture or who are not active participants
in the private market sector of the global economy” (p. 302). It is argued in this
study that older adults fit this category based on ongoing ageism and socio-political
manoeuvres that erode power in older adults. There is some irony in noting that, in a
discussion paper issued by DEST (2002), one of the purposes of higher education is
A Case for Educational Gerontology in Adult Education
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described as “fulfilling significant functions in our society” (DEST, 2002, p. 1) with
the requirements that
…institutions should add value to and enrich Australian society, culture and
the economy. There is an expectation that in their role as caretakers, creators
and transmitters of knowledge, higher education institutions will add value to
individuals and to the society in which they are a part. (p. 2)
This is a significant social role. Seen within the context of an ageing society,
it is argued that this requirement is consistent with the goals of social gerontology
where older adults are viewed within their unique social context. Institutions do not
operate in a vacuum—they need to respond to dynamic social change and reflect the
values of the community in which they operate. Therefore, there is an expectation
that institutions will be equitable, responsive, diverse, and innovative as they face
new and changing environments (DEST, 2002, p. 2).
Ward (2003), in sketching the roles that faculty might perform in areas
outside of the traditional university domains, states that it is not only external forces
that will generate pressure to reconsider its position in society. Specifically,
concerns about curriculum and faculty work, in addition to changes in public
support, have led to a “questioning of the insular and autonomous nature of higher
education” (p. 15). Having such a clear focus could be highly advantageous in terms
of preparation and resource capacity, but it earmarks universities as having the
primary task of “the efficient provision of training for potential recruits to those
occupations deemed to require a high level of knowledge and skills” (Hammersley,
1992, p. 171).
In this approach, academic endeavours are regarded as of value only to the
extent that they solve practical problems expressed by those in industry. It could be
argued that such a political economy approach to curriculum will ultimately
overshadow empowerment of the individual, particularly in light of pressures
regarding university investment in human capital. In this market orientation where
calls for accountability and productivity are becoming louder, it becomes further
complicated by a new vision for universities where faculty engagement is typified by
redesigned and re-envisioned teaching, and by service functions that are
sympathetically and productively involved with the communities that campuses serve
(Ward, 2003). The fiscal reality is that links to industry are integral to narrowing the
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gap between workplace needs and university educational programs, particularly
where it is obvious how professional skills gained at university can readily be
deployed in the re-training of older adults. This however introduces a tension
between fostering individual empowerment in older adults and meeting industry
demands. Australian universities have recently been made more aware of these
competing priorities and their role in the formation of human capital. From this
perspective, academic entrepreneurialism and community service are seen as integral
to the development of human capital which is defined by Gunesakara (2004) as “the
value of incomes that stem from education, training and other investments in human
development” (p. 2).
Investments in human capital yield returns at different levels, firstly
individually, then socially which will result in a higher national (or regional)
economic growth rate, and thirdly, an organisation-specific rate of return evidenced
by trade results and organisational expansion. Universities clearly occupy a central
role in the development of human capital as providers of education in shaping the
skills base of regional and local economies (Winter et al., 2006) and as enablers of
regional economic and social development (Gunasekara, 2004). However, it has
been noted that productivity issues constitute only one element for consideration in
developing the older Australian learner, and sociological issues relevant to individual
growth and self-realisation of the older individual are now becoming acknowledged
as integral to social advancement generally. As Wahrendorf, von dem Knesebeck and
Siegrist (2006) assert, social engagement is associated with more favourable well-
being and health outcomes. In addition, the frequency of productive and leisure
activities improves physical health and reduces the risk of depression in older people
(Herzog & House, 1991). To locate the concept of social productivity in a
theoretical framework, Wahrendorf et al. (2006) regard reciprocity as fundamental to
well-being in that the meaning of the activity for the provider is linked to the value
placed upon that activity by the recipient. They assert that
socially productive efforts that are reciprocated by adequate return offers
unique opportunities of experiencing social recognition or other types of
reward. Recurrent experience of social recognition was shown to enhance
self-esteem and associated positive emotions processed by the brain reward
system. (p. 68)
A Case for Educational Gerontology in Adult Education
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It is important then that Australia’s response to an ageing demographic
involve a reconsideration of the intrinsic value of knowledge to older adults, its
potential to transform and improve, and its influence beyond the individual. As
Hammersley (1992) warns, “we should be suspicious of arguments that promote
ideals on the grounds that they alone are politically realistic” (p. 173). What is
needed in an ageing society therefore, is a re-conceptualisation of the role of the
university, where a more hybridised model of human development, ageing research
and skill development is achieved.
Considering the growth of ageing communities across Australia, it is useful to
look abroad for examples of how universities are attending to the needs of an ageing
population. In the USA, higher education institutions have been regarded as
gatekeepers to educational issues for the older person. For example, publications
issued from the Association for Gerontology Education in Higher Education (AGHE)
are premised on an overarching mission to “advance gerontology as a field of study
in institutions of higher education” (www.aghe.org). Since 1950, recommendations
from the White House include the need for those working with older people to
understand growth through the lifecycle with emphasis on the later stages (Friedsam
& Martin, 1980). Higher education was integral to this outcome due to the
multidisciplinary sources of knowledge about ageing and the impact on professional
personnel. In another more visionary paper outlining how older American citizens
might engage with university campuses in the future, Kressley and Huebschmann
(2002) sketch a picture of a 21st century campus that integrates retirement living with
ongoing mental stimulation through access to the educational programs and
intergenerational interaction. They assert that, as universities have “traditionally
been agents of change, they are the right organisations to give new meaning to
retirement” (p. 846). Since this time, a multitude of gerontology programs have
proliferated across universities in the United States, and the Osher Institutes of
Lifelong Learning are now located at numerous Universities. There remains,
however, scant evidence to indicate that an intersection between adult education and
social gerontology disciplines as an area of study has gained momentum. A
disciplinary synthesis of this nature, it is argued, is therefore both innovative and
potentially useful as a University platform for responding to an ageing and changing
world.
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Social Gerontology as an University Discipline
Social gerontology has emerged as a result of the need to study the impact of ageing
processes on the individual. Considering that gerontologists study ageing by focusing
on four processes: chronological ageing, biological ageing, psychological ageing,
and social ageing, it is important to understand how social gerontology is different.
Social gerontology is interested in “how the older population and the diversity of
ageing experiences both affect, and are affected by the social structure” (Hooyman &
Kiyak, 2002, p. 5). For example, social gerontology is interested in the social
implications of ageing including health care, the workplace, and policy. Changes in
the socio-political structure inevitably affect characteristics of the older population
which in turn “affect civic engagement initiatives” (p. 5). These initiatives might
impact on higher education, health promotion programs, and retirement planning,
with the overarching purpose of helping future generations be better educated,
healthier, economically more secure and socially engaged than the current
generation. The relationship between these initiatives and adult education is the key
to achieving these social objectives.
Given that this intersection between adult education and social gerontology
assumes a more specialised multidisciplinary approach, it is argued that Australian
universities have a critical role to play in the promotion of educational gerontology
due to existing theoretical understandings of adult education, educational
gerontology and social science. The potential also exists to re-incorporate the
humanities into programs that are charged with individual betterment and social
advancement. This is not to deny the role of scientific study. University Ageing
Research centres are potentially major influences in providing empirical findings that
progress the study and practice of educational gerontology as a specialist area to
accommodate the needs of an ageing population. Also, adult education programs
have the means to apply ageing-related content to developing the skills of adult
education practitioners, and to establish a benchmark for quality needed for this
segment of the population.
While Cameron (2004) has proposed five key areas of good practice for
vocational training, including (i) positive early experiences, (ii) negotiation with
learners regarding content, format and timing of training experiences, (iii) the
involvement of social factors and a focus on learner interests to motivate learners,
(iv) an adult learning approach (andragogy), and (v) organizational innovation and
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flexibility, it is Findsen (2003) who goes much further in the context of professional
responses to an ageing population. He articulates some penetrating questions for
adult education providers and agencies to answer, including:
� What do you know about the life patterns and learning opportunities for
older adults in your vicinity?
� What is the responsibility of your agency to help meeting the learning
needs of older adults?
� What do you really know about the older adult clientele attending your
programmes?
� Are any older adults involved in helping plan your provision?
� Does the existing programme reflect interests and needs of older adults in
your community?
� Have any programmes been planned in association with agencies which
work more closely with older people?
� Are there any statements of policy developed by your organisation about
the learning needs of older adults? (p. 10)
From these questions it is clear that the spotlight is turning to the adequate
preparation of adult learning practitioners in order to respond to the challenges of an
ageing population. To achieve this, resources and capacities developed for a range of
age-friendly educational activities will need to be drawn from across disciplines and
customized for the variety of audiences anticipated. These audiences include
incumbent human resource professionals, post-retirement workers, older students
returning to education and training settings, professionals currently engaged in the
human services, and undergraduates preparing to work in the aged sector. Elements
essential for meeting these challenges include contemporary curriculum content that
considers critical geragogy processes underpinning the effective application of
methods, environments and learning schedules suitable for ageing learners
(Ilmarinen, 2005, p. 227).
2.6.2 Summary: Education and Training Challenges o f an Ageing
Australian Population
Drawn from the previous literature on organisational learning and development, and
the role of Universities as an institution capable of infusing elements of social
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gerontology into adult education, current challenges appear to exist in current human
resource (workplace) practices, in the institutional response to an ageing
demographic, and in the availability of curriculum underpinning holistic education
for the older Australian. Each of these educational challenges is depicted in Table
2.1, Education and Training Challenges of an Ageing Australian Population.
Table 2.1
Education and Training Challenges of an Ageing Aust ralian Population
2.7 Towards a Solution: The Preparation of Adult Le arning
Practitioners for an Ageing Population
Anderson (1999) stated that United States employers, health and social service
providers and the general public are increasingly turning to institutions of higher
education in the expectation of educating students about the processes of ageing, and
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to supply employers with a trained workforce (p. 571). However, current aged-
related programs in Australian higher education are largely concentrated in the
content fields of sociology, gerontology, and originate from the geriatric (medical)
discipline (Howe, 1990; Wendt & Peterson, 1993). While originally consisting of
physical, chemical and biological knowledge, the recognition that ageing is not just a
biological event has enabled its expansion to include sub-groups such as behavioural
gerontology (the psychological study of adult development and ageing), applied
gerontology (areas of intervention such as nursing and usually associated with the
cumulative effects of ageing) and social gerontology (where the individual is viewed
in their unique social, emotional and intellectual context) (Withnall & Percy, 1994).
As the practice of gerontology expands, some tension between disciplines is
also predicted (Maddox, 1988) as the power of the geriatric professions is challenged
during the development of inter-disciplinary programs. However, Bass and Ferraro
(2000) are convincing in their argument that an “integrated and emergent approach”
underpinned by vision and persistence is required for the evolution of gerontology
education and educational gerontology. Other power struggles, such as those
between adult education and HRD (Bierema et al., 2004), and between TAFE and
VET in the provision of adult programs are already evident in Australia. Australian
universities, if they can reconcile their own reform agendas and align them with
community and social needs, appear well-placed to overcome these challenges. The
reasoning behind this statement is that fundamental capacities, as put forward by
Withnall and Percy (1994) are already in place—positive policies and funding,
information and guidance services, organizing provision, learning environments,
teaching and training, staff development and evaluation methods. Universities also
are, as Winter et al. (2006) posit, “a power to be harnessed in order to rectify the
supposed civic deficit among students, and to address some of the consequences of
the failures of democratic process, such as increasing social inequity, political
apathy, isolation and fragmentation” (p. 223).
While graduate programs in gerontology exist in Australia, and are supported
by the Australian Association of Gerontology (Wendt & Peterson, 1993), this
approach may not be sufficient because some significant gaps in educational services
are anticipated (Wendt & Peterson, 1993). For example, a recent report by Glista
and Petersons (2003) reveals that, in preparing a gerontology program for allied
health students in the United States, more than 70% of faculty staff admitted to
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needing continuing professional education to keep pace with the expanding body of
literature about ageing. While there is no local empirical evidence, a contemporary
understanding of the biopsychosocial elements in ageing is emerging across
developed countries like the USA and Australia and as such, it is likely that this gap
in professional development will only increase. To narrow this gap, information
about ageing, the impact of social factors on learning and the unique characteristics
of the older learner appear vital to achieving adequate, professional preparedness.
The emergence of social gerontology as a distinct discipline is an indicator of this
emerging need, where older adult learning is gaining prominence. Instructionally, it
would also be useful to consider a wider range of strategies designed to empower the
older adult and create opportunities for effective learning.
Revision of higher education curriculum seems inevitable especially in
preparing those currently working in workplaces where the workforce is ageing, and
in skilling those intending to work exclusively with the older adult. Clearly, the
adult learning practitioner is at the front-line of the research and development of
older learners, a view supported by Ilmarinen (2005) who describes the training
situation of ageing employees and their learning new things as requiring “special
investments” (p. 217) and who considers that “the instructors of ageing employees
are required to have special competence related to ageing and learning” (p. 226).
Some of the broad content likely to underpin this special competence is discussed in
the following section.
2.7.1 Adult Education and the Older Adult Learner
Those preparing to work with older people need to understand new information
about ageing, as it challenges traditional views of older adults’ abilities, attitudes,
behaviour and performance (Long, 1990). More specifically, Jones (2005) called for
“a special professional development program to give Human Resource practitioners
leading edge knowledge and skills in managing an ageing workforce” (p. 73). The
need for a more focused treatment of adult education is reinforced by Cusack (1999)
who states that “we agree that teaching older adults is qualitatively different from
teaching adults, because the social circumstances and developmental tasks of third-
age persons in today’s world are unique” (p. 22).
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This statement is suggestive of an evolution of the traditional
conceptualisation of adult education practices towards a more specialised approach
suitable for older learners. Since Lindeman’s 1926 publication of The Meaning of
Adult Education, adult educators have established the field of adult education as
distinct from childhood learning (as cited in Baumgartner et al., 2003). When
Knowles (1980) later identified andragogy as “the art and science of helping adults
learn” (p. 43) he formalized the principles of adult learning to include internal learner
motivation, safe learner environment, shared goals and responsibilities, and active
participation by the adult learner where the activity is relevant to the learner’s
experience. Self-evaluation and self-directedness is also evident (Brookfield, 1986)
in adult learning. However, critics of Knowles’ (1980) assumptions have questioned
whether self-directedness is limited to adults, and from an ageing perspective, it is
not clear whether older learners remain self-directed as they encounter
marginalisation and ageist social behaviour in educational and/or workplace settings.
As Baumgartner et al. (2003) note, “Knowles’ andragogy focuses on the individual
learner and ignores the impact on sociocultural factors on learners” (p. 14).
Ilmarinen (2005) concurs, by stating that “social functioning capacity and the
changes it goes through during a person’s worklife have not been studied nearly as
much as the change in physical and mental functional capacity” (p. 206).
Moreover, the concept of self-realisation also appears to have been
overlooked in traditional adult educational practices, a view supported by Hodkinson
et al. (2007) who argue that the dominant view of learning has been one of
acquisition of a “certain commodity: be that knowledge, skills, understanding or
something else” (p. 14). To view adult learning in this way is regarded as
reductionist as it demonstrates the inadequacy of overlooking other centrally
important issues such as social needs, psychological needs (such as belonging) and
the fact that learning is an ongoing process (Hodkinson et al., 2007).
This entirely cognitive view of learning, concerned with the mind and with
propositional knowledge (the information), ignores the centrality of the purposes
behind learning and the emotions underpinning the process. Adult learning must
acknowledge and adapt to the fact that organisational culture and social structures
and relations impact on the individual’s freedom. The individual cannot be seen as
the isolated and insulated self, traditionally described by Knowles as an autonomous
self-directed learner (Baumgartner, 2003). As Hodkinson et al. (2007) state, “we
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need to understand adult learning as biological, cognitive, emotional and practical”
(p. 15).
Clearly, the interrelationships between learning, identity and the learning
setting must be considered in contemporary older adult learning. In addition, older
learners represent a different population and occupy numerous learning settings,
thereby requiring a more focused model of andragogy—translated into geragogy—
that incorporates the impact of society on the learner and vice versa.
According to Baumgartner et al. (2003), andragogy’s second assumption is
that “adults come to an educational activity with a greater volume and a different
quality of experience from youths” (p. 12). Interestingly, this is precisely what
renders traditional adult teaching practices ineffective for older learners, as early
adult and workplace learning programs have often been premised on a linear model
that prepares students for one overarching social outcome: workplace productivity.
However, the profile or workers is changing (Jarvis, 2001), and as Weaver (1999)
indicates, the demographic of the student population is also changing, with older
learners increasingly viewed as a dynamic, diverse, and multi-faceted group with
different needs and aspirations.
Adult education has recently shifted towards an inclusion of the socio-
political context of adult education, where assumptions about conditions that shape
the learning contexts are critically questioned (Merriam, Caffarella & Baumgartner,
2006). This is a view shared by Withnall (2002) who regards the traditional lifecycle
view of adult learning theory to be not sufficiently aware of the impact of socio-
economic context, or the complexity and unpredictability of adult life. The role of
context is gaining prominence. As Baumgartner et al. (2003) state, it is precisely the
combination of the “biographic, interpersonal, political, historical, and sociocultural
settings in which individuals are socialised, shaped and situated and in which they
interact” (p. 18).
These are known to affect the individuals’ view of learning and ways of
engagement in the learning process. Moreover, Merriam (2004) states that, in a
critical orientation to adult learning, “diversity is acknowledged, the status quo is
challenged, inclusion is a goal, and emancipation from oppressive social structures
makes possible a context in which learning can thrive” (p. 213).
It is acknowledged that older learners become less homogenous with age, and
this complexity is further generated by issues relating to global spirituality (Merriam,
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2004) and the interconnectedness of humanity and the spiritual in learning
experiences. Tornstam (2005) describes this phenomenon as “gerotranscendence”, a
process which incorporates a re-interpretation of self, and which requires a lifetime
of preparation (Thomas, 2004). It is useful to identify other characteristics of older
adults, to explain their difference to younger adults, and to justify why a different
skill base underpinning older adult learning is required. From a life course
perspective, retirement represents a significant social indicator of older age, and
when this event occurs close to the challenge of confronting one’s mortality, it has
the potential to erode self-worth (Tougas et al., 2004). The result of such an
experience can impact on the affective domain of any future learning that might be
undertaken (Russell, 2007) and makes this experience unique to each older learner.
So while accumulated personal experience, social class, gender, ethnicity,
geographical location and ability (Findsen, 2003) affect older adults in much the
same way as younger adults, it is argued that where these factors are juxtaposed with
physical changes, changing social roles, rapidly-changing context and workplace
settings (Hodkinson et. al, 2007) and the impending end of life, all of these justify
that specific treatment for the older adult is warranted. Settersten (2003) summarises
several commonalities that sets older adults apart from general adults thus:
� The presence of normative decline in physical and cognitive capacities;
� Increased prospects of health conditions and the resulting concern
reflected in individuals’ self-definitions;
� Diminishing time left to live and the need to contend with one’s
mortality;
� Bereavement associated with deaths of parents, spouses and friends;
� More restricted but intense social relationships and networks;
� Being perceived or treated by others in ageist ways;
� Increased interiority, desire for integrity, and search for meaning in life;
and
� Greater acceptance of things that cannot be controlled in life, coupled
with greater fear of losing control over one’s life (p. 175).
Most adult education consists of training connected to work or occupation
(Ilmarinen, 2005, p. 13). However, traditional adult learning programs have not been
developed in consideration of the enormous changes in the work environment as
perceived by the older learner, a situation which can negatively impact on the mature
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aged workers’ sense of self and role identity (Bruce, 1984). Maslow (cited in Bruce,
1984) identified these as needs associated with a sense of belonging and which in
effect define the process involved in socialization (Bruce, 1984).
For workplace training it is important to consider that work may no longer be
the older learner’s primary goal, which means that the educational objectives for this
target group are different and varied (Hankin, 2005). To simplify this, Jamieson,
Miller and Stafford (1998) broadly categorized motivations for learning by older
people as either knowledge acquisition or social contact, where the former included
specific subject interests and intellectual stimulation and the latter included the need
to meet new friends and escape the home environment and loneliness. In practice
however, adult learning cannot rely on traditional assumptions about older adult
learners, a fact reiterated by Hodkinson et al. (2007) who, in their re-
conceptualisation of adult learning, state that “one has to understand the
interrelationships between learning, agency and identity, as it facilitates a potentially
valuable way of considering these relationships, which contrasts with the
assumptions of a crude acquisition model” (p. 35).
Clearly these details show that for older adults, not every learning situation
will have a vocational outcome. Research has revealed however that even recreation
and leisure pursuits still require some performance guidelines when training is
involved (Beland & Kapes, 2003). In addition, acquiring knowledge about active
citizenship could also be regarded as a learning opportunity, and benefits associated
with any learning event are clearly beyond simply information-gathering. Calder
(1993) for example proposes a link between education and decent social product.
Further justification for encouraging adult education activities is provided by
researchers such as Mehrotra (2003a) and Schneider (2003) who posit that sustaining
mental ability through educational activities is the key to self-efficacy and may even
delay cognitive decline in older adults. This is a view presented by Bishop (2003) in
which the link between improved health and productivity was established. Ilmarinen
(2005) supports this assertion by noting that “the ability to learn deteriorates if it is
not practiced. After an extended pause, one may no longer feel able to learn.
Therefore, life-long [sic] learning and continual learning experiences maintain and
improve the ability to learn” (p. 225).
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2.7.2 Lifelong Learning
Field and Leicester (2000) posit that the agenda for lifelong learning, as set by the
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) in 1996,
encourages education for citizenship (political), encourages wider participation
(social), and emphasizes the relevance to economic prosperity (vocational), while
recognizing the importance of self-determination and personal development (liberal).
Longworth and Davies (1996) justify the concept of lifelong learning as a reaction to
the information society model of education that educates for a wider and more
responsible role in a democratic society. They define lifelong learning as
the development of human potential through a continuously supportive
process which stimulates and empowers individuals to acquire all the
knowledge, values, skills, and understanding they will require throughout
their lifetimes and to apply them with confidence, creativity and enjoyment in
all roles, circumstances, and environments. (p. 22)
According to Ilmarinen (2005), lifelong learning which alternates between
training and working is the trend of the future (p. 217). This places it squarely within
the domain of life course theory where Settersten (2003) asserts that the life course
involves multiple learning points as we age, a view reiterated by Longworth and
Davies (1996) who describe lifelong learning as “a process, a continuum of
interdependent elements capable of being tailored to individual needs in each part of
one’s educational lifetime” (p. 20).
Chappell, Rhodes, Solomon, Tennant and Yates (2003) state that lifelong
learning foregrounds learning pedagogy, not merely to make people more skilled or
more rounded, but to construct identities that can perform better. It is however far
from a panacea according to Field and Leicester (2000) who caution against over-
optimism by suggesting that the rhetoric of “widening participation” might not
include older learners. As Withnall (2002) states, it is not useful to link lifelong
learning specifically to vocational relevance particularly when you place older adult
learning in a life course perspective. More importantly, the possibility exists that
lifelong learning practices formulated purely on government economic policy might
translate into the continuation of schooling, an approach regarded by Formosa (2002)
as contrary to emancipative learning and therefore unsuitable for the older learner.
Nevertheless, connections to the overarching goals of holistic development of the
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older person are strong, especially where lifelong learning is regarded as
fundamental to social cohesion, community-building and individual development and
freedom. As such, understanding lifelong learning as distinct from older adult
learning is important to the development of the conceptual framework underpinning
curriculum and skills relevant to older learners, a view shared by Edwards and Nicoll
(2001) who suggest that while lifelong learning is largely atheoretical, it could
provide a framework for considering learning in the life course, occurring “from the
cradle to the grave” (p. 5).
2.7.3 Life Course Theory
The World Health Organisation’s “Active aging: A policy framework” published in
2002, was one of the first publications to include a life course perspective to the
ageing population phenomena, and to discuss the concept and rationale for active
ageing in a social context. Settersten (2003) describes life course theory as the
cartography of human lives, how each life is shaped by contemporary societies, and
how the life course is conditioned by time and place. It is a multi-disciplinary and
dynamic approach. First, it stresses the importance of earlier life course experience
for an understanding of later life and second, it encompasses the interaction between
individual change and social change (Jamieson et al., 1998). In his book “Ageing:
Concepts and controversies,” Moody (2006) outlines the basic concepts of the life
course perspective on ageing, and establishes a baseline for considering age
identification. In age differentiation, society determines what behaviour is
appropriate for certain ages, while in age grading, individuals are assigned specific
roles in society according to their age. Peterson (2004) described age grading as “the
social position accorded to an elder” (p. 13).
While a life course perspective will recognize markers of the passage through
life, such as important life events or transition points (Moody, 2006), ageing in the
21st century however is less predictable, with the timing of major life events such as
marriage and retirement no longer age differentiated. In addition, today there exists a
prolonged period of life devoted to education, creating the likelihood that ageing
could be seen as more susceptible to intervention and improvement (Moody, 2006).
A central proposition to life course theory is that development is lifelong, which has
implications for learning at multiple points as we age. Older adults are likely then to
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return to learning at some point in their lives, irrespective of the subject matter or
purpose behind the activity.
Another basic concept in life course theory includes recognition of how each
person’s lifelong pattern of psychological growth is shaped in predictable and
idiosyncratic ways by an interplay between biobehavioural and sociocultural forces
(Peterson, 2004, p. 5). In other words, lifelong growth is nurtured by others in
changing ways over time, and historical and cultural forces also regulate
development. Developing psychological functioning across the domains of
cognition, emotion, personality and social relationships, display patterns in every
human lifespan (Peterson, 2004). As such, this broad approach has given rise to the
term “successful ageing” where the assumption that old age automatically leads to
frailty and senility is rejected on the basis of optimising across-the-board capacities
that remain while compensating for losses that will inevitably occur (Moody, 2006).
Thus, the measure of successful ageing is life satisfaction and a sense of well-being
in the face of decline, with a specific emphasis on self-concept, social relationships
and cognitive processes. One of the goals of development is to achieve capacity to
self-regulate in the older learner, achieved in tandem with a positive sense of self that
is consistent with reality (Tones, 2007). Other developmental goals constitute those
that acquire or alter socialization skills, where adjustment to changing societal
demands and expectations is required. Moody (2006) describes this as “role loss”
(p. 21) and introduces the cognitive theory of ageing where it is argued that the
perception of change in roles has the most impact on behaviour rather than the
change itself.
Today, an increasing number of aged individuals elect to remain active in the
workplace (Moody, 2006) supported by the knowledge that tacit knowledge relevant
to job competency does not decline with age, leading to the assumption that ageing
workers are likely to be sound on the job despite the minimal and gradual decline in
memory and attention. Given the volatile economy, explosion of knowledge
industries and resulting variability in employment patterns, job changes and
retraining are inevitable as “individuals at any age are called upon again and again to
reinvent themselves” (Moody, 2006, p. 13).
Ilmarinen (2005) regards the challenge of adult education to be “the ability to
combine a high level of formal education with learning by doing (i.e. working)”
(p. 217). Age management, a phrase term gaining popularity and defined as
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“managing the work ability of personnel and the success of the enterprise”
(Ilmarinen, 2005), is essentially the everyday management and organisation of work
from the viewpoint of the life course and personal resources of people whether the
changes are caused by the ageing process or by other age-related factors. In this
approach Imarinen states that “seniors need other solutions to maintain their work
ability and motivation” (Ilmarinen, 2006, p. 233), a process which requires
“sufficient understanding of the processes of human ageing and growing old”
(p. 233). Schneider (2003) in considering the significance of learning for ageing,
recognizes that adult education specialists working with the “theory of educating
older people” can help ensure that older people recognize the possibilities that
different life situations offer. For those specialists, geragogy is a fundamental
instructional premise.
2.7.4 Geragogy
Geragogy is the process of teaching older adults (John, 1988) that generates self-
directedness for the learner, a principle consistent with that of adult learning
(Knowles, 1980). However, while this supports the traditional process and content
needs of the older person, Formosa (2002) proposes a process called critical
geragogy, which is specifically committed to the transformation of ageism and
particularly concerned with empowerment through education, a view reiterated by
Glendenning (2001). These academics stress that older adults do not benefit from
traditional structural modes of education where the teacher (or workplace trainer) is
the central source of information. This is regarded as a continuation of schooling
(Formosa, 2002) and does not reflect the liberatory goals of educational gerontology
or critical geragogy where learners feel free to engage in critical thought (Jarvis,
2001). It follows then that professionals preparing to facilitate learning for older
adults should become familiar with instructional techniques that consider both their
need for empowerment and their diversity. Lumsden (1985) has suggested that
contemporary educators have realized that older learners can be presented with chaos
and succeed with self-directed activities and less structure. Cusack (1999) further
operationalises critical geragogy through an analysis of strategies that contribute to
both individual and societal transformation by stating that “empowering older people
is essentially an educational process – it is what happens in the discourse and
dialogue between two people who are both learning and teaching” (p. 25).
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Appreciating the unique characteristics of the older adult learner, it is argued
that critical geragogy empowers this cohort through “transferring greater legitimate
responsibility for decision-making to seniors” (Cusak, 1999, p. 26), which essentially
is a leadership construct that assumes critical thinking about our belief systems.
Essentially, critical thinking requires the challenging of assumptions, a recognition of
the importance of context, imagining and exploring alternative beliefs, and
maintaining an attitude of reflective scepticism (Cusak, 1999, p. 32). Applying
specialist skills of this type however assumes a level of instructional skill by the
older adult educator or adult learning practitioner (Cusack, 1999; Ilmarinen, 2005;
Mosely & Dessinger, 2007) and knowledge of cognitive development relevant to
both the instructional event and the capabilities of the learner. For example, it is
recognised that humans experience developmental gains and losses in cognitive
functioning as well as maintenance of domains (Baltes & Baltes, 1990), and
instructional skills amenable to this level of sophistication requires knowledge of
more than the current repertoire of discussion, simulation and case studies to promote
learning.
Callahan et al. (2003) detail five instructional design factors emanating from
an industrial gerontology training model that include “motivation, structure,
familiarity, organisation and time” (p. 664) in order to adapt to changing physical
and cognitive aspects of the older learner. Similarly, Ilmarinen (2005) offers the
following methodology guidelines (i.e. methods, environments, and learning
schedule) for the instructors of ageing employers:
� the use of a learning strategy that scaffolds on an existing and secure layer
of competence;
� learning conditions that accommodate the senses of the ageing learner
where sensory functions deteriorate with age;
� the use of images for enhanced motivation;
� a relaxed atmosphere of mutual respect and trust; and
� knowledge of the variety of learning styles (p. 228).
A reliance on such a simplistic benchmark for training quality may not be
enough. For example, reporting on research into three different instructional
methods and four instructional factors on observed training performance of older
learners, Callahan et al. (2003) assert that training that integrates multiple methods
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could be useful when training older learners (p. 675). In addition, they found self-
pacing strategies and small group size to be significant. Older learners are not a
homogenous group, their diversity actually increases with age and is exacerbated by
issues like race, gender, and ethnicity (Hankin, 2005). For this reason, older adults
should be in control of their thinking and learning where the teaching and learning is
a “collective and negotiated enterprise” (Formosa, 2002). To achieve a more critical
form of enquiry, some innovative strategies have been proposed by Moody (1990)
who originally suggested techniques based on Socratic Dialogue principles where the
theme of self-directedness is maintained, and a dialogical strategy supported by
Simmons (1999) as one also appropriate for corporate activities. Strategies that
nurture spirituality are also regarded as a valuable instructional element towards
enhancing older adults’ sense of well-being and in increasing empowerment (Collins,
Furman, Hackman, Bender & Bruce, 2007). It is proposed that by viewing
spirituality as a source of strength, “older people may develop increased
connectedness with others and a sense of meaning” (p. 711). Interestingly, the
practice of structured reminiscence is gaining ground as an effective method for
engaging older learners, particularly in the spiritual training literature such as that
issued by the Australian Centre for Ageing and Pastoral Studies (CAPS) and
available on their website (http://www.caps.org.au). Reports of NASA and IBM
using storytelling and narrative case studies for knowledge sharing and transfer of
workplace information (De Long, 2004) is another significant step towards arguing
for a wider, more holistic and lateral approach to training older adults.
While Lemieux and Martinez (2000) express difficulty in defining the field of
geragogy, they do defend its emergence as a distinct area on the basis of its inclusion
of social issues. This is not simply a new label being applied to an existing process,
in fact Formosa (2002) takes this argument further by suggesting that it emphasises
critical dialogue amongst older learners, provides a platform for transactions that
reflect the wisdom and contribution of the older learners, and provides outreach to all
segments of the older population. For this reason, it constitutes a valuable process
tool that should form part of the professional repertoire of educators of the older
adult.
It is acknowledged that advances in the field of adult education have
attempted to overcome the shortcomings of current practices by introducing an
ideology based on cognitive development, principled and interactive problem-
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solving, and pragmatic orientation suitable for meeting the needs of today’s rapidly
changing social and economic environment (Baumgartner et al., 2003; Merriam,
2004). However, it is argued that to rely only on traditional adult education
principles for broad-based developmental strategies suitable for older learners falls
into the trap of universality (Baumgartner et al., 2003) and fails to consider
sociocultural issues such as context and the learning lives of those identities engaged
in learning (Hodkinson et al., 2007). This more holistic approach to adult learning
supports critical thought, and is more aligned to geragogical processes suitable for
older adults, with implications for teachers, trainers, human resource developers,
managers, supervisors, community workers, health care professionals, researchers,
and the older person whether in work or leisure settings. Due to the ageing of the
workforce, each of these professions is required to widen their charter to consider the
principles of older adult education.
2.7.5 Widening Perspectives of Older Adult Educatio n
Recent evidence of the widening perspectives of older adult education includes
exciting research into education for dementia patients which revealed that it is
possible for older adults with dementia to learn, suggesting that mental activity may
stimulate neuronal regeneration (Richeson, Boyne & Brady, 2007) which in turn has
the potential to enable dementia patients to “regain some self-efficacy through
participation in lifelong learning opportunities” (p. 724). Interestingly, it is noted
that the facilitators of this particular educational program included two “doctorally-
prepared faculty members with backgrounds in educational gerontology” (Richeson
et al., 2007, p. 735).
Specialist older adult education also has the potential to impact on technology
use. Research into the use of educational hypermedia for older adult learners has
shown that in general, older adults do not report high levels of anxiety regarding
technology testing sessions, are not unduly hampered by sensory and motor deficits,
are more attentive during instructions, more inclined to ask questions, and are more
conversational during the testing procedure (Boechler, Foth, & Watchorn, 2007).
Boechler et al. (2007) report that, to overcome sensory impairments (hearing and
vision) facilitators use larger materials, consider the setting and apply care to
establishing procedures and instructions (p. 234). From an information-processing
perspective, research into concurrent task performance in older adults reveals that
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educational strategies will need to accommodate declining psychomotor abilities
(Albinet, Tomporowski & Beasman, 2007) and that overlearning to the point of
automatisation is recommended to reduce demand on working memory. In other
technology-related research investigating the relationship between life satisfaction
and online education of older adults, Dorin (2007) found that older adults are
positively impacted by even minimal exposure to online education, reinforcing the
link between online education and well-being.
Given the rapid proliferation of educational activities relevant to the older
adult, it is proposed therefore that a more thoughtful institutional response to the
challenges of an ageing population—characterized by expanded adult education and
lifelong learning principles, applied through curriculum relevant to new theories of
ageing and aligned with the biopsychosocial elements of social gerontology—be
undertaken in Australia. Essentially this could be described as an integration of
institutions and processes of education with an appreciation of the content knowledge
of human ageing and the needs of older people. According to Sherron and Lumsden
(1990) and Wendt and Peterson (1993), these are the tenets of educational
gerontology.
2.8 Framework of Educational Gerontology
2.8.1 Introduction
Educational gerontology has been in existence for over thirty years (Engelbrecht
2006; Withnall, 2002). In this time some major achievements have occurred, such
as:
A major achievement has been to raise awareness among both academics and
practitioners in a whole range of disciplines about changes in the age
structure, and to stimulate debate concerning an intellectual basis for the
development of both theory and practice in education for older people.
(Withnall, 2002, p. 89)
In 1991 Jarvis (cited in Glendenning, 1991) stated that “educational
gerontology might well become a major option in professional adult preparation”
(p. 63) a view shared by Long (1990) who describes it as “including public
endeavours designed to inform about ageing and older people, and the preparation of
those who intend to work in human services for the aged” (p. 14). This definition is
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mirrored by Moseley and Dessigner (2007) who state “educational gerontology is the
study of how and why older adults learn; an interface between adult education and
social gerontology” (p. 334).
As noted by Sherron and Lumsden (1990), educational gerontology has its
origins in social gerontology, a discipline in its own right (Lowenstein, 2004) where
the ageing individual is viewed in their unique social, emotional and intellectual
context and against the social structures that surround them. This focus on the
individual translates into educational goals underpinned by social justice in order to
achieve self-empowerment and self-determination (Formosa, 2002). Closely aligned
with the notions of transformative learning as posited by Mezirow (1981) and
described by Baumgartner et al. (2003) as an approach “leading to a more integrated
self” (p. 24), the outcomes seen within the individual are theorised to lead to social
transformation.
In contrast to traditional linear educational outcomes, educational
gerontology introduces a wider knowledge base that moves in two directions:
knowledge about older learners, and knowledge for older learners directly (Walker,
1996). Practically, its purpose is ameliorative: to prevent premature decline, to
facilitate meaningful roles and to encourage psychological growth. Conceptually, it
focuses on the cognitive changes that occur throughout later life, the resultant
instructional changes that emerge in adaptation to these changes, and the
motivational factors determining participation and non-participation by older learners
(Petersen, cited in Glendenning, 2001). It is essentially a humanistic approach that is
underpinned by the goal of reaching full human potential (Baumgartner et al., 2003)
via spiritual, social and intellectual growth. Educational gerontology can be both
instrumental and expressive, both formal and informal, both for older people and
about them, both a study and a practice, both remedial and preventive – but with an
overarching theme of human development (Glendenning, 2001).
There has been some opposition to the establishment of a separate and
distinct educational gerontology program. Opposition to the development of this
field came from Maddox (1988) in questioning the political wisdom of creating
distinct degrees and careers out of gerontology, together with Berdes et al. (1992)
who considered it a potentially divisive exercise unless it was aligned with political
and economic realities. As evidenced from recent population and workplace
statistics, it is argued that these realities have arrived.
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There is also evidence of successful educational gerontology activities
overseas, including the development of practice competencies for entry-level
professionals in the field of ageing (Bennett & Sneed, 1999), standardization of
modules within the European Joint Masters Degree in Gerontology (Meyer, 2003),
Spanish university programs for seniors (Socias, Brage & Garma, 2004), the formal
linkage of US university gerontology curriculum with engagement and service with
elders (Goff, 2004) and US summer universities for seniors (Jarvis & Walker, 1997).
Research in ageing training also features as a priority for higher education in Europe
(Mehrotra, 2003b), and the practice of “integrative educational gerontology” has
emerged in research in German aged care settings (Maderer & Skiba, 2006). Finally,
the establishment of the Centre for Applied Gerontology at the Oberin University in
Japan reinforces the strength of the field and its movement beyond the scientific
paradigm and into the applied areas of interventions involving older people directly
(Shibata, 2006).
While the overarching philosophy of educational gerontology is that of
advocacy for the improvement of older adults’ lives, educational gerontology can be
operationalised through a variety of adult education activities. Firstly, educational
projects that extend knowledge of ageing into other educational sectors such as
schools can serve to reduce negative stereotypes and generate an informed society.
Community projects that inform older adults directly on issues such as preparing for
retirement, or training in technology use, also qualify as educational gerontology
activities. The worldwide University of the Third Age (U3A) offers student-led
classes in wide-ranging topic areas that stimulate participants and provide a positive
social engagement. Private sector projects that develop products for the ageing
population, corporate consultancies that advise on ageing workplaces, research
contribution to policy formulation and educational service to community and
industry organisations all represent the variety of educational gerontology
applications which might emanate from adult education. What is not clear, however,
is exactly how and where the study of educational gerontology as a subset of social
gerontology might be advanced. To progress this conceptualization and to begin to
understand how educational gerontology might also be operationalised, it is useful to
formulate a preliminary model of the various elements and activities underpinning
the field.
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2.8.2 Model of Educational Gerontology
To provide a diagrammatic synthesis of educational gerontology, Figure 2.1
Proposed Dimensions of Educational Gerontology in Australian Higher Education
presents a model of what an educational gerontology program might consist of, based
on a combination of the definitions. As noted earlier, Peterson (1976) described
educational gerontology as having three distinct but inter-related aspects—first,
educational opportunities for older people; second, education for the public about
older people and ageing; and third, education for professionals and para-
professionals working with older people. This definition developed a sharper
paradigmatic focus when Glendenning (2001) identified its linkage to social change
when he stated that educational gerontology is “a dynamic, fast-growing new branch
of social gerontology” (p. xi).
Reflecting the breadth of educational activities outlined by Jarvis and Walker
(1997) in a centre designed for seniors in the USA, this model is also underpinned by
an expanded view of adult learning theory posited by Baumgartner et al. (2003) and
Hodkinson et al. (2007) that is more inclusive of marginalised groups, concerned
with learning contexts and focused on transformative learning and empowerment.
This synthesised model also reflects an emerging adult education paradigm based on
geragogy, or the process of teaching older adults (John, 1988). In terms of the
emergence of geragogy, Withnall (2002) notes how Glendenning (2001) described
this as “the study of how older people function and learn, the psychology of learning,
programme models, good practice in teaching, and so on” (Withnall, 2002, p 90).
It is proposed therefore, that this synthesised approach to older adult
education can be and should be applied through Australian universities in response to
human development issues that are emerging out of the ageing Australian population.
In this model, Adult Education programs play a key role in applying the educational
gerontology activities in universities.
It is submitted that this model of educational gerontology is both feasible and
appropriate, due to the fundamental disciplinary knowledge of adult education theory
and lifelong learning principles, and due to the potential for mediation across
contributing disciplines such as sociology, psychology, gerontology and population
health. Other activities for the educational gerontologist include conducting and
disseminating research findings, the improvement of quality of programs to and for
older adults, and engagement in collaborative activities with community associations.
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For this reason, research entities have an integral role to perform in the formulation
of an effective educational gerontology presence.
Figure 2.1
Proposed Dimensions of Educational Gerontology in A ustralian Higher Education
It is important to note then that the particular focus for this study lies in the
two highlighted areas in the diagram, namely Training Delivery to and for Older
Learners and Ageing Research and Development. These are the areas regarded as
critical to generating capacity for educational gerontology in Australia and to
develop the springboard for meeting professional development needs of adult
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learning practitioners incumbent in organisations, delivering academic programs in
universities and developing ageing-related curriculum. These two shaded areas also
accommodate the range of potential educational gerontology activities which could
indicate evidence of or capacity for application of this specialized field. Emanating
from the model provided in Figure 2.1 and by cross-referencing with a range of
activities described by Jarvis and Walker (1997) applied in an innovative seniors
centre, a list of possible activities indicating evidence of educational gerontology has
been developed. They include:
� Internal staff development activities designed to promote an
understanding of educational issues related to ageing;
� Private sector educational projects that focus on older adults;
� Ageing educational research;
� Community education that comprises projects and programs that benefit
older adult community directly;
� Educational consultancy and advice that informs about older adults;
� Curriculum or program development where the content is specific to older
adult learning;
� Evaluation and accreditation of older adult educational programs;
� Information and guidance services that involve advocacy and information
to a wider audience;
� Creating learning environments that relate to age-friendly settings, and
geragogical instructional strategies including critical geragogy;
� Organisational policy that identifies internal systems and processes that
support ageing-specific educational activities; and
� Professional development and training that improves knowledge and
skills about older adults for incumbents employed in the aged sector.
In addition to the evidence-based activities identified above, there exist less
tangible areas that could be used to indicate capacity for educational gerontology.
These include:
� Educational experience that reveals a theoretical grounding in adult
education as a springboard for educational gerontology;
� An interdisciplinary research focus that includes research involvement
outside the originating discipline and focuses on older adults;
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� A culture of lifelong learning that suggests knowledge of, and adherence
to, lifelong learning principles;
� An organizational infrastructure that indicates that staffing and systems
support educational issues relevant to older adults;
� Policy and funding that provide conditions conducive to educational
gerontology pursuits;
� A social gerontology focus that establishes a philosophical framework in
which educational gerontology might be nurtured;
� An understanding of educational gerontology that suggests the existence
of a working knowledge of the parameters of this area; and
� Motivation/Other miscellaneous factors that indicate a drive for future
older adult educational projects, processes or institutional involvement.
2.9 Summary of Literature Review
This review of literature has argued for a change in traditional adult learning theory
and practices in response to an ageing world, particularly where psychological and
sociological issues gain prominence in the development and empowerment of older
adults. It also asserts that the Australian socio-political response to an ageing
demographic has introduced the need for a new benchmark for workplace training
and development practices, particularly as it relates to quality of experience for the
older Australian workplace learner. This fresh emphasis has implications for
programs and activities in the Australian university context, the existing Vocational
Education and Training (VET) sector, and the workforce development activities in
corporate Australia. Analysis of adult education and lifelong learning principles
reveals however that these activities will be ineffective if they are based solely on
economic drivers and linked only to vocational education outcomes, because this
neglects the spiritual, social and emotional elements of human development and
ageing. Adult education too has been revealed as inadequate for an audience that is
less homogenous than traditional adult learning theories have suggested, and which
neglects issues such as context, identity and personal transformation in learning.
Current gerontology curriculum, despite its well-developed disciplinary basis
(Howe, 1990), is considered too narrow for the older adult learner as it neglects the
social and psychological elements of learning, and content is largely bio-medical.
The emerging discipline of social gerontology with its critical framework that
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questions assumptions of power and citizenry amongst older adults, appears more in
line with widening social perspectives of ageing well. In addition, research indicates
that a curriculum more mindful of the consequences of ageist workplace practices
can assist in the development and empowerment of the older worker, and recent
legislation is providing added momentum to changing stereotypical views of older
adults at work. Finally, the practice of educational gerontology, defined as “a field
of study embracing exclusively education for older adults, public education about
ageing and the education of professionals and para-professionals in the field of
ageing” (Berdes et al., 1992, p. 28) provides a philosophical framework, consistent
with emergent adult educational philosophies, from which to investigate possible
remedies to the issues and challenges identified. Importantly, educational
gerontology also introduces a distinction between the content of ageing and the
process of instruction to older adults in the form of geragogy.
This chapter also proposed that Australian universities, and in particular,
Adult Education programs, possesses the strongest institutional platform for meeting
this challenge through the introduction of educational gerontology as an extension to
established adult education programs given their location in Faculties of Education.
This study suggests that Faculties of Education could build from the theoretical
foundations of adult education and the principles of lifelong learning necessary for
dealing effectively with older adult learners directly, and greatly assist in preparing
those for working with older learners to draw from other disciplines to create a more
rounded understanding of older adults and the strategies more suitable for a holistic
curriculum development.
While there are existing Ageing Research Centres that are affiliated with
universities, and established adult education programs within university faculties
presently, there is no evidence of resources from these organizations being directly
applied to the developmental needs of the older learner, or to meeting the needs of
professionals requiring preparation to serve the aged sector, particularly in relation to
their learning.
Both financial and social benefits exist for an educational focus of this nature.
Given the link between education and economic prosperity, between educational
engagement and older adults’ health and well-being, and the potential for education
to contribute towards delaying the onset of disease, it is argued that forward planning
in this area will ensure future cost benefits to Australia. Savings are predicted to be
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manifested in reduced health care costs as older adults engage socially which reduces
loneliness, isolation and depression and delays the onset of disease (Bishop, 2003).
Bowling (2007) found that, in terms of social functioning, “numerous associations
appeared between activity (social and productive), multiple roles and self-perceived
competence, efficacy, better health and functioning, autonomy, enhanced emotional
wellbeing and life satisfaction in old age” (p. 267). Moreover, while extended
working lives of older adults contribute towards the economy through increased
productivity, this practice sustains mental agility, which can also delay cognitive
decline (Schneider, 2003).
It is further argued that development of older adults as individuals translates
to a general betterment of society (Jamieson et al., 1998). Educational gerontology is
a specialist area within adult education that specifically supports development of
older adults, and is defined as “the study and practise of instructional endeavours for
a general or specific public about ageing and older people” (Sherron & Lumsden,
1990). The demographic trends indicating that Australia is ageing (Jorgensen, 2004)
justifies the usefulness of educational gerontology particularly within the milieu of
emerging concepts in contemporary adult education that increasingly emphasise
interdisciplinary issues encompassing learning contexts, older adult learner identities
and motivations, and specific geragogical processes discussed earlier in this Chapter.
Despite the established university infrastructure and the apparent fit with
lifelong learning, it is not yet clear where educational gerontology might practically
reside as a catalyst for professional development or curriculum content development.
This investigation could therefore, provide the rationale for educational gerontology
to be recognised as specialised curriculum within university Faculties of Education
Adult Education programs. Curriculum development is a complex process,
necessitating consideration of a variety of sources that impact on its feasibility.
These include internal factors such as the abilities and aptitudes of individuals, the
particular values, strengths and capacities of the educators, the political ethos,
structure and relationships of the institution, material resources, and perceived
shortcomings in the existing curriculum (Brady, 1990). External factors affecting
curriculum include cultural, political and social changes and expectations, changing
educational systems and policies, the changing nature of the subject matter, the
potential contribution by institutions, and flow of resources (Brady, 1990). It is
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argued that an analysis of the various contexts within which a potential curriculum
might rest is critical to this study.
It is therefore timely to investigate what the dimensions of educational
gerontology capacity might be. How do Australian universities currently meet the
overarching ameliorative goals of educational gerontology? Are local community
and regional economic needs being addressed through a focus on older learner
development? How well do current programs reflect a holistic and transformative
approach to ageing? How adequately are future adult learning practitioners being
prepared for an ageing population? What specific enablers or barriers exist for such
specialization? To answer these questions, it is proposed that research into the
application of educational gerontology principles be undertaken at Australian
university sites specifically concerned with adult education and ageing research
centres to determine their relevance to the changing Australian socio-political
context, their curriculum content input, their potential for exchange, and their
potential impact on the emerging learning needs of the older adult.
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Chapter 3 Research Design and Methodology
3.1 Introduction
This chapter introduces the overarching design of the study by discussing its
qualitative research framework. This section precedes a discussion of the relevance
of case study methods including data collection tools such as surveys and interviews
to achieving the research objectives. The chapter then provides a link from the
conceptual framework about educational gerontology based on the literature, to the
study design as a means to develop a framework of educational gerontology. This
framework provides the basis for the development of a list of characteristics
consistent with educational gerontology principles referred to in the research. These
characteristics underpin the instrument used to determine the level of familiarisation
and recognition of educational gerontology in Australian university Adult Education
and Ageing Research locales. This is followed by a presentation of the survey items
and guiding interview questions that were developed to investigate the evidence of,
and capacity for, educational gerontology in higher education. A description of data
collection tools, protocols and procedures is then provided, followed by a discussion
of the coding and analysis frameworks that are applied to the design. The chapter
concludes with issues relating to triangulation of results and trustworthiness of the
data, and an acknowledgement of some methodological limitations inherent in the
study.
3.2 Rationale
Based on demographic trends that signal widespread social changes across
dimensions such as education and training (Bloom & Canning, 2006), this research
seeks to determine if formal educational gerontology studies currently exists within
Australian university Adult Education programs and Ageing Research centres as
strategic preparation in accommodating ageing issues in future curriculum
development and educational gerontology awareness. This information will be vital
for Adult Education programs and Ageing research in the coming decades.
While the current socio-political context appears to support humanistic and
critical theoretical approaches fundamental to educational gerontology practice—and
it can be seen in Adult Education programs—it is argued that it has not yet been
extended to achieve consistency with the broadening interdisciplinary requirements
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and unique older adult learner characteristics inherent in educational gerontology.
The current preponderance is to focus only on adult education and learning that is
geared towards workplace training and career development, where:
� the HRD professional is largely influenced by production-centered forces,
� where organisational roles require competence, and
� where performance increases are defined by the organisation in a
competitive marketplace (Kuchinke, 2000).
Herzog and House (1991) however, caution against applying a broad
“employment-as-activity” strategy without consideration of a wider range of issues.
They state that “it is not just whether older adults are productively active, but
whether they are active at the level and in the form that they would like to be” (p. 4).
Ilmarinen (2005) encapsulates the older adult educational challenge by
stating:
Current practices and principles of adult education in worklife do not
encourage and support ageing adults to participate in training. Training has
usually been directed towards young adults and those with good basic
education. Therefore, the ageing workforce is a major challenge to adult
education instructors. Both the development of methods supporting the
learning of ageing people and changes in attitudes of adult education
instructors are required. (p. 224)
To address this gap in older adult educational provision, the following research
questions were formulated:
� What evidence of the practice of educational gerontology exists in
Australian university Adult Education programs and Ageing Research
centres?
� What capacity exists in these two disciplinary domains for the application
of educational gerontology principles?
� What elements of educational gerontology are required for the
development of curriculum content that extends current adult learning
concepts for those preparing to work in the aged sector?
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3.3 Research Setting
The study is situated in universities that either provide study programs in Adult
Education, or conduct Ageing Research in a dedicated research centre, as these sites
provide the most obvious place to begin the development and adoption of the study
of educational gerontology. For Adult Education providers, the established
infrastructure, knowledge base and teaching provisions can be integrally linked to
delivery of educational gerontology content as an extension of adult education degree
programs, as demand increases. The list of universities in Australia offering Adult
Education programs is shown in Table 3.1.
Table 3.1
Education Schools/Faculties offering Adult Educatio n Programs
Education Schools/Faculties State
Charles Sturt University New South Wales (NSW)
Queensland University of Technology Queensland (QLD)
Southern Cross University New South Wales (NSW)
Curtin University of Technology Western Australia (WA)
University of Tasmania Tasmania (TAS)
University of Technology Sydney New South Wales (NSW)
University of Western Sydney New South Wales (NSW)
University of South Australia South Australia (SA)
Griffith University Queensland (QLD)
None Australian Capital Territory (ACT)
None Victoria (VIC)
None Northern Territory (NT)
For university-affiliated Ageing Research centres, their established research
focus and gerontological knowledge is a suitable springboard for educational
gerontology as these centres provide an excellent basis to explore the cross
disciplinary nature of any emergent intervention in education gerontology that could
include allied health, business or human services. The list of university-affiliated
Ageing Research centres applicable to this study are provided in Table 3.2.
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Table 3.2
Australian Ageing Research centres
Australian Ageing Research Centre State Affiliation
Australasian Centre on Ageing QLD University of Queensland
National Ageing Research Institute VIC University of Melbourne
Centre for Elder Law NSW University of Western Sydney
Centre for Ageing and Pastoral Studies ACT Charles Sturt University
Centre for Social Change Research QLD Queensland University of Technology
Monash Ageing Research Centre VIC Monash University
Centre for Applied Gerontology VIC Bundoora Extended Care Centre, Southern Health Service
Centre for Mental Health Research ACT Australian National University
Research Centre on Ageing & Retirement NSW University of New South Wales
Research Centre for Gender Health & Ageing NSW University of Newcastle
Anzac Research Institute NSW University of Sydney
Communication Disability in Aging Research Unit
QLD University of Queensland
Ageing & Long Term Care Policy & Practices Unit
VIC University of Melbourne
Alma Unit for Research on Ageing VIC Victoria University
Centre for Ageing Studies SA Flinders University
Centre for Education and Research in Ageing NSW University of Sydney
Centre for Physical Activity in Ageing SA Royal Adelaide Hospital Health
Centre for Research into Aged Care Services WA Curtin University
Lincoln Centre for Ageing & Com Care Research
VIC La Trobe University
National Seniors Productive Ageing Centre QLD University of the Sunshine Coast
Business Work and Ageing Centre for Research
VIC Swinburne University of Technology
To investigate evidence of an understanding of educational gerontology and
the introduction of educational gerontology into research and teaching, this research
focuses on identifying activities such as academic staff awareness of this emergent
area of research, the existence of program delivery approaches to and for older adult
learners, current ageing educational research, and the preparation of future adult
educators for the older adult population. The study also examines the extent of
interdisciplinary collaboration to match the content relationship between adult
education and other contributing disciplines underpinning educational gerontology in
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Australian universities. These activities reflect the key issues related to supporting
educational gerontology as an area of study which is concerned with older adult
learners as a group, and older adults as individuals enjoying personal growth and
development as contributing members of society. A summary of these
characteristics in universities is illustrated in Figure 3.1, Proposed Dimensions of
Educational Gerontology in Australian Higher Education, which is reproduced here
for convenience.
Figure 3.1
Proposed Dimensions of Educational Gerontology in A ustralian Higher Education
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3.4 Research Philosophy
A qualitative research philosophy was utilized for this study because it is suitable for
research within a natural world setting and the use of multiple data collection
methods - in this research comprising survey and interviews—that are interactive and
humanistic, support the emergent nature of the data and the fundamental interpretive
outcome (Marshall & Rossman, 1999). Qualitative research produces findings that
are not based on statistical procedures, and its purpose is usually to examine people’s
words or actions in narrative and descriptive ways as experienced by participants
(Boulton-Lewis & Wilss, 2004). The focus of qualitative research is about people’s
lives, lived experiences, behaviours, and emotions, as well as organisational
functioning, social movements, and cultural interactions (Marshall & Rossman,
1999; Strauss & Corbin, 1997). A complementary explanation for this research
methodology is drawn from feminist research descriptors. While this study is not
specifically directed to gender, the research draws on its sociological theme of
examining “a problematic in relation to theoretical, policy, or action frameworks in
the interest of realizing social justice” (Punch, 2005, p. 136).
The commitment to action, the focus on emancipation of older adults from
negative ageist labelling and lack of political power, and the overarching needs
assessment, are further commonalities of this study to the feminist research
descriptors noted. Punch (2005) also suggests another significant purpose inherent in
this approach is that it can demystify the process underpinning the design.
Demystification research states that “the act of obtaining knowledge creates the
potential for change because the lack of research about certain groups accentuates
and perpetuates their powerlessness” (p. 138).
Consciousness-raising amongst adult educators and ageing researchers (e.g.
achieved by demystifying ageing to older adult educators, and by promoting the
value of older adults as contributing members of society) is a strong indicator of the
impact that educational gerontology research might ultimately have on the social
construction of old age. Finally, the “emancipatory impulse” (Punch, 2005) of this
design is consistent with the liberatory goals underpinning critical geragogy (see
Chapter 2) which emanate from other traditions of social thought such as Marxism
(Formosa, 2002). Having such a “cross-cut and overlap” (Punch, 2005) in this
research design reflects the range of current research approaches, but as Punch
A Case for Educational Gerontology in Adult Education
Chapter 3 72
(2005) states “taken together, they stress the political dimensions of research, and
contribute to the diversity in qualitative research” (p. 140).
The qualitative method employed in this research lays the foundation for
advancing a case study. This is a method regarded as distinct and having its own
research designs and strategy (Yin, 2003), while recognising the complexity of the
setting and the context (Punch, 2005). As Stake (1995) states, “a case study that
portrays an educational problem in all its personal and social complexity is a
precious discovery” (p. 254). While case studies can comprise a mix of quantitative
and qualitative evidence, they are particularly appropriate as a research strategy when
“how” and “why” questions are being posed, when the investigator has little control
over the events, and when the focus is on a contemporary phenomenon within some
real-life context (Yin, 2003, p. 1). It is argued that ageing and the relationship of
education to older adult health and well-being is a strong example of a contemporary
social phenomenon. Defined as a “bounded system,” a case is likely to be purposive,
and representing an integrated system (Stake, 1995). In this study, boundaries exist
due to the focus of the activities of each site and their specific charter. For example,
the Adult Education university sites represent an integrated system of institutional
programs that educate for a specific purpose, while the Ageing Research centres
represent an integrated system of highly purposive research teams united in their
research focus. This bounded feature complements the purpose of this study where
each site will provide an insight into the current awareness and practice of
educational gerontology. Due to the multiple sites included in the design, it can be
referred to as a “collective” case study (Stake, 1995, p. 5) where a greater concern for
representation is evident, or a “multiple case study” (Punch, 2005, p. 144) where the
focus is both within and across cases. In this study ageing is a phenomenon that
represents a shared construct between both sites, and while their treatment of the
phenomenon is different, it is argued that a consolidated understanding of the link
between ageing and education will prove a more powerful trigger for social and
political interest. A case study approach is also a particularly effective method that
contributes knowledge about individual, group, organisational, social and political
phenomena, and it is a strategy that is conducive to understanding complex social
structures, where the goal is to achieve “analytic generalisation” based on theoretical
propositions (Yin, 2003, p. 10). Given the sociological foundation of educational
gerontology, the impact of the socio-political context on the lives of older adults, and
A Case for Educational Gerontology in Adult Education
Chapter 3 73
the combination of contributing disciplines to the successful study of educational
gerontology as a specialist field, case studies represent the most appropriate strategy
for this research.
Successful case studies are characterised by a large number of variables,
sourced from multiple sources of evidence, where data converges in a triangulating
fashion, and where the design originates from theoretical propositions to guide data
collection and analysis. It was anticipated that in this study, each site would present
with individual complexities and embedded interactions with its context, revealing
issues that are intricately wired to political, social, historical, and personal contexts
(Stake, 1995).
3.4 Research Participants
The method used for selection of participants was a combination of critical case
sampling, where one setting that is particularly experienced in the research topic is
examined (e.g. university adult education programs are entirely focused on the
education of the adult) and criterion sampling, where participants possess a specific,
relevant characteristic (Patton, 2002). Participants in Ageing Research centres
represent a highly focused, gerontological research knowledge and capability. The
samples in qualitative studies are often acknowledged as too small for
generalizations. However, participants in this study are clearly linked by a common
focus within each site and are limited to an organisational context. Acknowledging
that these sites represent Australian-specific institutions, the university model
adopted in Australia is comparable to university campuses in other Western nations,
rendering the findings representative of similar cases. Moreover, the characteristics
identified in the proposed dimensions of educational gerontology have been drawn
from a broad consideration of international research literature, and it is argued that
this model is therefore likely to be applicable to cases outside the Australian socio-
political climate.
Thirty participants were selected for this study. This could be considered
small, but it is asserted by Sandberg (2000) that approximately 20 interviews can
provide sufficient data before respondent ideas reaches saturation point. More
importantly, the participants contributing to the study are expressly active within the
Research centres in ageing research and as Adult Education academics in Australian
universities, which gives added significance to the participants selected. In addition,
A Case for Educational Gerontology in Adult Education
Chapter 3 74
this sample represents the total number of sites of this type available in Australia,
thereby accurately representing a domestic Australian perspective.
Participants in this study consisted of executive representatives from each of
the 21 Australian Ageing Research centres (see Appendix 5) found through an
internet search targeting “ageing research” at every Australian university, and cross-
referenced with on-line information identifying specific research projects and
interests. To obtain participants from the Adult Education sector, each Australian
university was canvassed about details of adult education programs provided. This
generated a list of nine Faculties of Education together with the contact details of the
relevant adult education course coordinators.
This full complement of 30 participants was selected to complete the survey
due to the specific focus on research into ageing or adult education and their links
and affiliations to universities. It represented a community of entities linked by a
common purpose (ageing research or adult education), yet sufficiently diverse to
provide a wide range of organisational objectives suitable for investigation.
Moreover, it is argued that responses from these participants would reflect the full
range of possible activities undertaken across the ageing research and adult education
sector and thereby provide a comprehensive basis against which to compare and
contrast contemporary educational gerontology practices in universities.
3.4.1 Participation
Survey Responses
Each participant from both research sites (Adult Education programs and Ageing
Research Centres) was issued with the survey questionnaire and asked to volunteer
for a follow-up interview. Of the 30 subjects targeted, a total of 17 responded to the
research project. This means that an overall response rate of 57% for the study was
achieved.
A Case for Educational Gerontology in Adult Education
Chapter 3 75
Figure 3.2
Rate of Response by Research Location
Overall Participation in Study by Research Location
40%
17%
43% (R)esearch Centre Participation
(A)dult Education Faculty Participation
Non Participation
The 17 survey participants comprised 5 Adult Education Academics and 12
Ageing Research centre directors. This rate of response for each category of site is
reflected in Figure 3.2 which illustrates the participation from each research location.
This reveals that, of the total number of sites selected for the study, 55% of the nine
Australian university Adult Education program co-ordinators selected for
participation responded to the study while 57% of the 21 university-affiliated Ageing
Research centres existing in Australia, responded to the study.
Interview Participation
Sixty percent (60%) of Adult Education respondents to the survey agreed to
participate in a follow-up interview. Reasons some participants were unable to be
interviewed included lack of time and lack of interest. Consequently, the opportunity
to ascertain (and confirm) evidence of and capacity for educational gerontology
through follow-up discussion was not achievable for questionnaire responses
originating from two Australian states, namely Western Australia and Tasmania.
To obtain an overview of the participation rate, Table 3.3, Adult Education Program
Response Rate to Survey and Interview reflects the total number of Adult Education
program sites targeted, and the response rate to the survey and interview according to
the state of origin. This table indicates that 60% of participating Adult Education
academics agreed to participate in a follow-up interview.
A Case for Educational Gerontology in Adult Education
Chapter 3 76
Table 3.3
Adult Education program response rate to survey and interview
State Number Survey Interview
NSW 2 Yes Yes
2 No No
QLD 1 Yes Yes
1 No No
SA 1 No No
TAS 1 Yes No
WA 1 Yes No
The full list of Ageing Research Centre sites selected for the study can be
found in Appendix 5. The list of Ageing Research Centres who participated in the
study is provided below in Table 3.4 List of Participating Australian Ageing
Research Centres by State, together with an indication of their rate of response to the
survey and their willingness to participate in a follow-up interview. It also shows the
state from which the various respondents originated. This table indicates that 75% of
Ageing Research Centre survey respondents agreed to participate in a follow-up
interview.
Table 3.4
List of Participating Australian Ageing Research Ce ntres by State
State Number of
Respondents Surveys received Consent to Interview
ACT 1 Yes Yes
NSW 3 Yes Yes
2 Yes No
QLD 2 Yes Yes
1 Yes No
VIC 3 Yes Yes
TAS 0 No No
WA 0 No No
3.5 Procedure
Data in case study research may be collected through observation, interviews,
documentation and videotapes (Boulton-Lewis & Wilss, 2004). Given the purposive
nature of the sites selected for this study, namely university Adult Education
A Case for Educational Gerontology in Adult Education
Chapter 3 77
programs and Ageing Research centres linked to Australian universities, two data
collection methods were used. Firstly, a survey generated descriptive statistics
regarding the current educational gerontology activities of Adult Education faculties
and Ageing Research centres. Secondly, more detailed qualitative data was obtained
through subsequent telephone interviews with survey respondents, at each of these
sites. While the descriptive results provide a snapshot view of the current range,
frequency and extent of activities relevant to educational gerontology against the
model and dimensions provided, the interviews provide a deeper understanding of
the capacity inherent within each respondent for the application of educational
gerontology, together with perceived enablers and constraints such as personal
motivations, organisational limitations, and workload.
3.6 Questionnaire Instrument
The questionnaire was developed as the survey instrument. While the basic aim of
surveys is to describe and explain statistically the variability of certain features of a
population, descriptive statistics provide data to answer questions about the current
status of the project under study, reports “the way things are,” and can include
assessment of demographic information (Gay, 1990, p. 189). A questionnaire is
therefore suitable for learning about the distribution of characteristics, attitudes and
belief of the respondent (Marshall & Rossman, 1999). While the basic aim of
questionnaires is to describe and explain the various features of a population, the
specific questions in this study were designed to obtain general information about
educational gerontology. It is important to note that a filter mechanism was inserted
early in the survey design to identify those centres that have some educational faculty
involvement. Only these centres displaying education faculty involvement were
directed to complete the remainder of the questionnaire which dealt specifically with
current adult education activities, programs and practices.
Critical components of this research were to identify current educational
gerontology practices across both target sites, to determine the extent of current
capacity necessary to respond adequately to an ageing demographic, and to develop a
framework to extend established adult education concepts to cater for an ageing
population.
The second research instrument was the interview in which details obtained
from the survey instrument in addressing needs and issues about educational
A Case for Educational Gerontology in Adult Education
Chapter 3 78
gerontology were referred to as a basis for an open-ended interview. The geographic
spread of the sample sites across Australia presented a challenge for personally
accessing each location for a face-to-face interview. Mindful of the limitation, but
for logistic and pragmatic reasons, telephone interviews were selected to overcome
issues of distance and to minimise travel expenses. Guided by the survey responses,
and based on the dimensions of educational gerontology developed in the literature,
the telephone interview explored:
� current educational ageing research activity;
� evidence of links or correlations with specific Faculty focus and
gerontology program types;
� extent of familiarity with the educational gerontology paradigm;
� evidence of attitudinal or perceived organisational barriers;
� types of collaborations that have occurred;
� demographic information;
� evidence of educational gerontology activities, and
� evidence of programs that support geragogy.
3.7 Conceptual Basis of the Questionnaire Items
Formulated from Figure 3.1, Proposed Dimensions of Educational Gerontology in
Australian Higher Education and focusing on the shaded areas, namely “Training
delivery to and for older learners” and “Ageing research and development,” a list of
possible activities under each dimension was generated as a basis for development of
the questionnaire items. These activities were drawn from the definition of
educational gerontology provided by Wendt and Peterson (1993) which is “a field of
study embracing exclusively education for older adults, public education about
ageing and the education of professionals and para-professionals in the field of
ageing” (as cited in Berdes et al., 1992, p. 11). To extend the relevance of these
activities, this definition was further extrapolated by using the description of
educational gerontology provided by Wendt and Peterson (1993) which is “an
integration of institutions and processes of education with the content knowledge of
human ageing and the needs of older people” (p. 182).
A Case for Educational Gerontology in Adult Education
Chapter 3 79
A useful synthesis of these definitions was provided by Walker (1996) who
regards educational gerontology as comprising three distinct, yet interrelated aspects:
� educational activities about ageing and older people to a wider public;
� educational activities designed for older adults; and
� educational preparation for those intending to work in professional or
paraprofessional capacities in the aged sector.
Using these definitions, and based on the key dimensions of educational
gerontology noted in Figure 3.1, Proposed Dimensions of Educational Gerontology
in Australian Higher Education, a list of organizational activities that have the
potential to provide evidence of educational gerontology at each site was developed.
In a similar way, a list of concepts that would indicate capacity for the application of
educational gerontology principles was also developed. To further refine the process
of developing survey questions, event codes proposed by Burns (2000) were used to
categorise and delineate specific activities relating to educational gerontology and to
foreshadow a framework for dimensional analysis. These include: social structure
codes that indicate patterns of behaviours and relationships; strategies codes that
indicate how people do things; and subject perspective codes that reveal how
respondents feel about their situation. These codes were regarded as useful for a
preliminary categorisation of the contents of the interview conversations prior to
analysing their content according to the situational analysis, a process regarded by
Brady (1990) as essential for answering the educational gerontology curriculum
research question formulated in Chapter 2.
In Table 3.5 Conceptual Basis of Survey Items Investigating Educational
Gerontology, the linkages between the proposed dimensions of educational
gerontology, the key attributes and the ensuing survey questions are provided.
A C
ase
fo
r E
duc
atio
nal
Ge
ron
tolo
gy in
Ad
ult E
du
catio
n
Cha
pter
3
80
Tab
le 3
.5
Con
cept
ual B
asis
of S
urve
y Ite
ms
Inve
stig
atin
g E
duc
atio
nal G
eron
tolo
gy
DIM
EN
SIO
N 1
: E
vide
nce
of E
duca
tiona
l G
eron
tolo
gy
Key
Attr
ibut
es
Eve
nt C
odes
Q
uest
ionn
aire
(Q
) Ite
m o
r Int
ervi
ew
Inte
rnal
Sta
ff D
evel
opm
ent
• in
tern
al a
ctiv
ities
des
igne
d to
pro
mot
e un
ders
tand
ing
of
educ
atio
nal i
ssue
s in
age
ing.
S
TR
AT
EG
Y
Q8(
e)
Inte
rvie
w
Priv
ate
Sec
tor
Pro
ject
s •
exte
rnal
edu
catio
nal p
roje
cts
rele
vant
to o
lder
adu
lts
ST
RA
TE
GY
/SO
CIA
L S
TR
UC
TU
RE
Q
8(f)
Inte
rvie
w
Age
ing
Edu
catio
nal R
esea
rch
• ag
eing
res
earc
h w
ith a
n ed
ucat
iona
l ele
men
t S
TR
AT
EG
Y
Q1;
Q7,
Q 8
(a)
Com
mun
ity E
duca
tion
• pr
ojec
ts o
r pr
ogra
ms
that
ben
efit
the
olde
r co
mm
unity
di
rect
ly
ST
RA
TE
GY
/SO
CIA
L S
TR
UC
TU
RE
Q
4, Q
6, Q
8(g)
, Q8(
i)
Inte
rvie
w
Edu
catio
nal C
onsu
ltanc
y an
d A
dvic
e •
prof
essi
onal
con
sulta
ncy
rega
rdin
g ag
eing
to e
xter
nal
agen
cies
S
TR
AT
EG
Y/S
OC
IAL
ST
RU
CT
UR
E
Q8
(a-k
)
Inte
rvie
w
Eva
luat
ion
and
accr
edita
tion
of
educ
atio
nal p
rogr
ams
• qu
ality
adv
ice
rela
ting
to e
duca
tiona
l pro
gram
s of
fere
d to
w
ider
aud
ienc
e S
TR
AT
EG
Y/S
OC
IAL
ST
RU
CT
UR
E
Q8(
h)
Info
rmat
ion
and
Gui
danc
e se
rvic
es
• ad
voca
cy a
nd in
form
atio
n to
wid
er a
udie
nce
ST
RA
TE
GY
/SO
CIA
L S
TR
UC
TU
RE
In
terv
iew
Cre
atin
g Le
arni
ng E
nviro
nmen
ts
• ev
iden
ce o
f ag
e-fr
iend
ly le
arni
ng e
nviro
nmen
ts,
inst
ruct
iona
l str
ateg
ies
or g
erag
ogy
proc
esse
s re
leva
nt to
ol
der
lear
ners
.
ST
RA
TE
GY
Q
8(i)
Inte
rvie
w
Org
anis
atio
nal P
olic
y •
inte
rnal
sys
tem
s an
d pr
oces
ses
that
sup
port
edu
catio
nal
activ
ities
S
TR
AT
EG
Y/S
OC
IAL
ST
RU
CT
UR
E
Q10
Inte
rvie
w
Pro
fess
iona
l Dev
elop
men
t and
T
rain
ing
in A
ged
Sec
tor
•
prog
ram
s, s
emin
ars,
wor
ksho
ps th
at im
prov
e th
e sk
ills
of
the
full
rang
e of
age
d se
ctor
em
ploy
ees.
S
TR
AT
EG
Y/S
OC
IAL
ST
RU
CT
UR
E
Q8(
e)
Cur
ricul
um o
r P
rogr
am
Dev
elop
men
t •
deve
lopm
ent o
f age
ing-
spec
ific
cont
ent m
ater
ial f
or in
tern
al
deliv
ery
ST
RA
TE
GY
Q
6, Q
8(b)
,Q8(
c)
Inte
rvie
w
A C
ase
fo
r E
duc
atio
nal
Ge
ron
tolo
gy in
Ad
ult E
du
catio
n
Cha
pter
3
81
Tab
le 3
.5 c
ont.
Con
cept
ual B
asis
of S
urve
y Ite
ms
Inve
stig
atin
g E
duc
atio
nal G
eron
tolo
gy
DIM
EN
SIO
N 2
: C
apac
ity fo
r Edu
catio
nal
Ger
onto
logy
Key
Attr
ibut
es
Eve
nt C
odes
Q
uest
ionn
aire
(Q
) Ite
m o
r Int
ervi
ew
Edu
catio
nal E
xper
ienc
e of
the
Res
pond
ent
• re
leva
nt p
latfo
rm fo
r un
ders
tand
ing
adul
t edu
catio
n
SU
BJE
CT
P
ER
SP
EC
TIV
E
Inte
rvie
w
Inte
rdis
cipl
inar
y R
esea
rch
Foc
us
of th
e S
ite
• ed
ucat
iona
l or
agei
ng r
esea
rch
invo
lvem
ent o
utsi
de th
e or
gani
zatio
n S
TR
AT
EG
Y/S
OC
IAL
ST
RU
CT
UR
E
Q3;
Q4;
Q7;
Q8(
k)
Inte
rvie
w
Life
long
Lea
rnin
g C
ultu
re
• kn
owle
dge
of, a
nd a
dher
ence
to, l
ifelo
ng le
arni
ng p
rinci
ples
S
UB
JEC
T
PE
RS
PE
CT
IVE
Q
8(j)
Inte
rvie
w
Org
anis
atio
nal i
nfra
stru
ctur
e •
staf
fing
or s
yste
ms
in s
uppo
rt o
f ed
ucat
iona
l end
eavo
rs
SO
CIA
L S
TR
UC
TU
RE
Q
10
Inte
rvie
w
Pol
icy
and
Fun
ding
•
cond
ition
s of
fund
ing
that
ena
ble
or c
onst
rain
edu
catio
nal
purs
uits
S
OC
IAL
ST
RU
CT
UR
E
Q1
Inte
rvie
w
Soc
ial G
eron
tolo
gy F
ocus
•
pres
ence
of
the
fund
amen
tal f
ram
ewor
k fo
r ed
ucat
iona
l ge
ront
olog
y S
UB
JEC
T
PE
RS
PE
CT
IVE
Q
1
Inte
rvie
w
Und
erst
andi
ng o
f E
duca
tiona
l G
eron
tolo
gy
• a
wor
king
kno
wle
dge
of th
is s
peci
alis
t are
a S
UB
JEC
T
PE
RS
PE
CT
IVE
Q
5
Inte
rvie
w
Mot
ivat
ion/
Oth
er
• m
isce
llane
ous
activ
ities
or
futu
re g
oals
indi
catin
g fu
ture
ed
ucat
iona
l pro
cess
es o
r in
stitu
tiona
l inv
olve
men
t. S
UB
JEC
T
PE
RS
PE
CT
IVE
Q
9
Inte
rvie
w
A Case for Educational Gerontology in Adult Education
Chapter 3 82
3.7.1 Survey Questions
Based on the dimensions noted in Table 3.5, the following questions were formulated
to investigate evidence of educational gerontology practices in Australian university
Adult Education programs and Ageing Research centres across Australia, resulting in
the following items:
Section One of the survey examined:
What is the primary focus of the Research centre or Adult Education Faculty?
What kind of ageing research activities are conducted by the Research centre
or Adult Education Faculty?
In what way does the Research centre or Adult Education Faculty contribute
to the university’s Strategic Plan?
What links exist to the university generally?
What function do these links perform?
What links exist to Ageing Research or Faculties of Education?
What function do these links perform?
What ageing-related educational programs are offered at the centre or
Faculty?
Section Two of the survey examined:
What educational gerontology-based programs currently exist?
What are the topics being offered?
Where and how are they delivered?
To what extent has interdisciplinary collaboration occurred to achieve
objectives associated with educational gerontology?
What industry and community collaboration has occurred to foster
educational gerontology practice?
Is any research in educational gerontology being conducted?
Section Three of the survey elicited:
Voluntary Demographic Information
Optional return address for distribution of findings
Thanks to Respondents
A Case for Educational Gerontology in Adult Education
Chapter 3 83
The survey questions were field-tested to obtain early feedback about the
clarity, flow, and overall validity of the instrument. The field-testing involved
obtaining feedback from three independent stakeholders active in various areas
across the ageing sector. Participants in the field-test included an independent
doctoral student in ageing, a representative of an older person’s lobby group, and a
university academic. The field-testing process was based on a list of potential
weaknesses in survey design as provided by Neuman (1994), which include:
� Jargon, slang and abbreviations;
� Ambiguity, confusion and vagueness;
� Emotional language and prestige bias;
� Double-barreled questions;
� Questions that are beyond the capabilities of the respondent;
� Questions that ask about future intentions;
� Overlapping response categories;
� Unbalanced response categories (p. 230).
As a result of feedback received, the response category developed for noting
the length of establishment time was amended, as the range did not follow
sequentially. In addition, reservations about the use of the term “educational
gerontology” were raised as it was perceived as intellectual elitism or labeling.
While mindful of this tendency for jargon, the researcher retained the term in the
survey to remain consistent with established descriptors within the literature and to
sustain the theoretical framework underpinning the study. The final questionnaire is
provided in Appendix 4.
3.7.2 Data Collection
The first opportunity for data collection occurred through contact with potential
respondents and this was conducted by post (and email). The objectives of this
contact stage were to confirm respondent details and willingness to participate in the
study. Information regarding the project was then distributed (see Appendix 1)
together with research protocols (see Appendix 2) and consent form for voluntary
participation (see Appendix 3) which provided the participant with an opportunity to
nominate a date and time for the telephone interview. In most cases, however, the
researcher personally contacted the respondents by telephone to arrange a time and
A Case for Educational Gerontology in Adult Education
Chapter 3 84
date for the interview. This was useful to establish early rapport, and to convey an
early enthusiasm regarding the interview process.
3.7.3 Units of Measurement
Due to the number of respondents (n=30) identified, it was anticipated that simple
percentages would be applied to the results. Descriptive data including
demographics, primary research focus and length of establishment would be reflected
in averages and broad totals.
Question 8 (a-k) Self-rating scale
Question 8 sought to examine the extent of collaboration across both sites by
participants’ self-rating the extent of various activities including curriculum review,
curriculum development, program development, professional development,
community involvement, best practice, geragogical delivery, application of
educational gerontology and making grant and funding applications. A four-point
scale was designed according to four descriptors beginning at 1=not at all, 2=minor
involvement, 3=regular involvement and ending with 4=significant involvement. The
self-rating questions also provided an opportunity for further comments and
elaboration, which were used during the interview to elicit greater explanation of the
collaborative activities between the Ageing Research Centre and the university Adult
Educators.
Questions 9 – 10 Open ended questions
Analysis of responses in the open-ended questions sought to clarify, categorise, and
classify in such a way as to name objects and display the relationships between them
(Morse & Richards, 2002). A wide variety of responses were anticipated in these
open-ended questions, which resulted in the use of a constant comparative method of
content analysis (Strauss & Corbin, 1997), an iterative process in which interview
transcripts are read and re-read to determine recurring themes and identify concepts.
In this way the theoretical framework inherent in the proposed dimensions of
educational gerontology was used to analyse the data to seek a level of congruence or
misfit. This can be described as “dimensional analysis” (Morse & Richards, 2002,
p. 57), drawn from grounded theory where the overarching structure guides analysis.
A Case for Educational Gerontology in Adult Education
Chapter 3 85
By keeping the literature in mind, and by relating transcripts to key research
questions and the model of educational gerontology, commonalities, categories and
relationships between them were developed.
3.7.4 Telephone Interviews
Appreciating that telephone interviews do not provide the opportunity to interpret
facial expressions and body languages, the telephone interview process was carefully
planned. To scaffold the interview process, the four stages of interviews as proposed
by Cavana, Delahaye and Sekaran (2001) were used as a planning tool. The stages
include “entrance investment time, activity No2, intimacy and exit investment time”
(p. 138). As part of the entrance investment time, and to establish the appropriate
entry into the “rapport zone” (p. 139), culturally accepted ritual greetings were used.
Still within this adjustment period, and to reduce anxiety, the researcher described
the housekeeping rules applicable to the conversation, emphasising the flexibility of
the interview process, the ability of the respondent to adjust, re-phrase or retract
comments should they wish to, and the opportunity to suspend the conversation
should some interruption occur. The taped nature of the interview and the
confidentiality of the respondent were also reiterated at this time. Such an entry
procedure can “assist in removing natural barriers and in lowering anxiety” (p. 139).
As a further gesture of courtesy, permission to proceed with the interview was sought
before continuing to the next stage.
Cavana et al. (2001) describes the second stage – Activity No. 2 - as being
content-based. Consistent with this concept, the ensuing questions were all based on
the survey responses of the particular respondent. It must be noted that the survey
responses provided only a guiding principle to the interview, as the questions and
responses varied between participants and across sites, thereby making each
interview unique. The interviews were also semi-structured due to the reasonable
amount of information already gathered (Burns, 2000), the switch between content-
specific and open-ended questions, and the use of the “preferred scenario” strategy
(Cavana et al., 2001, p. 149) as the final question, which was the same in every
interview. To enhance clarity, verbal advance organisers were used to orientate the
respondent to their previously-submitted survey responses before each new question
was posed.
A Case for Educational Gerontology in Adult Education
Chapter 3 86
While the third stage “intimacy” (Cavana et al., 2001, p. 150) is more
difficult to achieve in a telephone interview, the open-ended questions at the end of
the interview generated free expression of ideas that were categorised by the
researcher as “crystal ball” ideas. No limitation or restriction on the responses was
inferred at this point, instead strong affirmations were made by the researcher after
each comment on the “basis of a shared, authentic and sincere interest” (p. 150) in
the field of gerontology and in the practise of adult education. As Zima (1991) states
“vocal body language that projects interest and enthusiasm in the other person and
the topic under discussion is a decided advantage and can overcome most visual and
vocal non-verbal limitations” (p. 24). Full disclosure of more private aspirations and
concerns were often more forthcoming from the respondents at this stage.
To make up the “exit time investment” (Cavana et al., 2001, p. 141), the
researcher asked the respondent if there were any questions they wished to ask. This
was effective in achieving three things: firstly it reinforced a sense of collegiality
between the two parties; secondly it enabled clarification of any issues about the
research project; and finally, it gave the respondent a cue that the interview was
concluding. This pre-empted a positive verbal leave-taking, with all of the
respondents wishing the researcher well with the remainder of the project.
In terms of organisation, the telephone interviews were organised through the
use of a telephone conferencing service, pre-arranged to occur at mutually-
convenient interview times, and efforts were made by the researcher to adhere to
estimates of the duration of each conversation.
3.7.5 Transcription
The recording of each interview was transcribed using the telephone conference
services of a communications company. Under this arrangement, at the completion
of each telephone interview, the recording of the conversation on a Compact Disc
(CD) was mailed to the researcher for transcription. Recordings of the verbatim text
were received by the researcher within one week of the associated interview.
Transcription was manual, using Microsoft Word© and Windows Mediaplayer©
software. To enable easy identification of excerpts from the interview responses, a
coding system was implemented. This system identified the extract by referring to
A Case for Educational Gerontology in Adult Education
Chapter 3 87
the date of the interview, the initials of the participant, and the number of the excerpt,
in the order that it was stated during the telephone conversation.
3.7.6 Analysis
The overarching analytical strategy for this study was based on the dimensions of
educational gerontology developed through a synthesis of literature, definitions of
educational gerontology developed over the last two decades, and the Proposed
Dimensions of Educational Gerontology in Australian Higher Education as
illustrated in Figure 3.1. This analysis process reflects an etic approach whereby the
intent to measure the dimensions of educational gerontology preceded the
development of a series of categories as an indicator of these constructs (Lee, 2002).
As noted earlier, these constructs were derived from the theoretical framework of
educational gerontology and purposely search for evidence of and capacity for
educational gerontology. Closer analysis of responses formulated in the open-ended
questions and interviews should generate emic issues, which are “representations of
the multiple constructions that various respondents have made” (p. 215) and
considered essential to case studies as these reflect issues from the inside (Stake,
1995). These issues are useful in determining the capacity for educational
gerontology across these settings. This allowed the researcher to develop greater
understanding of each site and formulate assertions in the form of “petite
generalisations” (p. 20).
3.7.7 Coding
NVivo software was used to establish a plan for analysis, where each interview was
coded into specific nodes (categories) that reflect educational gerontology principles
and aligned with pre-determined attributes to enable searching, cross-analysis,
categorical aggregation and reporting. These nodes and sample transcripts are
presented in Appendix 7. This aided in formulating a tabular representation of
results for each site and across sites.
Contents of transcripts were perused for statements that relate to each of the
issues and main themes and these statements were coded accordingly. This
dimensional analysis (Morse & Richards, 2002) sought to identify applicability and
relevance to key themes, where these themes were closely related to the criteria
A Case for Educational Gerontology in Adult Education
Chapter 3 88
proposed as supporting the application of educational gerontology principles. They
include:
� Collaboration with faculties for research projects;
� Research projects with an educational component;
� Incorporation of educational practices into centre activities;
� Professional development programs;
� In-house knowledge and skills of educational gerontology;
� Future plans for inter-disciplinary collaboration; and
� Perceived barriers to inclusion of educational gerontology.
Weinberg and Abramowitz (2002) regard this as traditional analysis, where
systematic coding, grouping and summarising occur in order to provide a coherent
organising framework that encapsulates the social world of the respondents.
However, to generate active interview data, the analysis should also show the
dynamic interrelatedness of the whats and hows (Weinberg & Abramowitz, 2002,
p. 124). To achieve this, contents of each theme was further analysed to reveal emic
issues (those important to the respondents themselves), with particular focus on the
perceived enablers and constraints relevant to the introduction of educational
gerontology in higher education. For example, personal viewpoints offered during
the interviews provided another dimension to the complex workings of the respective
research centre, and revealed unexpected biases or indicated a genuine lack of
knowledge regarding the practice of educational gerontology. To mitigate researcher
bias during the analysis, these were cross-referenced with specific attributes of each
site drawn from the demographic information supplied in questions 1-7 of the
questionnaire. These included: research focus, length of establishment, affiliation
status, affiliation purpose, link to educational gerontology, knowledge of educational
gerontology, existence of training programs, and links to university programs in adult
education or university research in ageing.
3.7.8 Triangulation
Stake (1995) regards one of the principle targets for triangulation to be the
“presentation of a substantial body of uncontestable description” (p. 110). He also
argues that “only the important data and claims will be deliberately triangulated”
(p. 112), where importance is directly related to the ability to understand the issues or
A Case for Educational Gerontology in Adult Education
Chapter 3 89
differentiate between conflicting meanings. At this stage, theory triangulation was
achieved by an evaluation of findings against the conceptual framework and
proposed model of educational gerontology (as noted in Figure 3.1) and the list
identifying evidence of and capacity for this practice, where theory means “the
design of research steps according to some relationship to the literature, policy
issues, or other substantive source” (Yin, 2003, p. 5).
Methodological triangulation was achieved through comparison of the
transcripts with the original responses on the questionnaire to determine
inconsistency in viewpoints. One example of inconsistency was found where a
particular survey response indicated an extensive knowledge of educational
gerontology, but during the interview it was found that this respondent was referring
to an understanding of lifelong learning and could not elaborate in any way on
educational gerontology. For this reason, the self-rating score was reduced by the
researcher to represent no knowledge of the field.
In addition, each separate transcript recorded by the NVivo software package
is available to other researchers, a practice common to case studies (Yin, 2003).
Notes taken by the researcher during the telephone interviews have been stored,
together with any completed questionnaires and the CDs containing the actual
conversations. To further improve the reliability, a chain of evidence has been
established by:
a) recording dates and times of each interview,
b) placing each interview transcript on file
c) attaching memos and notes about specific circumstances to each file, and
d) identifying linked documents to each transcript where applicable.
The final effort in triangulation was to view the findings against the proposed
macro forces exerting pressure on each site, including policy, legislation, funding
and socio-cultural influences. Such a process assisted in defining and testing
potential “rival theories” (Yin, 2003, p. 113) where the outcomes could have been
influenced by outside forces. As Yin states, “the more rivals that your analysis
addresses and rejects, the more confidence you can place on your findings” (p. 113).
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Chapter 3 90
3.7.9 Trustworthiness
By their nature, qualitative studies cannot be replicated because the real world
changes. Peer debriefing is recommended to improve trustworthiness (Stage &
Manning, 2003) and this was conducted in collaboration with the researcher’s
Academic Supervisory team. In addition, all collected data was well organised and is
available for future use or re-analysis by other researchers. To mitigate interviewer
bias, each interview is supported by taped recordings of each conversation and
verbatim transcripts.
The Code of Ethics for Research in Education, as issued by the Australian
Association for Research in Education (Bibby, 1997) outlines four basic ethical
principles, and these include:
i) Research consequences must be generally enhancing,
ii) Research must have an ethical element,
iii) No harm should occur to any individuals, and
iv) Full respect for the dignity and worth of persons and the welfare of
students, research participants and the public generally should take
precedence over any research self-interests (p. 116).
Consistent with these principles, this research proposal received Level 1
ethical clearance from the QUT Human Research Ethics Committee (see Appendix
7).
3.7.10 Presentation of Results
Descriptive results are initially presented in graphical form, in tables and diagrams.
Results of interview questions are presented in tabular format, and include excerpts
from statements made by the participants, in such a way that enables the creation of
thematic (categorical) models with links to specific attributes.
3.8 Limitations of the Design
The sample represented all the existing university Adult Education programs and
Ageing Research centres in Australia. In the case of Ageing Research centres,
participants were selected on the basis of performing an ongoing and active
leadership role within the centre. This selection technique may have introduced bias
in that these participants could be locked into a mode of advancing and justifying the
A Case for Educational Gerontology in Adult Education
Chapter 3 91
positive elements of their centre, and this might generate exaggeration of the centre’s
activities and relative success factors. In addition, while the sample might have
contributed significant understanding to emerging curriculum content issues in
higher education, the small number of sites investigated might not be sufficient to
achieve credibility from some university administrators or curriculum development
policy-makers.
The interviews may not have been of sufficient length to nurture the
relationship between the interviewer and researcher, and to develop an understanding
of how the specific culture influences the lives of those participants. To alleviate
this, the interviewer paid special attention to establishing a climate of “respectful
listening” (Stage & Manning, 2003, p. 37) during the interview process.
The sites selected for the study were geographically dispersed, and the
locations of the research sites made it difficult for the researcher to physically visit
each Education Faculty or Research centre to identify the more subtle nuances and to
develop perspectives of each location. To mitigate this limitation, the researcher
visited two local Ageing Research centres to develop a sense of perspective and to
gain a deeper understanding of the typical environment, focus, demands and daily
operations of such an organisation. To develop Faculty insights, the researcher
utilised personal experience in a similar Faculty to develop a sense of operations and
an appreciation of the role of coordinators in each Faculty or School. As such, an
assumption was made that the culture of the Education Faculties and Ageing
Research centres investigated is similar to that of most Education Faculties and
Ageing Research centres in Australian university environments. This assumption
may have resulted in some of the subtleties of the Faculty or administrative culture
being overlooked, and may not have revealed the extent of industry partnerships or
involvement with other more general research centres or education providers.
The lack of face-to-face contact may also have hindered the development of
rapport between the researcher and the participants, and impacted negatively on the
willingness of the participants to participate fully in the interview. As Stage and
Manning (2003) state, “gaining participant’s trust is crucial to yielding high-quality
interview data and enhancing authentic data analysis and interpretation” (p. 38). For
this reason, specific telephone interview guidelines as proposed by Cavana et al.
(2001) were closely followed to enhance the quality of this process.
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Chapter 3 92
Finally, the researcher was also aware that language and interpretation issues
might arise due to the researcher’s non-Australian heritage. Moreover, the status of
the researcher (student) relative to the participant (academic) had the potential to
influence the level of disclosure, especially in situations where identity and power
differences illuminate unique variations in the experiences of the population (Stage
& Manning, 2003, p. 42). As these authors state, authoritative relationships are
particularly relevant to “program evaluation or institutional assessment” (p. 42). To
reduce this potential obstacle, the researcher stressed the humanist philosophy
inherent the research study, which encouraged a sense of collegiality and mutual
benefit, and highlighted the need for a greater focus on older adult Australians on the
basis of acknowledged demographic change.
3.9 Summary
This study design reflects the synthesis of currently disparate disciplines and
dimensions associated with ageing, to provide a launch pad for an investigation of
educational gerontology and its application in the Australian university setting. To
conduct this investigation, a questionnaire instrument was developed to examine the
evidence of educational gerontology and an interview process was designed to
further investigate preliminary survey results. It is anticipated that the results from
these two data collection methods will also be useful in the development of a
framework for curriculum relevant to older adult education programs, and the
subsequent professional development of older adult practitioners. It is suggested that
other ancillary benefits of this research include:
� The development of an emphasis on quality standards for educational
practices relevant to older Australians, and
� Improved public awareness about the process of ageing, and the
uniqueness of every older person’s experience.
To achieve a robust design, careful consideration of methodological and
analytical procedures was followed to mitigate issues of distance such as lack of
face-to-face contact and the inability to witness idiosyncrasies and more subtle
nuances specific to each site. The design of the analysis of data collected was based
on the guiding principles provided by the theoretical framework and proposed model
of educational gerontology, where theory means “the design of research steps
A Case for Educational Gerontology in Adult Education
Chapter 3 93
according to some relationship to the literature, policy issues, or other substantive
source” (Yin, 2003, p. 5). Finally, systematic administrative, organisational and
record-keeping protocols were employed to maintain a high level of professionalism,
to adhere to ethical standards, and to achieve a high standard of research quality.
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Chapter 4 94
Chapter 4 Results and Interpretation 4.1 Introduction and Structure of this Chapter
The purpose of this study was to investigate Australia’s readiness for accommodating
a specialised form of older adult education known as educational gerontology. The
relevance and applicability of this field, which is concerned with education for and
about older adults, is increasing due to the emerging links between health, well-being
and social engagement in the later years. Consequently, this chapter presents the
results of an investigation into the evidence of and capacity for educational
gerontology in adult education programs offered in Australian university Adult
Education programs and in university-affiliated centres focusing on Ageing
Research. The data was collected by surveying and interviewing participants who
were coordinating adult education programs in Australian universities, and who were
actively involved in Ageing Research centres located in Australian universities.
This chapter first provides an account of the participation rates for the study,
including the rate of response by research location. This is followed by a description
of the results and interpretation framework which includes a revisit of the proposed
model of educational gerontology formulated from the literature review, and a
description of the specific elements extracted from this model that form the basis for
the investigation. Results generated by the investigation are presented in three parts.
Part One of the results focuses specifically on demographic data gleaned through the
preliminary items in the questionnaire. In Part Two, which is presented in tabular
format, results from investigation into the evidence of educational gerontology is
presented. Results of both research locations are presented simultaneously in this
section to enable the development of a comparative view of the data generated in
questionnaires and in follow-up interviews. Part Three, which is also presented in a
tabular format, details the results of investigation into the capacity of educational
gerontology, leading to a presentation of key findings which are provided in Part
Four.
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Chapter 4 95
4.2 Results and Interpretation Framework
A critical component of this research was to firstly investigate the existence of
educational gerontology principles across both research sites as a means to generate
an understanding of current capacity determined necessary to cater to an ageing
demographic. This research objective is based on the definition of educational
gerontology provided by Berdes et al. (1992) which is “a field of study embracing
exclusively education for older adults, public education about ageing and the
education of professionals and para-professionals in the field of ageing” (p. 11).
Referring to this definition, together with a synthesis of literature covering sociology,
psychology, adult education and post-compulsory educational domains, a model of
the practice of educational gerontology was developed in Chapter 2, which is
reproduced here for convenience. The investigation focused on two specific areas
within this model, namely Training Delivery to and for Older Learners, and Ageing
Research and Development.
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Chapter 4 96
Figure 4.1
Proposed Dimensions of Educational Gerontology in A ustralian Higher Education
Drawing from this model, a list of elements that have the potential to indicate
evidence of the practice of educational gerontology was generated. These include:
� Internal Staff Development
� Private Sector Projects
� Ageing Educational Research
� Community Education
� Educational Consultancy and Advice
� Evaluation and Accreditation of Educational Programs
A Case for Educational Gerontology in Adult Education
Chapter 4 97
� Information and Guidance Services
� Creating Learning Environments
� Organisational Policy
� Professional Development and Training in Aged Sector
� Curriculum or Program Development
Similarly, a list of elements that indicate capacity for the practice of
educational gerontology was developed from the literature. These include:
� Educational Experience of the Respondent
� Interdisciplinary Research Focus of the Research Site
� Lifelong Learning Culture
� Organisational Infrastructure
� Policy and Funding
� Social Gerontology Focus
� Understanding of Educational Gerontology
� Motivation/Other
Survey questions were developed around these elements, and the interviews
were planned to enable deeper exploration of responses to the survey questions. The
link between these elements and the items in the survey instrument and the follow-up
interview is presented in Table 3.5 in Chapter 3. For ease of reference, each element
has been placed in a table, together with a short description of what the attributes (or
characteristics) of each element might be, and the corresponding survey question or
interview results. Each element concludes with an interpretation of the results, which
are used to generate the key findings of the study.
PART ONE
4.3 Demographic Results
The following section provides background details about the participating research
locations to develop an idea of their operational focus (Q1), background (Q2), the
nature and purpose of their relationship to the university with which they are
affiliated (Q3 and Q4), and to identify the existence of and platform for
interdisciplinary links specific to adult education or ageing research (Q7).
A Case for Educational Gerontology in Adult Education
Chapter 4 98
Adult Education
Q1 Primary Research Focus
Of the seven possible research areas presented in Table 4.1, Range of Research Foci,
100% of Adult Education academics reported their primary research as Education
and Training.
Table 4.1
Range of Research Foci
Full range of potential research areas Health Biomedical
Social Gerontology
Aged Care Services
Education Training
Workplace Retirement
Multi-Disciplinary Other
100%
Q2 Length of Establishment
All of the Adult Education participants revealed that their Adult Education Schools
and programs had been established for more than 10 years.
Q3(a) University Affiliations
Not one Adult Education respondent reported a Faculty affiliation with an Ageing
Research centre.
Q4 Nature and Purpose of Affiliations
No results were provided against this item as Adult Education respondents revealing
no Faculty Affiliations in Q3(a) were instructed to move directly to Q5.
Q7 Links to Ageing Research
No links to Ageing Research centres was reported by the Adult Education academics
participating in this study.
Ageing Research Centres
Q1 Primary Research Focus
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Chapter 4 99
The majority of Ageing Research centres (34%) reported that their primary research
focus was Health and Biomedical. Together, half of the participating centres
described their focus as either Multi-disciplinary (25%) or Other (25%). Those
reporting their focus as Other included an involvement in communication disability,
legal issues, and pastoral care and spirituality. No centre described their primary
research focus as social gerontology, however one centre was focused on workplace
and retirement research which included an interest in housing and intergenerational
issues.
Figure 4.1
Primary Research Focus of Ageing Research Centres
Primary Research Focus - Ageing Research Centres
34%
0%8%
0%8%25%
25% Health Biomedical
Social Gerontology
Aged Care Services
Education Training
Workplace Retirement
Multi- Disciplinary
Other
Q2 Length of Establishment
Sixty percent (60%) of the Ageing Research centres that focused on Health and
Biomedical Research had been in existence for more than ten years, with the
remainder established less than eight years. For those centres concerned with
multidisciplinary research and social gerontology, the average establishment time
was 4.4 years. One centre which focused on Aged Care and Services had been
established for more than 10 years.
Q3(b) University Affiliations
All (100%) of the Ageing Research centres reported some type of affiliation with a
university, rendering the completion of Q4 compulsory.
A Case for Educational Gerontology in Adult Education
Chapter 4 100
Purpose of Ageing Research Centre's University Affi liation
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Pur
pose
s
Percentage
OtherCommunity LinksIndustry LinksAdministrationConsultancy & AdviceCurriculum DevelopmentResearch CollaborationFundingUniversity PolicyPostgraduate Supervision
While one Ageing Research respondent reported her centre as not having a direct
organisational affiliation to a university, this was mitigated by the existence of an
ancillary teaching (i.e. academic standing) relationship with a university, in which
this specific Ageing Research centre Director contributed towards teaching and the
review of gerontology curriculum.
Q4 Nature and Purpose of Affiliations
The entire cohort of Ageing Research participants reported research collaboration as
the purpose underpinning their university affiliation. This was followed by
postgraduate supervision (83%), funding (64%) and administration (45%). The
remaining purposes associated with the affiliation included curriculum development
(40%), consultancy and advice (40%), industry links (40%) and community links
(40%). Responses indicated that policy-making was only linked to affiliation in 18%
of participating Ageing Research centres.
Figure 4.2
Purpose of Ageing Research University Affiliation
Q7 Links to Faculty of Education
Two Ageing Research centres (16%) reported a link to Faculties of Education. The
purpose of these affiliations was reported as firstly, postgraduate supervision, and
secondly, to enhance the capabilities of a multidisciplinary Australian Research
Council research team using archival educational data.
A Case for Educational Gerontology in Adult Education
Chapter 4 101
While one centre reported future plans to establish links for curriculum
purposes, no Ageing Research centre participating in this study currently works with
any Adult Education programs to further or develop educational gerontology as an
area of specialised study.
PART TWO
4.4 Evidence of Educational Gerontology
Introduction
Evidence of educational gerontology is defined here as an educational activity
performed for the purposes of achieving a positive educational outcome for the older
adult. This definition is consistent with the definitions of educational gerontology
practice provided in the study literature (Findsen, 2006; Glendenning, 2001;
Hiemstra, 2002; Jarvis, 2001; John, 1988; Sherron & Lumsden, 1990) where it has
been recognised that this positive educational outcome need not only be applied
directly to the older learner but also for them.
The following section, that presents the results against the list of elements
described in Chapter 2, has been presented in tabular format across the page. In
these tables, the title of each element is provided, together with a short description of
how this might been characterised as evidence of or capacity for educational
gerontology. Results relevant to the formulation of educational gerontology
curriculum are included in these tables. Results for both Adult Education Academics
and Ageing Research centre Directors are provided simultaneously in columns to
enable a comparative view of the results to emerge for each element. Questionnaire
results are provided first, followed by the interview results that often expand or
elaborate on the interview responses.
A C
ase
fo
r E
duc
atio
nal
Ge
ron
tolo
gy in
Ad
ult E
du
catio
n
Cha
pter
4
102
ELE
ME
NT
A
TT
RIB
UT
ES
OR
CH
AR
AC
TE
RIS
TIC
S
Inte
rnal
Sta
ff D
evel
opm
ent
Inte
rnal
sta
ff de
velo
pmen
t is
evid
ence
d by
inte
rnal
act
iviti
es th
at p
rom
ote
unde
rsta
ndin
g of
age
ing
educ
atio
nal i
ssue
s am
ongs
t inc
umbe
nt
orga
nisa
tiona
l or
inst
itutio
nal s
taff.
Whi
le a
pplie
d th
roug
h a
vari
ety
of a
ctiv
ities
incl
udin
g in
-hou
se w
orks
hops
, se
min
ars,
pee
r m
ento
ring
or
inte
rest
gr
oups
, for
edu
catio
nal g
eron
tolo
gy p
urpo
ses
the
topi
c co
vere
d in
thes
e ac
tiviti
es w
ould
rel
ate
spec
ifica
lly t
o de
velo
ping
kno
wle
dge
abou
t old
er
adul
ts a
s le
arne
rs.
Dat
a C
olle
ctio
n
Ad
ult
Ed
ucat
ion
A
gei
ng
Res
earc
h
Q 8
(e)
No
Adu
lt E
duca
tion
acad
emic
s pa
rtic
ipat
ing
in th
is
stud
y re
port
ed a
ny in
tern
al s
taff
deve
lopm
ent
activ
ities
that
inco
rpor
ate
info
rmat
ion
rele
vant
to
olde
r ad
ult l
earn
ers.
No
inst
ance
s of
link
s to
A
gein
g R
esea
rch
Cen
tres
to s
uppo
rt o
r co
mpl
emen
t thi
s in
tern
al a
ctiv
ity w
as r
epor
ted
by
this
coh
ort.
No
Age
ing
Res
earc
h re
spon
dent
rep
orte
d an
y ev
iden
ce o
f int
erna
l sta
ff de
velo
pmen
t tha
t re
late
d to
dev
elop
ing
know
ledg
e ab
out o
lder
adu
lts o
r th
eir
educ
atio
n. N
o ev
iden
ce o
f lin
ks
to A
dult
Edu
catio
n fo
r th
is p
urpo
se w
as r
epor
ted.
Inte
rvie
ws
No
evid
ence
of i
nter
nal s
taff
deve
lopm
ent r
elev
ant
to e
duca
tiona
l ger
onto
logy
was
des
crib
ed in
the
inte
rvie
w d
ata
obta
ined
from
the
Uni
vers
ity A
dult
Edu
catio
n re
spon
dent
s. O
ne r
espo
nden
t was
al
igne
d w
ith t
he s
uper
visi
on o
f a
post
grad
uate
st
uden
t with
in th
e S
choo
l, w
here
thi
s st
uden
t was
in
vest
igat
ing
the
prac
tice
of e
duca
tiona
l ge
ront
olog
y, b
ut t
his
did
not t
rans
late
in a
ny w
ay
into
sta
ff de
velo
pmen
t act
iviti
es.
Inte
rvie
ws
with
Age
ing
Res
earc
h re
spon
dent
s re
veal
ed t
hat,
in t
erm
s of
gen
eral
ized
pr
ofes
sion
al d
evel
opm
ent,
regu
lar
info
rmat
ion
sess
ions
des
igne
d to
impr
ove
staf
f kn
owle
dge
and
unde
rsta
ndin
g of
old
er a
dults
wer
e w
ides
prea
d. T
his
prac
tice
was
not
ne
cess
arily
con
ditio
nal u
pon
the
rese
arch
foc
us o
f the
cen
tre.
F
or e
xam
ple,
one
Dir
ecto
r of
a
rese
arch
cen
tre
focu
sing
on
geri
atric
med
icin
e de
scrib
ed t
heir
inte
rnal
pro
gram
s by
st
atin
g:
“Fro
m th
e po
int o
f vie
w o
f edu
catio
n of
the
staf
f we
actu
ally
hav
e a
regu
lar
ongo
ing
wee
kly
educ
atio
n se
ssio
n fo
r al
l of t
he m
edic
al s
taff
and
that
’s ta
rget
ed fo
r ol
der
peop
le.
It ca
n be
a li
tera
ture
rev
iew
, or
an in
vite
d sp
eake
r or
a jo
urna
l clu
b bu
t aga
in
they
are
all
topi
cs to
do
with
old
er p
eopl
e an
d pr
oble
ms
to d
o w
ith o
lder
peo
ple.
We
also
hav
e an
ong
oing
edu
catio
nal s
essi
on fo
r ju
nior
med
ical
sta
ff an
d al
so fo
r ou
r ad
vanc
ed tr
aine
rs s
o th
ese
are
doct
ors
who
are
goi
ng to
be
geri
atri
cian
s, s
o w
e ha
ve
prog
ram
s fo
r ea
ch o
f the
se t
ailo
red
for
thei
r sk
ill, k
now
ledg
e an
d m
atur
ity.”
[1B
W03
08 #
1]
INT
ER
PR
ET
AT
ION
T
he la
ck o
f ev
iden
ce o
f int
erna
l sta
ff de
velo
pmen
t in
Adu
lt E
duca
tion
prog
ram
s re
port
ed in
this
stu
dy in
dica
tes
that
an
awar
enes
s of
new
and
exp
andi
ng k
now
ledg
e ab
out o
lder
adu
lts a
s le
arne
rs,
and
the
proc
ess
need
s as
soci
ated
with
thi
s bu
rgeo
ning
aud
ienc
e, d
oes
not a
ppea
r to
hav
e be
en g
ener
ated
with
in t
his
Adu
lt E
duca
tion
prog
ram
coh
ort.
Dev
elop
men
t of
suc
h an
aw
aren
ess
is f
unda
men
tal t
o ju
stify
ing
staf
f dev
elop
men
t.
Inte
rvie
ws
reve
al th
at, w
hile
sta
ff de
velo
pmen
t app
ears
to
be a
rec
ogni
zed
part
of
HR
D in
par
ticip
atin
g A
gein
g R
esea
rch
Cen
tres
, an
d th
e to
pics
rep
orte
d in
the
stud
y ar
e of
ten
spec
ific
to o
lder
adu
lts, t
he d
escr
iptio
n of
inte
rnal
sta
ff de
velo
pmen
t act
iviti
es d
oes
not s
ugge
st t
hat t
opic
s w
ere
educ
atio
nally
rel
evan
t to
olde
r ad
ults
. T
his
is p
roba
bly
due
to t
he n
atur
e of
the
aud
ienc
e (t
rain
ee d
octo
rs, o
r nu
rsin
g st
aff)
and
the
res
ultin
g em
phas
is o
n m
edic
al h
ealth
. Whi
le th
is is
cer
tain
ly e
duca
tion
abou
t ol
der
adul
ts, i
t do
es n
ot e
xten
d to
info
rmat
ion
abou
t the
edu
catio
n of
old
er a
dults
, nor
doe
s it
exte
nd t
o de
velo
ping
pro
cess
ski
lls n
eces
sary
for
edu
catin
g ol
der
adul
ts
dire
ctly
.
A C
ase
fo
r E
duc
atio
nal
Ge
ron
tolo
gy in
Ad
ult E
du
catio
n
Cha
pter
4
103
ELE
ME
NT
A
TT
RIB
UT
ES
OR
CH
AR
AC
TE
RIS
TIC
S
Pri
vate
Sec
tor
Pro
ject
s
Thi
s el
emen
t wou
ld b
e ch
arac
teriz
ed b
y en
gage
men
t in
educ
atio
nal p
roje
cts
that
invo
lve
priv
ate
sect
or s
take
hold
ers,
incl
udin
g th
e bu
sine
ss o
r co
rpor
ate
com
mun
ity,
gove
rnm
ent d
epar
tmen
ts, o
r pr
ivat
e lo
bby
grou
ps.
The
prin
cipa
l obj
ectiv
e fo
r th
ese
educ
atio
nal p
roje
cts
wou
ld b
e co
nsis
tent
with
edu
catio
nal g
eron
tolo
gy, i
.e. t
he d
evel
opm
ent o
f ol
der
adul
ts th
roug
h ed
ucat
iona
l end
eavo
urs.
Dat
a C
olle
ctio
n
Ad
ult
Ed
ucat
ion
A
gei
ng
Res
earc
h
Q8(
f)
No
Adu
lt E
duca
tion
part
icip
ants
rep
orte
d in
volv
emen
t in
priv
ate
sect
or p
roje
cts
whe
re
agei
ng-r
elat
ed is
sues
or
colla
bora
tion
with
age
ing
rese
arch
ent
ities
was
con
cern
ed.
No
evid
ence
of p
rivat
e se
ctor
pro
ject
s w
as fo
und
in th
e qu
estio
nnai
re r
espo
nse,
par
ticul
arly
w
here
thi
s ac
tivity
invo
lved
col
labo
ratio
n w
ith A
dult
Edu
catio
n.
Inte
rvie
ws
No
evid
ence
of a
ny p
rivat
e se
ctor
edu
catio
nal
proj
ects
, rel
evan
t to
agei
ng, w
as fo
und
in th
e un
iver
sity
Adu
lt E
duca
tion
inte
rvie
w r
espo
nses
.
Whi
le in
terv
iew
s w
ith A
gein
g R
esea
rch
Cen
tre
Dire
ctor
s re
veal
ed a
wid
e va
riet
y of
oth
er
priv
ate
sect
or e
duca
tion
proj
ects
, ran
ging
from
nur
sing
hom
es s
essi
ons
to c
onsu
ltanc
ies
and
pres
enta
tions
to p
rivat
e gr
oups
, the
topi
cs r
emai
n he
alth
-rel
ated
(i.e
. ab
out o
lder
peo
ple
and
thei
r he
alth
) an
d do
not
incl
ude
educ
atio
nal p
rinci
ples
and
pro
cess
es s
peci
fic to
the
olde
r ad
ult.
F
or e
xam
ple,
one
Dire
ctor
sta
ted
how
she
had
par
ticip
ated
in U
3A a
ctiv
ities
:
“One
of t
he th
ings
I fo
und
talk
ing
to th
e U
3A is
tha
t I p
ut w
ay to
o m
uch
info
rmat
ion
in, I
tr
ied
to c
hoos
e to
pics
that
wer
e re
leva
nt to
them
like
art
hriti
s an
d nu
triti
on in
the
el
derl
y, a
nd I
put a
lot m
ore
info
rmat
ion
into
it th
an w
as r
easo
nabl
e in
the
time
I had
at
my
disp
osal
.”
[1B
W03
08 #
2]
Ano
ther
Dir
ecto
r de
scrib
ed t
he n
atur
e of
the
ir pr
ivat
e pr
ojec
ts b
y st
atin
g:
“We
are
quite
ofte
n as
ked
by p
rivat
e nu
rsin
g ho
mes
to p
rovi
de s
essi
ons
on d
emen
tia
care
and
so
we
wor
k in
-hou
se w
ith o
ur c
linic
al n
urse
edu
cato
r to
do
exp
erie
ntia
l stu
ff,
the
exp
erie
ntia
l tra
inin
g ar
ound
dem
entia
…. W
e ar
e go
ing
in to
nur
sing
hom
es s
o it’
s fa
irly
broa
d, w
e al
so d
o th
e co
mm
unity
. Wha
t w
e w
ould
like
to d
o is
sta
rt t
o of
fer
the
Car
ers
at h
ome
som
e su
ppor
t and
adv
ice,
but
we
need
res
ourc
es f
or t
hat a
nd w
e ca
n’t
do th
at.”
[10
SD
1210
#10]
A C
ase
fo
r E
duc
atio
nal
Ge
ron
tolo
gy in
Ad
ult E
du
catio
n
Cha
pter
4
104
ELE
ME
NT
Pri
vate
Sec
tor
Pro
ject
s c
ont.
INT
ER
PR
ET
AT
ION
T
his
resu
lt in
dica
tes
that
Adu
lt E
duca
tion
part
icip
ants
hav
e no
t en
gage
d w
ith e
xter
nal a
genc
ies
in t
erm
s of
dev
elop
ing
know
ledg
e ab
out o
lder
adu
lts a
nd th
eir
educ
atio
n.
Thi
s m
ay b
e at
trib
uted
to a
lack
of a
war
enes
s of
the
cont
ribu
tion
that
thi
s di
scip
line
mig
ht m
ake
to a
n ex
tern
al o
rgan
izat
ion
or g
roup
, par
ticul
arly
whe
re
the
empo
wer
ing
purp
ose
unde
rpin
ning
edu
catio
nal g
eron
tolo
gy is
link
ed to
soc
ial e
ngag
emen
t an
d th
e re
sulti
ng e
mot
iona
l wel
l-be
ing
and
succ
essf
ul a
gein
g.
Age
ing
Res
earc
h C
entr
e D
irec
tors
rev
eale
d ev
iden
ce o
f nu
mer
ous
proj
ects
whe
re h
ealth
top
ics
wer
e co
ncer
ned,
but
thes
e to
pics
did
not
ext
end
to e
duca
tion
for
and
abou
t ol
der
adul
ts.
The
est
ablis
hed
proj
ect l
ist c
ould
pro
vide
a n
atur
al p
latfo
rm fo
r an
ext
ensi
on o
f top
ics
to in
clud
e ed
ucat
iona
l ger
onto
logy
, whi
ch c
ould
pro
ve u
sefu
l to
the
corp
orat
e se
ctor
, par
ticul
arly
in H
RD
and
trai
ning
to in
terg
ener
atio
nal w
orkf
orce
s, a
nd to
org
anis
atio
ns in
volv
ed in
soc
ial g
eron
tolo
gy is
sues
suc
h as
Age
d C
are,
R
etir
emen
t an
d H
ousi
ng, a
nd c
itize
nshi
p.
A C
ase
fo
r E
duc
atio
nal
Ge
ron
tolo
gy in
Ad
ult E
du
catio
n
Cha
pter
4
105
ELE
ME
NT
A
TT
RIB
UT
ES
OR
CH
AR
AC
TE
RIS
TIC
S
Age
ing
Edu
catio
nal
Res
earc
h
Thi
s fo
rm o
f res
earc
h w
ould
inve
stig
ate
issu
es t
hat i
nvol
ve a
n am
alga
mat
ion
of b
iolo
gica
l, ps
ycho
logi
cal a
nd s
ocio
logi
cal a
gein
g co
ncep
ts w
ith
educ
atio
nal p
rinci
ples
, for
the
bene
fit o
f the
old
er a
dult.
P
artic
ipan
t res
earc
hers
wou
ld th
eref
ore
be d
raw
n fr
om b
oth
educ
atio
nal a
nd g
eron
tolo
gy-
rela
ted
disc
iplin
es, i
nclu
ding
soc
ial g
eron
tolo
gy, a
nd t
he r
esul
ts w
ould
be
diss
emin
ated
thr
ough
aca
dem
ic a
ctiv
ities
suc
h as
pub
licat
ions
, se
min
ars
and
wor
ksho
ps.
Dat
a C
olle
ctio
n
Ad
ult
Ed
ucat
ion
A
gei
ng
Res
earc
h
Q1
In s
urve
ying
the
prim
ary
rese
arch
goa
ls o
f ea
ch
site
, al
l 5 A
dult
Edu
catio
n pr
ogra
m p
artic
ipan
ts
iden
tifie
d T
rain
ing
and
Dev
elop
men
t as
thei
r pr
imar
y or
gani
zatio
nal g
oal.
No
Adu
lt E
duca
tion
part
icip
ant r
epor
ted
any
rese
arch
rel
atin
g to
old
er
Aus
tral
ians
in a
reas
suc
h as
Hea
lth/B
iom
edic
al,
Soc
ial G
eron
tolo
gy,
Age
d C
are,
Wor
kpla
ce a
nd
Ret
irem
ent,
Mul
tidis
cipl
inar
y or
Oth
er a
reas
.
Fou
r A
gein
g R
esea
rch
Cen
tres
foc
used
on
Hea
lth/B
iom
edic
al r
esea
rch,
one
focu
sed
on
Wor
kpla
ce a
nd R
etir
emen
t, th
ree
cond
ucte
d M
ultid
isci
plin
ary
rese
arch
, an
d th
ree
desc
ribe
d th
eir
rese
arch
focu
s as
Oth
er (
e.g.
Com
mun
icat
ion
disa
bilit
y, S
pirit
ualit
y, L
egal
issu
es).
N
one
of th
e A
gein
g R
esea
rch
Cen
tre
part
icip
ants
iden
tifie
d T
rain
ing
and
Dev
elop
men
t as
a
prim
ary
rese
arch
focu
s.
Q7
In in
vest
igat
ing
evid
ence
of c
olla
bora
tive
links
to
Age
ing
Res
earc
h C
entr
es, o
ne A
dult
Edu
catio
n re
spon
dent
rep
orte
d a
link
to a
n A
gein
g R
esea
rch
Cen
tre.
N
one
of th
e re
mai
ning
Adu
lt E
duca
tion
resp
onde
nts
repo
rted
hav
ing
links
to A
gein
g R
esea
rch.
Tw
o A
gein
g R
esea
rch
part
icip
ants
rep
orte
d lin
ks to
Edu
catio
n.
Q8(
a)
In in
vest
igat
ing
the
type
and
ext
ent
of
Col
labo
ratio
n be
twee
n F
acul
ty a
nd A
gein
g R
esea
rch
Cen
tres
, one
Adu
lt E
duca
tion
resp
onde
nt r
epor
ted
min
or in
volv
emen
t in
curr
icul
um r
evie
w.
No
colla
bora
tion
for
rese
arch
pu
rpos
es w
as r
epor
ted.
One
res
pond
ent h
ad li
nks
to a
Fac
ulty
of
Edu
catio
n th
roug
h a
rese
arch
gra
nt, w
here
the
C
entr
e w
as u
sing
arc
hiva
l edu
catio
nal d
ata,
and
ano
ther
Cen
tre
repo
rted
link
s fo
r po
stgr
adua
te s
uper
visi
on p
urpo
ses.
A C
ase
fo
r E
duc
atio
nal
Ge
ron
tolo
gy in
Ad
ult E
du
catio
n
Cha
pter
4
106
ELE
ME
NT
Age
ing
Edu
catio
nal
Res
earc
h c
ont.
Dat
a C
olle
ctio
n
Ad
ult
Ed
ucat
ion
A
gei
ng
Res
earc
h
Inte
rvie
ws
One
of t
he u
nive
rsity
Adu
lt E
duca
tion
resp
onde
nts
repo
rted
an
inci
dent
al a
ssoc
iatio
n w
ith a
Doc
tora
l st
uden
t who
se th
esis
focu
sed
on a
gein
g ed
ucat
iona
l res
earc
h. In
terv
iew
det
ails
rev
eale
d th
at th
e re
spon
dent
was
aw
are
of a
stu
dent
who
w
as s
tudy
ing
in th
e ar
ea.
How
ever
, th
e A
cade
mic
was
not
dir
ectly
invo
lved
in
this
res
earc
h.
In a
dditi
on,
one
othe
r un
iver
sity
Adu
lt E
duca
tion
resp
onde
nt w
as a
war
e of
a g
over
nmen
t-sp
onso
red
rese
arch
pro
ject
led
by a
mem
ber
of
the
Fac
ulty
whe
re t
he fo
cus
was
on
olde
r w
orke
rs
in lo
cal g
over
nmen
t. H
owev
er,
no o
ther
age
ing
rese
arch
invo
lvin
g th
e ed
ucat
ion
of o
lder
adu
lts
was
evi
dent
in th
e re
mai
ning
Adu
lt E
duca
tion
resp
onse
s.
Non
e of
the
resp
onde
nts
from
Age
ing
Res
earc
h C
entr
es r
epor
ted
any
rese
arch
pro
ject
s th
at in
clud
ed e
duca
tiona
l inv
estig
atio
ns, a
dult
educ
atio
n or
ger
agog
y co
ncep
ts o
r ap
plic
atio
ns r
elev
ant t
o ol
der
adul
ts.
No
othe
r ag
eing
edu
catio
nal r
esea
rch
activ
ities
wer
e re
port
ed, a
lthou
gh o
ne r
esea
rch
proj
ect i
nvol
ved
a re
tired
edu
catio
nalis
t as
part
of t
he
rese
arch
tea
m.
INT
ER
PR
ET
AT
ION
T
his
resu
lt in
dica
tes
that
, am
ong
thes
e pa
rtic
ipan
ts, t
here
is n
o ev
iden
ce o
f a c
olla
bora
tive
rese
arch
cul
ture
bet
wee
n A
dult
Edu
catio
n an
d A
gein
g R
esea
rch,
whe
re
the
two
disc
iplin
es m
ight
wor
k sy
nerg
istic
ally
to g
ener
ate
inno
vativ
e re
sear
ch q
uest
ions
that
enh
ance
our
und
erst
andi
ng a
t the
nex
us o
f ed
ucat
ion
and
agei
ng, w
here
th
e em
piric
al fi
ndin
gs w
ill u
ltim
atel
y be
nefit
the
olde
r ad
ult.
A C
ase
fo
r E
duc
atio
nal
Ge
ron
tolo
gy in
Ad
ult E
du
catio
n
Cha
pter
4
107
ELE
ME
NT
A
TT
RIB
UT
ES
OR
CH
AR
AC
TE
RIS
TIC
S
Com
mun
ity
Edu
catio
n E
vide
nce
of t
his
elem
ent
of e
duca
tiona
l ger
onto
logy
wou
ld b
e ch
arac
teri
sed
by e
duca
tiona
l act
iviti
es u
nder
take
n fo
r th
e be
nefit
of t
he o
lder
adu
lt co
mm
unity
, and
wou
ld a
lso
invo
lve
dire
ct p
artic
ipat
ion
by m
embe
rs o
f thi
s co
mm
unity
. W
hile
ack
now
ledg
ing
that
ther
e ex
ists
som
e po
ssib
le
over
lap
with
thi
s el
emen
t and
the
elem
ent E
duca
tiona
l Con
sulta
ncy
and
Adv
ice,
it is
impo
rtan
t to
note
that
the
audi
ence
and
ben
efic
iarie
s of
this
sp
ecifi
c el
emen
t are
lim
ited
to t
he o
lder
adu
lt co
mm
unity
, and
act
iviti
es m
ay b
e vo
lunt
ary,
i.e.
not
und
erta
ken
on a
fee
-for
-ser
vice
bas
is.
Dat
a C
olle
ctio
n
Ad
ult
Ed
ucat
ion
A
gei
ng
Res
earc
h
Q4
N
o ev
iden
ce o
f affi
liatio
n to
age
ing
rese
arch
en
titie
s fo
r th
e pu
rpos
e of
com
mun
ity e
duca
tion
was
rep
orte
d.
No
affil
iatio
n to
Adu
lt E
duca
tion
for
com
mun
ity e
duca
tion
was
rep
orte
d.
Q6
No
evid
ence
of a
dult
educ
atio
n an
d tr
aini
ng
prog
ram
s sp
ecifi
c to
the
olde
r ad
ult w
as r
epor
ted.
H
alf (
50%
) of
res
pond
ents
dev
elop
ed e
duca
tion
and
trai
ning
pro
gram
s ho
wev
er,
only
one
w
as a
pplic
able
to
the
wid
er c
omm
unity
bey
ond
heal
th is
sues
. Thi
s pr
ogra
m w
as d
escr
ibed
as
IT fo
r C
arer
s.
Q8(
g)
No
evid
ence
of c
olla
bora
tive
links
for
the
purp
ose
of e
valu
atin
g co
mm
unity
edu
catio
nal p
rogr
ams
was
rep
orte
d.
No
evid
ence
of t
his
elem
ent w
as r
epor
ted.
Q8(
i) N
o ev
iden
ce o
f ger
agog
ical
trai
ning
inte
rven
tions
or
pro
gram
del
iver
y w
as r
epor
ted.
N
o ev
iden
ce o
f thi
s el
emen
t was
rep
orte
d.
Inte
rvie
ws
No
spec
ific
men
tion
was
mad
e of
any
age
ing-
rela
ted
com
mun
ity e
duca
tion
proj
ects
aris
ing
out
of th
e un
iver
sity
Adu
lt E
duca
tion
prog
ram
s, o
r un
dert
aken
by
part
icip
atin
g A
dult
Edu
catio
n ac
adem
ics.
One
par
ticip
ant i
dent
ified
a p
ossi
ble
enga
gem
ent
in th
e fo
llow
ing
way
:
“I w
rite
loca
l his
torie
s an
d th
at s
ort o
f thi
ng.
In th
e co
mm
unity
writ
ing
grou
p, m
ade
up o
f ol
der
peop
le, I
’m a
judg
e fo
r th
eir
awar
d so
an
ythi
ng li
ke th
at is
my
inte
rest
” [5R
S13
09#7
]
Gen
eral
com
mun
ity e
ngag
emen
t was
wid
espr
ead
acro
ss a
ll of
the
Age
ing
Res
earc
h C
entr
es’ a
ctiv
ities
, ev
en in
thos
e C
entr
es w
ith a
str
ictly
bio
med
ical
sta
nce.
As
one
Dire
ctor
not
ed:
“I h
ave
been
invi
ted
to s
peak
at t
he U
nive
rsity
of t
he T
hird
Age
. T
hat w
as m
ore
abou
t to
pics
the
y ch
ose
that
they
wan
ted
to k
now
mor
e ab
out b
ut it
was
mor
e lik
e an
in
vita
tion
and
I did
n’t p
lan
it. I
trie
d to
cho
ose
topi
cs th
at w
ere
rele
vant
to th
em li
ke
arth
ritis
and
nut
ritio
n in
the
elde
rly,
and
I pu
t a
lot m
ore
info
rmat
ion
into
it th
an w
as
reas
onab
le in
the
time
I had
at m
y di
spos
al. I
am
use
d to
tal
king
to u
nder
grad
uate
s w
here
you
pac
k as
muc
h in
form
atio
n in
and
talk
ing
to a
n ol
der
grou
p th
ey d
idn’
t w
ant
all t
hat i
nfor
mat
ion
they
wan
ted
a ge
nera
l ove
rvie
w a
nd a
few
tak
e-ho
me
poin
ts.”
[1B
W03
08#1
]
A C
ase
fo
r E
duc
atio
nal
Ge
ron
tolo
gy in
Ad
ult E
du
catio
n
Cha
pter
4
108
ELE
ME
NT
Com
mun
ity
Edu
catio
n c
ont.
Dat
a C
olle
ctio
n
Ad
ult
Ed
ucat
ion
A
gei
ng
Res
earc
h
Inte
rvie
ws
One
Dire
ctor
exp
ress
ed s
ome
desi
re to
dev
elop
a c
omm
unity
par
ticip
atio
n sc
hem
e in
the
sc
hool
sec
tor,
by
stat
ing:
“Loo
k I d
on’t
know
if th
ese
thin
gs a
re le
gisl
ativ
ely
or p
olic
y po
ssib
le,
but i
t see
ms
to m
e th
at it
wou
ld b
e a
very
goo
d th
ing
to p
rovi
de s
ome
sort
of p
rogr
am w
hich
wou
ld a
llow
pe
ople
who
had
ret
ired
, to
actu
ally
com
e ba
ck in
to th
e cl
assr
oom
to
teac
h pe
rhap
s on
e cl
ass
a w
eek
or to
act
ually
hav
e so
me
enga
gem
ent
with
you
ng p
eopl
e… I
thin
k it
mig
ht b
e a
muc
h m
ore
attr
activ
e th
ing
for
olde
r pe
ople
to
do, t
o be
abl
e to
go
into
the
sc
hool
per
haps
one
hou
r a
day
or s
omet
hing
like
that
. And
eve
n if
they
are
tea
chin
g liv
ing
skill
s or
wha
teve
r, s
ome
way
in w
hich
we
can
crea
te g
reat
er o
ppor
tuni
ties
for
inte
rgen
erat
iona
l int
erac
tion,
I th
ink
has
enor
mou
s lo
ng t
erm
ben
efits
for
our
soci
ety.
”
[4D
O07
09#7
]
And
fina
lly,
one
Age
ing
Res
earc
h re
spon
dent
rei
tera
ted
how
crit
ical
com
mun
ity e
ngag
emen
t is
to
ongo
ing
feas
ibili
ty b
y st
atin
g:
“I t
hink
any
Cen
tre
on A
gein
g ne
eds
to h
ave
the
enga
gem
ent o
f the
com
mun
ity to
m
ake
it.”
[3H
B24
08#1
3]
INT
ER
PR
ET
AT
ION
C
omm
unity
eng
agem
ent t
hat i
nvol
ves
educ
atio
nal e
ndea
vour
s ha
s th
e po
tent
ial t
o im
prov
e th
e liv
es o
f ol
der
peop
le.
Thi
s re
sult
indi
cate
s th
at th
e po
tent
ially
si
gnifi
cant
con
trib
utio
n by
Adu
lt E
duca
tion
acad
emic
s to
the
bett
erm
ent
of s
ocie
ty is
bei
ng m
isse
d, a
lthou
gh s
ome
part
icip
ants
hav
e st
arte
d to
iden
tify
oppo
rtun
ities
. W
hile
com
mun
ity e
ngag
emen
t thr
ough
Age
ing
Res
earc
h en
titie
s w
as r
evea
led
as w
ides
prea
d in
thi
s st
udy,
and
is c
onsi
dere
d cr
ucia
l to
ongo
ing
surv
ival
, the
bre
adth
an
d sc
ale
of th
e co
mm
unity
pro
gram
s ha
ve b
een
reve
aled
as
open
to
augm
enta
tion
by in
corp
orat
ing
olde
r ad
ult e
duca
tion
spec
ialis
ts in
to t
he p
roje
ct r
eper
toire
.
A C
ase
fo
r E
duc
atio
nal
Ge
ron
tolo
gy in
Ad
ult E
du
catio
n
Cha
pter
4
109
ELE
ME
NT
A
TT
RIB
UT
ES
OR
CH
AR
AC
TE
RIS
TIC
S
Edu
catio
nal
Con
sulta
ncy
and
Adv
ice
Thi
s el
emen
t is
char
acte
rised
by
the
prov
isio
n of
fee-
for-
serv
ice
cons
ulta
ncy
serv
ices
and
pro
fess
iona
l adv
ice
to b
oth
inte
rnal
and
ext
erna
l bo
dies
, whe
re t
he b
asis
of t
he c
onsu
ltanc
y an
d ad
vice
is a
n ad
vanc
ed k
now
ledg
e of
, and
ski
lls r
elev
ant t
o, t
he e
duca
tiona
l dev
elop
men
t of t
he
olde
r ad
ult.
Whi
le a
ckno
wle
dgin
g th
ere
exis
t so
me
over
laps
with
this
ele
men
t, P
rivat
e S
ecto
r P
roje
cts,
and
Info
rmat
ion
and
Gui
danc
e S
ervi
ces,
th
is c
onsu
ltanc
y or
adv
ice
is li
kely
to b
e m
ore
of a
n ac
adem
ic n
atur
e an
d co
uld
inco
rpor
ate
for
exam
ple,
con
sulta
tion
with
Age
ing
Res
earc
h C
entr
es o
r ot
her
univ
ersi
ty F
acul
ties
such
as
Hea
lth o
r B
usin
ess.
Dat
a C
olle
ctio
n
Ad
ult
Ed
ucat
ion
A
gei
ng
Res
earc
h
Q8(
a-k)
N
o ev
iden
ce o
f ed
ucat
iona
l con
sulta
ncy
and
advi
ce w
as r
epor
ted.
N
o ev
iden
ce o
f thi
s el
emen
t was
rep
orte
d.
Inte
rvie
ws
Fol
low
-up
inte
rvie
ws
with
par
ticip
atin
g A
dult
Edu
catio
n ac
adem
ics
did
not
yiel
d ev
iden
ce o
f ed
ucat
iona
l ger
onto
logy
rel
ated
con
sulta
ncy
or
advi
ce.
Whi
le A
gein
g R
esea
rch
inte
rvie
ws
did
not y
ield
evi
denc
e of
con
sulta
ncie
s sp
ecifi
c to
ed
ucat
iona
l ger
onto
logy
, par
ticip
ants
rev
eale
d ot
her
ongo
ing
activ
ities
in th
is r
egar
d. A
s on
e D
irec
tor
stat
ed:
“You
kno
w, t
he h
ot to
pic
wou
ld b
e el
der
abus
e, b
ut w
e ar
e he
re t
o co
nsul
t on
a r
ange
of
issu
es. I
n th
e pu
blic
are
na, i
f the
rad
io w
ants
to r
ing
us u
p th
en w
e w
ould
pro
vide
th
at in
form
atio
n, b
ut m
ostly
it’s
con
sulti
ng w
ith o
ur a
ffilia
tes
and
our
asso
ciat
es w
ith
advi
ce th
at th
ey m
ight
nee
d co
ncer
ning
thos
e pa
rtic
ular
issu
es.”
[6JB
2709
#7]
One
Cen
tre
Dire
ctor
iden
tifie
d ho
w a
con
sulta
ncy
of th
is ty
pe m
ight
ben
efit
her
orga
niza
tion,
by
sta
ting:
“I t
hink
we
need
to
star
t loo
king
mor
e cl
osel
y at
whe
ther
the
univ
ersi
ty e
nviro
nmen
t is
mee
ting
the
need
s fo
r al
l age
s.”
[3H
B24
08#1
0]
INT
ER
PR
ET
AT
ION
It
is p
ossi
ble
that
this
lack
of e
vide
nce
of c
onsu
ltanc
ies
indi
cate
s th
at t
he m
arke
tabi
lity
of s
uch
a se
rvic
e to
oth
er F
acul
ties
has
not y
et b
een
fully
rec
ogni
zed
by th
e A
dult
Edu
catio
n co
hort
. H
owev
er,
to m
arke
t thi
s se
rvic
e, th
e sp
ecifi
c na
ture
of t
he e
duca
tiona
l pro
duct
or
serv
ice
need
s to
be
iden
tifie
d. D
evel
opin
g th
is s
ervi
ce
offe
ring
crea
tes
the
pote
ntia
l for
bro
aden
ing
the
reac
h of
old
er a
dult
educ
atio
n sp
ecia
list i
nto
othe
r di
scip
lines
whi
ch in
tur
n ca
n tr
ansl
ate
into
pro
gram
inno
vatio
ns.
Fro
m a
n A
gein
g R
esea
rch
pers
pect
ive,
whi
le t
he b
asis
of t
he c
onsu
ltanc
y an
d ad
vice
is n
ot e
duca
tion,
pro
visi
on o
f ext
erna
l con
sulta
ncy
is a
wel
l-es
tabl
ishe
d pr
oces
s ex
cept
for
thos
e C
entr
es w
ith a
str
ictly
bio
med
ical
orie
ntat
ion
whe
re t
he a
udie
nce
is fo
cuse
d on
ger
iatr
ic e
duca
tion.
A C
ase
fo
r E
duc
atio
nal
Ge
ron
tolo
gy in
Ad
ult E
du
catio
n
Cha
pter
4
110
ELE
ME
NT
A
TT
RIB
UT
ES
OR
CH
AR
AC
TE
RIS
TIC
S
Eva
luat
ion
and
A
ccre
dita
tion
of
Edu
catio
nal
Pro
gram
s
App
reci
atin
g th
at p
rogr
am e
valu
atio
n co
mpr
ises
wel
l-es
tabl
ishe
d st
eps
and
syst
ems
such
as
prop
osed
by
Bra
dy (
1990
) in
cur
ricul
um
deve
lopm
ent,
this
ele
men
t wou
ld b
e ch
arac
teriz
ed b
y ev
alua
tions
that
focu
s on
con
tent
rel
evan
t to
olde
r ad
ults
as
lear
ners
, and
old
er a
dult
lear
ning
pro
cess
es a
nd in
stru
ctio
nal s
trat
egie
s. A
ccre
dita
tion
wou
ld b
e ch
arac
teri
zed
by t
he d
evel
opm
ent o
f ac
cred
itatio
n st
atus
for
edu
catio
nal
prog
ram
s th
roug
h th
e re
leva
nt V
ET
age
ncy,
whe
re t
he to
pic
of th
e pr
ogra
m is
of b
enef
it to
old
er a
dults
. W
hile
ack
now
ledg
ing
that
som
e ov
erla
p ex
ists
with
the
ele
men
t of
Org
anis
atio
nal P
olic
y, C
urric
ulum
or
Pro
gram
Dev
elop
men
t, th
is s
peci
fic e
lem
ent
wou
ld b
e ap
plie
d to
pro
gram
s th
at
alre
ady
exis
t or
that
hav
e be
en d
evel
oped
by
othe
rs.
Dat
a C
olle
ctio
n
Ad
ult
Ed
ucat
ion
A
gei
ng
Res
earc
h
Q8(
g,h)
N
o ev
iden
ce r
epor
ted.
N
o ev
iden
ce r
epor
ted.
Inte
rvie
ws
No
evid
ence
of
eval
uatio
n or
acc
redi
tatio
n of
ag
eing
-rel
ated
pro
gram
s pr
oduc
ts w
as r
epor
ted
in u
nive
rsity
Adu
lt E
duca
tion
inte
rvie
w r
espo
nses
.
The
re w
as n
o ev
iden
ce o
f an
y fo
rm o
f ev
alua
tive
chec
ks fo
r ag
eing
-rel
ated
pro
gram
s de
velo
ped
at th
e A
gein
g R
esea
rch
loca
tions
. N
onet
hele
ss, s
ome
educ
atio
nal p
rodu
cts
in
the
form
of r
ecog
nize
d sh
ort c
ours
es h
ad a
lrea
dy b
een
deve
lope
d fo
r th
e w
ider
pub
lic a
nd
ther
e w
ere
futu
re p
lans
for
the
deve
lopm
ent
of c
ompe
tenc
ies
arou
nd h
ealth
edu
catio
n,
depe
ndan
t on
res
ourc
es.
INT
ER
PR
ET
AT
ION
In
here
nt in
und
erta
king
eva
luat
ive
proc
edur
es is
an
in-d
epth
kno
wle
dge
of t
he s
ubje
ct m
atte
r un
derp
inni
ng th
e cu
rric
ulum
. A r
esul
t of t
his
natu
re r
evea
ls th
at A
dult
Edu
catio
n re
spon
dent
s ha
ve n
ot y
et d
evel
oped
a f
ull u
nder
stan
ding
of
educ
atio
nal g
eron
tolo
gy s
uffic
ient
for
eval
uatio
n of
pro
gram
s ac
cord
ing
to e
duca
tiona
l ge
ront
olog
y pr
inci
ples
. In
term
s of
Age
ing
Res
earc
h pa
rtic
ipan
ts, t
his
resu
lt su
gges
ts th
at th
is a
ctiv
ity m
ay b
e to
o sp
ecifi
c, i.
e. e
duca
tiona
lly f
ocus
ed, f
or a
pplic
atio
n by
Age
ing
Res
earc
h C
entr
es a
nd w
ell o
utsi
de th
e sc
ope
of th
eir
mis
sion
.
A C
ase
fo
r E
duc
atio
nal
Ge
ron
tolo
gy in
Ad
ult E
du
catio
n
Cha
pter
4
111
ELE
ME
NT
A
TT
RIB
UT
ES
OR
CH
AR
AC
TE
RIS
TIC
S
Info
rmat
ion
and
Gui
danc
e S
ervi
ces
Whi
le o
verla
ppin
g w
ith E
duca
tiona
l Con
sulta
ncy
and
Adv
ice,
and
ack
now
ledg
ing
that
thi
s el
emen
t co
uld
also
occ
ur d
urin
g C
omm
unity
Edu
catio
n,
this
ele
men
t is
spec
ifica
lly c
hara
cter
ised
by
a fo
cus
on th
e pr
ovis
ion
of o
lder
adu
lt ed
ucat
ion-
spec
ific
info
rmat
ion
thro
ugh
the
deve
lopm
ent o
f re
sour
ces,
e.g
. web
site
s or
web
-bas
ed it
ems
whe
re t
he r
esou
rces
mig
ht b
e av
aila
ble
to a
nd a
cces
sed
by a
wid
e va
riet
y of
aud
ienc
es in
clud
ing
olde
r ad
ults
, ac
adem
ics,
indu
stry
bod
ies,
com
mun
ity g
roup
s an
d in
divi
dual
s.
Dat
a C
olle
ctio
n
Ad
ult
Ed
ucat
ion
A
gei
ng
Res
earc
h
Q
N/A
N
/A
Inte
rvie
ws
No
info
rmat
ion
or g
uida
nce
serv
ices
wer
e re
port
ed
in th
e un
iver
sity
Adu
lt E
duca
tion
inte
rvie
w
resp
onse
s.
In th
e A
gein
g R
esea
rch
Cen
tres
the
maj
ority
of t
he C
entr
e D
irect
ors
inte
rvie
wed
indi
cate
d th
at th
ey p
rovi
ded
agei
ng-r
elat
ed in
form
atio
n bo
th in
tern
ally
and
ext
erna
lly, i
n a
vari
ety
of
way
s. F
or e
xam
ple,
one
Dire
ctor
sta
ted:
“I
n m
y C
entr
e I h
ad a
dat
abas
e of
800
peo
ple
who
reg
ular
ly w
ante
d to
kno
w a
bout
wha
t th
ings
wer
e ha
ppen
ing.
I w
as v
ery
muc
h a
regu
lar
reso
urce
for
a lo
t of
peop
le t
hey
wou
ld r
ing
me
and
say
“Who
wou
ld I
talk
to a
bout
suc
h an
d su
ch?”
and
wha
teve
r, a
nd
the
site
got
abo
ut 4
0 00
0 hi
ts a
yea
r.”
[4D
O07
09#3
]
The
var
iety
of i
nfor
mat
ion
diss
emin
atio
n m
etho
ds w
as d
escr
ibed
by
one
Dir
ecto
r in
the
follo
win
g w
ay:
“C
erta
inly
if th
e pu
blic
wan
ts o
ur a
dvic
e, th
ey a
ppro
ach
us. I
mea
n w
e do
n’t g
o ou
t and
‘s
prui
k.’ B
ut w
e ar
e m
ore
than
will
ing
if a
part
icul
ar is
sue
aris
es. I
n th
e pu
blic
are
na, i
f th
e ra
dio
wan
ts to
rin
g us
up
then
we
wou
ld p
rovi
de th
at in
form
atio
n, b
ut m
ostly
it’s
co
nsul
ting
with
our
affi
liate
s an
d ou
r as
soci
ates
with
adv
ice
that
they
mig
ht n
eed
conc
erni
ng th
ose
part
icul
ar is
sues
.”
[6JB
2709
#7]
A f
urth
er s
trat
egy
for
info
rmat
ion
and
guid
ance
was
des
crib
ed t
hus:
“W
e ha
ve ju
st w
ritte
n fo
r ex
ampl
e, a
han
dboo
k fo
r cr
eatin
g de
men
tia-f
riend
ly p
hysi
cal
and
soci
al e
nviro
nmen
ts, a
nd s
o w
e ar
e st
artin
g to
wor
k to
war
ds u
sing
that
as
an
educ
atio
nal t
ool.”
[10S
D12
10#1
0]
A C
ase
fo
r E
duc
atio
nal
Ge
ron
tolo
gy in
Ad
ult E
du
catio
n
Cha
pter
4
112
ELE
ME
NT
Info
rmat
ion
and
Gui
danc
e S
ervi
ces
con
t.
INT
ER
PR
ET
AT
ION
P
rovi
ding
info
rmat
ion
and
advi
ce is
inte
gral
to
the
deve
lopm
ent
of o
lder
adu
lts, a
nd is
com
mon
ly d
eliv
ered
thr
ough
edu
catio
n. T
his
resu
lt re
veal
s th
at A
dult
Edu
catio
n re
spon
dent
s ha
ve y
et to
dev
elop
a c
apab
ility
to
offe
r in
form
atio
n to
the
wid
er c
omm
unity
abo
ut o
lder
adu
lt ed
ucat
ion.
T
he n
eed
for
such
a c
apab
ility
is e
vide
nced
by
the
resp
onse
s fr
om th
e A
gein
g R
esea
rch
Cen
tre
whi
ch p
rove
s th
at th
e pu
blic
is a
ppre
ciat
ive
of s
uch
a re
sour
ce.
A C
ase
fo
r E
duc
atio
nal
Ge
ron
tolo
gy in
Ad
ult E
du
catio
n
Cha
pter
4
113
ELE
ME
NT
A
TT
RIB
UT
ES
OR
CH
AR
AC
TE
RIS
TIC
S
Cre
atin
g Le
arni
ng
Env
ironm
ents
To
deve
lop
a le
arni
ng e
nviro
nmen
t su
itabl
e to
old
er a
dult
lear
ners
req
uire
s a
cons
ider
atio
n of
bot
h th
e ph
ysic
al s
pace
and
the
inst
ruct
iona
l pr
oces
s (c
ogni
tive
stim
ulan
t) to
acc
omm
odat
e th
e ne
eds
of th
e ol
der
adul
t. E
vide
nce
of s
uch
a co
nsid
erat
ion
wou
ld b
e ch
arac
teris
ed b
y en
viro
nmen
tal i
ssue
s su
ch a
s se
atin
g, li
ghtin
g, v
olum
e an
d vi
sibi
lity
in th
e co
ntex
t of
dec
linin
g ph
ysic
al a
bilit
ies.
Ins
truc
tiona
lly, t
his
elem
ent
wou
ld b
e ev
iden
ced
by th
e in
clus
ion
of s
trat
egie
s ba
sed
on g
erag
ogy,
and
bas
ed o
n a
criti
cal o
rien
tatio
n to
adu
lt ed
ucat
ion
whe
re t
he d
iver
sity
of
lear
ners
and
thei
r ne
eds
is a
ckno
wle
dged
and
inco
rpor
ated
into
the
lear
ning
set
ting.
The
ove
rarc
hing
con
cept
to
effe
ctiv
e ol
der
adul
t lea
rnin
g en
viro
nmen
ts is
em
pow
erm
ent o
f the
old
er le
arne
r.
Dat
a C
olle
ctio
n
Ad
ult
Ed
ucat
ion
A
gei
ng
Res
earc
h
Q8(
i) N
one
repo
rted
N
one
repo
rted
Inte
rvie
ws
Whi
le a
ckno
wle
dgin
g a
basi
s fo
r un
ders
tand
ing
adul
t ed
ucat
ion
lear
ning
env
iron
men
ts a
mon
gst
this
coh
ort,
the
inte
rvie
w p
artic
ipan
ts fr
om
univ
ersi
ty A
dult
Edu
catio
n pr
ogra
ms
did
not
indi
cate
any
invo
lvem
ent i
n or
kno
wle
dge
of
crea
ting
lear
ning
env
iron
men
ts s
peci
fic to
old
er
adul
ts.
No
evid
ence
of a
ny s
peci
fic c
onsi
dera
tion
of le
arni
ng e
nviro
nmen
ts s
uch
as s
ettin
gs a
nd
stim
ulan
ts w
as f
ound
in A
gein
g R
esea
rch
resp
onse
s, a
lthou
gh s
ome
refe
renc
e w
as m
ade
to th
e po
ssib
ility
of f
utur
e pa
rtic
ipat
ion
of s
enio
r ci
tizen
s in
the
univ
ersi
ty b
uilt
envi
ronm
ent
(i.e.
on
cam
pus)
. T
his
Dir
ecto
r st
ated
:
“Y
ou h
ave
the
oppo
rtun
ity fo
r se
nior
citi
zens
to
enga
ge in
wha
t the
uni
vers
ity o
ffer
s th
roug
h so
me
spec
ial c
hann
els
and
agai
n w
here
the
uni
vers
ity e
nviro
nmen
t ca
ters
for
th
at.”
[3H
B24
08#1
2]
INT
ER
PR
ET
AT
ION
T
his
resu
lt in
dica
tes
that
cur
rent
ly, A
dult
Edu
catio
n pa
rtici
pant
s ar
e un
able
to id
entif
y th
e un
ique
ness
of l
earn
ing
envi
ronm
ents
tha
t are
spe
cific
ally
des
igne
d to
cat
er
to th
e ne
eds
of o
lder
adu
lt le
arne
rs.
Thi
s re
sult
indi
cate
s th
at a
sim
ilar
situ
atio
n ex
ists
with
in th
e A
gein
g R
esea
rch
part
icip
ants
.
A C
ase
fo
r E
duc
atio
nal
Ge
ron
tolo
gy in
Ad
ult E
du
catio
n
Cha
pter
4
114
ELE
ME
NT
A
TT
RIB
UT
ES
OR
CH
AR
AC
TE
RIS
TIC
S
Org
anis
atio
nal
Pol
icy
To
adva
nce
educ
atio
nal g
eron
tolo
gy, o
rgan
izat
iona
l and
inst
itutio
nal p
olic
ies
wou
ld b
e ch
arac
teriz
ed b
y di
rect
ives
that
ref
lect
: em
ergi
ng s
ocia
l ne
eds
aris
ing
out o
f de
mog
raph
ic c
hang
e; th
e ch
angi
ng le
arni
ng n
eeds
of i
ncre
asin
g nu
mbe
rs o
f old
er a
dult
lear
ners
and
thos
e th
at s
uppo
rt
them
; and
edu
catio
nal s
yste
ms
and
proc
edur
es t
hat s
uppo
rt c
olla
bora
tive
activ
ities
bet
wee
n co
ntrib
utin
g ed
ucat
iona
l ger
onto
logy
dis
cipl
ines
.
Dat
a C
olle
ctio
n
Ad
ult
Ed
ucat
ion
A
gei
ng
Res
earc
h
Q10
75
% o
f Adu
lt E
duca
tion
resp
onde
nts
iden
tifie
d an
org
anis
atio
nal b
arrie
r to
inte
rdis
cipl
inar
y co
llabo
rativ
e ac
tiviti
es in
volv
ing
olde
r ad
ult
educ
atio
n.
Aris
ing
out o
f pol
icy
dire
ctiv
es,
thes
e in
clud
ed:
• D
ista
nce
from
oth
er
Fac
ultie
s/S
choo
ls
• F
undi
ng fo
r pr
ogra
ms
wou
ld n
eed
to b
e ba
sed
on s
tude
nt n
umbe
rs
• F
undi
ng n
eede
d fo
r co
llabo
rativ
e en
deav
ours
•
Tim
e av
aila
ble
Age
ing
Res
earc
h re
spon
dent
s id
entif
ied
seve
ral b
arri
ers
to c
olla
bora
tion
with
Adu
lt E
duca
tion
in o
rder
to a
dvan
ce e
duca
tiona
l ger
onto
logy
. Aris
ing
out
of p
olic
y di
rect
ives
, the
se
incl
uded
: • T
ime
and
reso
urce
s •
The
nee
d to
pre
pare
our
ow
n st
aff e
duca
tiona
lly
• U
nfam
iliar
ity w
ith r
esea
rche
rs in
edu
catio
n •
Com
mitm
ent f
rom
uni
vers
ity a
nd D
ean
• La
ck o
f int
eres
t an
d ex
pert
ise
of A
dult
Edu
catio
n in
Age
ing
Issu
es
• U
ncer
tain
ben
efits
for
a re
sear
ch o
rgan
izat
ion
• N
eed
for
mut
ual r
espe
ct fo
r ea
ch o
ther
’s a
rea
of e
xper
tise
and
sim
ilar
valu
e sy
stem
s.
Inte
rvie
ws
Inte
rvie
ws
did
not y
ield
any
furt
her
expa
nsio
n of
th
is e
lem
ent.
One
Adu
lt E
duca
tion
resp
onde
nt
did
stat
e ho
wev
er t
hat t
he c
urric
ulum
pol
icy
was
no
t ref
lect
ive
enou
gh o
f soc
ial c
hang
e.
He
stat
ed:
“.
..ou
r co
urse
s ar
e re
view
ed e
very
five
ye
ars
so th
ere’
s a
five
year
cyc
le f
or e
ach
cour
se to
be
look
ed a
t, us
ually
in a
way
that
re
spon
ds to
dem
and
and
so o
n fr
om o
ur
cons
umer
s, s
o I t
hink
we’
ve d
one
that
but
of
cou
rse
we’
ve m
isse
d ou
t rat
her
poor
ly o
n th
e ge
ront
olog
y is
sue.
”
[7P
R02
10#1
]
The
uni
vers
ity p
olic
y em
phas
is o
n sc
ient
ific
and
biom
edic
al r
esea
rch
and
rela
ted
fund
ing
was
sta
ted
by o
ne A
gein
g R
esea
rch
Dir
ecto
r in
the
follo
win
g w
ay:
“I
mea
n ag
eing
is a
lway
s go
ing
to b
e a
prio
rity
but h
avin
g sa
id t
hat i
t’s n
ot a
dis
ease
, its
no
t you
kno
w,
a ne
w k
ind
of n
ano-
tech
nolo
gy in
vent
ion.
It’s
a b
road
chu
rch
and
that
cr
eate
s so
me
diffi
culty
in it
s ow
n rig
ht, i
n te
rms
of tr
ying
to
serv
e th
e un
iver
sity
the
re is
so
muc
h to
do.
A
nd C
entr
es o
nly
get f
unde
d he
re in
tern
ally
for
five
year
s an
d th
en th
ey
are
supp
osed
to b
e up
and
run
ning
. So
you
know
, ext
erna
l fun
ding
is b
ecom
ing
mor
e im
port
ant.”
[3H
B24
08#4
]
A C
ase
fo
r E
duc
atio
nal
Ge
ron
tolo
gy in
Ad
ult E
du
catio
n
Cha
pter
4
115
ELE
ME
NT
Org
anis
atio
nal
Pol
icy
con
t.
INT
ER
PR
ET
AT
ION
T
he r
espo
nses
for
mul
ated
aga
inst
thi
s el
emen
t su
gges
t tha
t the
typ
e of
pol
icy
need
ed t
o su
ppor
t edu
catio
nal g
eron
tolo
gy h
as n
ot b
een
evid
ence
d in
the
se s
peci
fic
rese
arch
loca
tions
. Thi
s is
bec
ause
thes
e re
sults
sug
gest
that
cur
ricul
um p
olic
y do
es n
ot a
dequ
atel
y ad
dres
s ch
angi
ng s
ocia
l nee
ds.
In a
dditi
on, r
esul
ts in
dica
te th
at
fund
ing
polic
y is
pre
dica
ted
upon
the
educ
atio
n-as
-pro
duct
req
uire
men
t whi
ch is
hig
hly
depe
ndan
t on
stu
dent
num
bers
, and
ove
rlook
s th
e ex
pand
ing
soci
o-cu
ltura
l an
d ps
ycho
-soc
ial b
enef
its o
f old
er a
dult
lear
ning
. E
vide
nce
also
rev
eals
tha
t fun
ding
is o
ften
skew
ed t
owar
ds b
iom
edic
al r
esea
rch
whi
ch c
ontr
adic
ts t
he n
eed
for
deve
lopm
ent o
f int
erdi
scip
linar
y re
sear
ch te
ams
whi
ch a
re f
unda
men
tal t
o th
e ap
plic
atio
n of
edu
catio
nal g
eron
tolo
gy.
A C
ase
fo
r E
duc
atio
nal
Ge
ron
tolo
gy in
Ad
ult E
du
catio
n
Cha
pter
4
116
ELE
ME
NT
A
TT
RIB
UT
ES
OR
CH
AR
AC
TE
RIS
TIC
S
Pro
fess
iona
l D
evel
opm
ent &
T
rain
ing
in t
he
Age
d S
ecto
r
Act
iviti
es a
ssoc
iate
d w
ith th
is e
lem
ent i
nclu
de u
pdat
ing
the
know
ledg
e an
d sk
ills
of a
ged
sect
or e
mpl
oyee
s ab
out
olde
r ad
ults
as
lear
ners
, the
bi
opsy
chos
ocia
l asp
ects
of o
lder
adu
lt ed
ucat
ion,
and
the
ger
agog
ical
str
ateg
ies
rele
vant
to e
ffect
ive
olde
r ad
ult l
earn
ing
and
empo
wer
men
t. T
his
info
rmat
ion
coul
d be
pro
vide
d th
roug
h a
vari
ety
of a
ctiv
ities
incl
udin
g pr
ogra
ms,
sem
inar
s, w
orks
hops
and
onl
ine
prod
ucts
to e
nhan
ce t
he
educ
atio
nal c
apab
ilitie
s of
em
ploy
ees
with
in, a
nd o
f tho
se p
rovi
ding
ser
vice
s to
, the
age
d se
ctor
.
Dat
a C
olle
ctio
n
Ad
ult
Ed
ucat
ion
A
gei
ng
Res
earc
h
Q8(
e)
No
evid
ence
of
educ
atio
nal g
eron
tolo
gy r
elat
ed
prof
essi
onal
dev
elop
men
t an
d tr
aini
ng a
ctiv
ities
to
the
aged
sec
tor
was
rep
orte
d.
No
evid
ence
of t
his
elem
ent w
as r
epor
ted.
Inte
rvie
ws
Whi
le a
ckno
wle
dgin
g th
at p
rofe
ssio
nal
deve
lopm
ent i
s an
inte
gral
par
t of
acad
emic
life
, no
pro
fess
iona
l dev
elop
men
t ac
tiviti
es r
elev
ant t
o th
e ed
ucat
iona
l nee
ds o
f the
age
ing
popu
latio
n or
ol
der
adul
t lea
rner
s w
ere
repo
rted
in in
terv
iew
s w
ith u
nive
rsity
Adu
lt E
duca
tion
resp
onde
nts.
Whi
le n
ot fo
cuse
d on
edu
catio
nal g
eron
tolo
gy to
pics
, tea
chin
g in
the
agei
ng a
rena
was
w
ides
prea
d am
ongs
t the
Age
ing
Res
earc
h C
entr
es, w
ith th
e m
ajor
ity o
f thi
s oc
curr
ing
inte
rnal
ly a
s te
achi
ng to
enr
olle
d ge
ront
olog
y or
ger
iatr
ic m
edic
ine
stud
ents
.
Pro
fess
iona
l dev
elop
men
t w
as p
rovi
ded
in a
sys
tem
atic
man
ner
in th
ose
Cen
tres
as
soci
ated
with
the
heal
th s
ervi
ce. A
n ex
ampl
e of
sys
tem
ic a
ppro
ache
s to
pro
fess
iona
l de
velo
pmen
t to
the
heal
th s
ervi
ce in
clud
ed a
n in
-hou
se A
cade
mic
Sem
inar
Ser
ies,
de
scri
bed
in th
is w
ay:
“O
ne o
f the
issu
es o
f cou
rse
bein
g w
ithin
the
heal
th s
ervi
ce is
tha
t sta
ff ve
ry s
eldo
m g
et
to g
o to
con
fere
nces
and
rar
ely
get t
he o
ppor
tuni
ty t
o he
ar p
eopl
e in
aca
dem
ic s
peak
. S
o on
e of
the
thin
gs w
e cl
earl
y w
ante
d to
do
was
to
be a
ble
to p
rovi
de e
xpos
ure
to th
e ki
nds
of th
ings
we
hear
at c
onfe
renc
es..
.. S
o w
e pa
id p
artic
ular
atte
ntio
n to
bui
ldin
g th
e A
cade
mic
Sem
inar
Ser
ies.
Whe
n I f
irst a
rriv
ed it
was
larg
ely
for
peop
le w
ithin
the
orga
niza
tion
who
wer
e do
ing
thei
r P
hDs
or th
at w
ere
linke
d to
the
ger
iatr
ic n
ursi
ng,
who
w
ere
com
ing
in a
nd te
lling
peo
ple
wha
t the
y w
ere
doin
g w
ithin
our
org
aniz
atio
n an
d th
e ho
spita
l. W
e th
ough
t the
y ne
eded
a p
lace
to
hear
oth
er t
hing
s th
at w
ould
exp
and
thei
r m
ind,
that
wou
ld c
halle
nge
the
clin
ical
per
spec
tive,
and
ena
ble
them
to ta
p in
muc
h m
ore
read
ily to
thi
ngs
you
and
I mig
ht ta
ke fo
r gr
ante
d. L
ast m
onth
we
had
a ke
y sp
eake
r, o
ne o
f the
dev
elop
ers
of th
e Q
ualit
y of
Life
Mea
sure
men
t T
ool,
it w
as
som
ethi
ng v
ery
prac
tical
and
cer
tain
ly s
omet
hing
they
had
nev
er h
eard
of b
efor
e.
Bef
ore
that
we
had
thre
e pe
ople
fro
m S
wed
en t
alki
ng a
bout
dem
entia
car
e. B
efor
e th
at
we
had
a C
anad
ian
talk
ing
abou
t soc
ial r
esea
rch.
”
[10
SD
1210
#6]
A C
ase
fo
r E
duc
atio
nal
Ge
ron
tolo
gy in
Ad
ult E
du
catio
n
Cha
pter
4
117
ELE
ME
NT
Pro
fess
iona
l D
evel
opm
ent &
T
rain
ing
in t
he
Age
d S
ecto
r
cont
.
Dat
a C
olle
ctio
n
Ad
ult
Ed
ucat
ion
A
gei
ng
Res
earc
h
Inte
rvie
ws
con
t.
O
ne C
entr
e D
irect
or r
emar
ked
how
uni
vers
ity s
taff
them
selv
es n
eed
prof
essi
onal
de
velo
pmen
t as
a re
sult
of th
e ag
eing
of t
he s
tude
nt b
ody,
by
stat
ing:
“E
spec
ially
, I m
ean,
if w
e lo
ok a
t the
coh
ort o
f P
hD s
tude
nts.
We’
ve f
ound
that
PhD
st
uden
ts in
age
ing
are
on a
vera
ge a
lot
olde
r th
an th
e ge
nera
l PhD
stu
dent
bod
y. A
nd
you
know
, the
ir le
arni
ng n
eeds
are
qui
te d
iffer
ent.
One
of t
he s
tudi
es I
wan
ted
to d
o w
as,
we
wro
te a
pro
posa
l for
som
e se
ed f
undi
ng a
nd d
idn’
t get
it. B
ut a
ctua
lly I
wan
ted
to lo
ok a
t old
er s
tude
nts
in th
e un
iver
sity
, loo
k at
thei
r le
arni
ng n
eeds
. B
ecau
se t
he
aver
age
age
of s
tude
nts
in t
he u
nive
rsity
has
gon
e up
. It w
ould
be
a fo
rm o
f pr
ofes
sion
al d
evel
opm
ent
of t
he u
nive
rsity
sta
ff w
ho n
ow h
ave
sixt
y ye
ar o
ld P
hD
stud
ents
und
er t
heir
Sup
ervi
sion
. S
o yo
u kn
ow I
thin
k w
e ne
ed t
o st
art l
ooki
ng m
ore
clos
ely
at w
heth
er th
e un
iver
sity
env
ironm
ent i
s m
eetin
g th
e ne
eds
for
all a
ges.
”[3H
B24
08#1
0]
Des
pite
rev
ealin
g a
dist
inct
ly h
ealth
and
bio
med
ical
focu
s, o
ne C
entr
e D
irec
tor
expl
aine
d th
e ne
ed f
or p
rofe
ssio
nal d
evel
opm
ent i
n th
e ag
ed s
ecto
r in
the
follo
win
g w
ay:
“I
thi
nk th
e he
alth
ser
vice
is a
par
ticul
ar a
rea
that
wou
ld le
nd it
self
wel
l to
that
bec
ause
w
hat y
ou h
ave
to k
eep
in m
ind
in a
ged
care
par
ticul
arly
is th
at o
ur w
orkf
orce
is
pred
omin
antly
ove
r 50
. A
nd I
hear
a lo
t of ‘
Oh
I’m to
o ol
d to
lear
n th
at, I
’ve
been
a n
urse
fo
r 25
yea
rs a
nd I
am to
o ol
d to
lear
n an
ythi
ng n
ew,’
and
I thi
nk it
’s a
bsol
utel
y rig
ht fo
r th
at p
rofe
ssio
nal p
repa
ratio
n to
occ
ur.”
[1
0SD
1210
#15]
Oth
er p
rofe
ssio
nal d
evel
opm
ent
was
pro
vide
d fr
om a
lega
l per
spec
tive,
with
a C
entr
e D
irec
tor
com
men
ting:
“O
ur a
ctiv
ities
mus
t hav
e a
lega
l fla
vour
, and
of c
ours
e th
e la
w u
nder
pins
eve
ryth
ing
that
we
do. I
t’s p
repa
ring
peop
le to
wor
k in
the
sect
or, w
e ta
rget
peo
ple,
you
kno
w, t
he
retir
emen
t vill
age
indu
stry
, ind
ustr
y, u
m c
onsu
mer
s, th
e ca
rers
of
olde
r pe
ople
, so
it’s
a
bit o
f ev
eryt
hing
.”
[8S
F09
10#1
1]
A C
ase
fo
r E
duc
atio
nal
Ge
ron
tolo
gy in
Ad
ult E
du
catio
n
Cha
pter
4
118
ELE
ME
NT
Pro
fess
iona
l D
evel
opm
ent &
T
rain
ing
in t
he
Age
d S
ecto
r
cont
.
Dat
a C
olle
ctio
n
Ad
ult
Ed
ucat
ion
A
gei
ng
Res
earc
h
Inte
rvie
ws
con
t.
A
noth
er C
entr
e D
irec
tor
rega
rded
the
deve
lopm
ent o
f the
PhD
coh
ort a
s a
form
of
prof
essi
onal
dev
elop
men
t for
the
agei
ng s
ecto
r, p
artic
ular
ly in
the
dev
elop
men
t of
care
er
traj
ecto
ries
and
res
earc
h pa
thw
ays.
As
the
Dir
ecto
r no
ted:
“I
n te
rms
of p
rovi
ding
a c
ondu
it to
the
outs
ide
wor
ld fo
r a
lot o
f res
earc
hers
, w
ho c
an
prom
ote
thei
r w
ork
thro
ugh
our
collo
quiu
m s
erie
s an
d be
exp
osed
to
all f
orm
s of
pol
icy
mak
ers
and
com
mun
ity o
rgan
izat
ions
. Its
abo
ut b
uild
ing
care
er p
athw
ays,
car
eer
traj
ecto
ries
, rea
lly m
arke
ting
wha
t tho
se m
ight
be,
wha
t are
as o
f the
wor
kfor
ce m
ight
be
attr
acte
d to
, and
wha
t out
com
e th
ere
wou
ld b
e fo
r st
uden
ts h
avin
g co
mpl
eted
po
stgr
adua
te r
esea
rch
in a
gein
g.”
[3H
B24
08#3
]
INT
ER
PR
ET
AT
ION
T
he la
ck o
f ev
iden
ce o
f pro
fess
iona
l dev
elop
men
t an
d tr
aini
ng in
the
aged
sec
tor
prov
ided
by
Adu
lt E
duca
tion
resp
onde
nts
sugg
ests
that
ther
e ha
s no
t yet
bee
n re
cogn
ition
of t
he e
xpan
ding
bod
y of
kno
wle
dge
abou
t age
ing
issu
es a
nd o
lder
adu
lt ed
ucat
ion
to w
arra
nt th
ese
activ
ities
. R
esul
ts a
lso
sugg
est t
hat t
he g
row
ing
emph
asis
on
soci
al g
eron
tolo
gy a
nd th
e im
pact
of s
ocia
l iss
ues
on o
lder
adu
lts h
as n
ot b
een
tran
slat
ed in
to e
duca
tiona
l mat
eria
ls o
r pr
ogra
ms
for
the
aged
sec
tor,
w
here
the
se p
rogr
ams
are
desi
gned
to e
mpo
wer
the
olde
r A
ustr
alia
n.
A C
ase
fo
r E
duc
atio
nal
Ge
ron
tolo
gy in
Ad
ult E
du
catio
n
Cha
pter
4
119
ELE
ME
NT
A
TT
RIB
UT
ES
OR
CH
AR
AC
TE
RIS
TIC
S
Cur
ricul
um o
r P
rogr
am
Dev
elop
men
t
Cur
ricul
um o
r pr
ogra
m d
evel
opm
ent f
ocus
ed o
n ed
ucat
iona
l ger
onto
logy
prin
cipl
es w
ould
inco
rpor
ate
two
pers
pect
ives
: firs
tly, c
onte
nt a
bout
ol
der
adul
ts a
nd t
heir
educ
atio
n, in
clud
ing
biop
sych
osoc
ial i
ssue
s, a
nd s
econ
dly,
be
desi
gned
to b
e ap
plie
d th
roug
h in
stru
ctio
nal m
etho
ds th
at a
re
base
d on
the
proc
ess
of g
erag
ogy.
Dat
a C
olle
ctio
n
Ad
ult
Ed
ucat
ion
A
gei
ng
Res
earc
h
Q6
No
Adu
lt E
duca
tion
resp
onde
nt r
epor
ted
cond
uctin
g th
e de
sign
or
deve
lopm
ent o
f an
y ad
ult
educ
atio
n or
trai
ning
pro
gram
s sp
ecifi
cally
for
or to
th
e ol
der
adul
t. N
o pr
ogra
ms
deal
ing
with
ed
ucat
iona
l ger
onto
logy
as
an a
rea
of s
tudy
was
re
port
ed.
Hal
f (50
%)
of th
e pa
rtic
ipat
ing
Cen
tres
rep
orte
d de
velo
ping
trai
ning
pro
gram
s fo
r ex
tern
al
audi
ence
s an
d 33
% w
orke
d w
ith th
eir
affil
iate
d un
iver
sity
for
the
deve
lopm
ent o
f ge
ront
olog
ical
cur
ricu
lum
con
tent
. Non
e of
thes
e pr
ogra
ms
wer
e re
late
d to
edu
catio
nal
cont
ent a
nd is
sues
ass
ocia
ted
with
old
er a
dult
educ
atio
n. T
here
was
no
evid
ence
of
curr
icul
um d
evel
opm
ent b
ased
on
educ
atio
nal g
eron
tolo
gy p
rinci
ples
and
pro
cess
es.
Inte
rvie
ws
No
evid
ence
of a
ny a
gein
g-re
late
d cu
rric
ulum
or
prog
ram
dev
elop
men
t was
fou
nd t
o ex
ist i
n un
iver
sity
Adu
lt E
duca
tion
resp
onse
s.
The
re w
ere
a va
riet
y of
edu
catio
nal m
ater
ials
dev
elop
ed t
hrou
gh th
e A
gein
g R
esea
rch
Cen
tres
. T
hese
incl
uded
pra
ctic
al m
ater
ials
suc
h as
tool
kits
for
care
rs,
and
a ha
ndbo
ok o
n cr
eatin
g de
men
tia-f
rien
dly
phys
ical
and
soc
ial e
nviro
nmen
ts, d
escr
ibed
by
a ce
ntre
Dir
ecto
r th
is w
ay:
“B
ecau
se w
e w
ere
quite
ofte
n as
ked
by p
rivat
e nu
rsin
g ho
mes
to p
rovi
de s
essi
ons
on
dem
entia
car
e, t
he C
entr
e m
any
year
s ag
o w
rote
a m
anua
l for
the
exp
erie
ntia
l stu
ff,
with
a v
ideo
tha
t it s
old.
I m
ean,
it is
stil
l sel
ling
and
it ne
eds
seri
ous
upda
ting.
We
have
ju
st w
ritte
n fo
r ex
ampl
e, a
han
dboo
k fo
r cr
eatin
g de
men
tia-f
riend
ly p
hysi
cal a
nd s
ocia
l en
viro
nmen
ts,
and
so w
e ar
e st
artin
g to
wor
k to
war
ds u
sing
that
as
an e
duca
tiona
l to
ol.”
[10S
D12
10#1
0]
Thi
s sa
me
Dire
ctor
invo
lved
in a
gein
g re
sear
ch a
lso
desc
ribed
ano
ther
pro
gram
that
the
cent
re h
ad d
evel
oped
:
“O
ne o
f the
thin
gs w
e al
so h
ave
is th
e E
nhan
cing
Pra
ctic
e pr
ogra
m. B
ecau
se w
e ar
e a
cent
re t
hat i
s pr
omot
ing
heal
th in
depe
nden
ce,
we
got e
xtra
mon
ey t
o do
som
e gr
ound
wor
k in
edu
catio
n. W
hat w
e ha
ve d
one
is r
oll o
ut E
nhan
cing
Pra
ctic
e ac
ross
the
entir
e S
tate
, it i
s a
very
fund
amen
tal s
tep
but i
t’s a
bout
rai
sing
aw
aren
ess
of h
ow p
eopl
e tr
eat o
lder
peo
ple.
It’s
don
e in
the
con
text
of,
it’s
a bi
t lik
e re
flect
ive
prac
tice,
and
so
the
conc
ept
of p
erso
n-ce
ntre
d ca
re is
def
ined
, its
don
e on
the
basi
s of
tryi
ng to
app
ly th
e co
ncep
ts o
f per
son-
cent
red
care
to w
hat t
hey
actu
ally
do
in p
ract
ice,
and
then
get
ting
them
to w
ork
thro
ugh
that
, it’s
a 6
-wee
k co
urse
.”
[10S
D12
10#7
]
A C
ase
fo
r E
duc
atio
nal
Ge
ron
tolo
gy in
Ad
ult E
du
catio
n
Cha
pter
4
120
ELE
ME
NT
Cur
ricul
um o
r P
rogr
am
Dev
elop
men
t co
nt.
Dat
a C
olle
ctio
n
Ad
ult
Ed
ucat
ion
A
gei
ng
Res
earc
h
Inte
rvie
ws
con
t.
T
he D
irec
tor
of a
mul
ti-di
scip
linar
y ce
ntre
art
icul
ated
her
vis
ion
for
a co
re c
urric
ulum
thus
:
“I id
entif
ied
a ne
ed t
o pr
ofile
age
ing
bett
er in
the
curr
icul
um, t
o in
tegr
ate
it ac
ross
the
disc
iplin
es a
nd t
o pr
ovid
e an
opp
ortu
nity
for
stu
dent
s w
ho w
ant
a po
st-g
radu
ate
educ
atio
n in
age
ing
with
a c
ore
foun
datio
n pr
ogra
m.”
[3H
B24
08#1
5]
INT
ER
PR
ET
AT
ION
T
his
resu
lt in
dica
tes
that
ther
e ha
s no
t yet
bee
n a
form
ulat
ion
of a
bod
y of
con
tent
abo
ut e
duca
tiona
l ger
onto
logy
by
this
par
ticip
atin
g co
hort
. T
he n
eces
sary
in
terd
isci
plin
ary
colla
bora
tion
that
cou
ld o
ptim
ise
this
cur
ricul
um c
onte
nt d
oes
not a
ppea
r to
hav
e oc
curr
ed, a
nd w
hile
the
evi
denc
e in
dica
tes
that
the
rang
e an
d na
ture
of p
rogr
ams
are
sign
ifica
nt, t
hey
are
limite
d to
hea
lth r
elat
ed t
opic
s.
Thi
s re
sult
from
this
stu
dy in
dica
tes
that
no
prog
ram
spe
cific
ally
add
ress
ing
educ
atio
nal
gero
ntol
ogy
conc
epts
and
prin
cipl
es h
as y
et b
een
deve
lope
d.
A Case for Educational Gerontology in Adult Education
Chapter 4 121
PART THREE
4.5 Capacity for Educational Gerontology
Introduction
For the purposes of this study, capacity for educational gerontology is viewed as a
predictor of the ability to apply educational gerontology. While this capacity might
be ascertained through the existence of relevant knowledge and skills, this study is
also concerned with investigating factors that foster and nurture interdisciplinary and
collaborative potential which the literature has revealed as underpinning educational
gerontology. These factors include organisational infrastructure, philosophical
approaches aligned with lifelong learning and sociology, and personal motivations
for the adoption of educational gerontology into mainstream adult education.
In this section, the results obtained for each element has been drawn mainly
from interviews that explored the relationship between the evidence presented in Part
Two, and the potential for the advancement of educational gerontology in the future.
A C
ase
fo
r E
duc
atio
nal
Ge
ron
tolo
gy in
Ad
ult E
du
catio
n
Cha
pter
4
122
ELE
ME
NT
A
TT
RIB
UT
ES
OR
CH
AR
AC
TE
RIS
TIC
S
Edu
catio
nal
Exp
erie
nce
of
Res
pond
ent
To
gene
rate
an
unde
rsta
ndin
g of
the
pot
entia
l for
adv
anci
ng e
duca
tiona
l ger
onto
logy
as
an a
rea
of s
tudy
or
as a
pra
ctic
e, p
artic
ipan
ts w
ere
inte
rvie
wed
abo
ut t
heir
educ
atio
nal q
ualif
icat
ions
, exp
erie
nce
and
back
grou
nd.
It is
ack
now
ledg
ed t
hat t
here
exi
sts
som
e ov
erla
p w
ith K
now
ledg
e of
Edu
catio
nal G
eron
tolo
gy, b
ecau
se it
is a
ssum
ed in
this
stu
dy th
at k
now
ledg
e of
adu
lt ed
ucat
ion
thro
ugh
qual
ifica
tions
and
exp
erie
nce
cons
titut
es a
sig
nific
ant a
dvan
tage
and
nat
ural
spr
ingb
oard
for
unde
rsta
ndin
g an
d ap
plyi
ng e
duca
tiona
l ger
onto
logy
prin
cipl
es in
the
futu
re.
Dat
a C
olle
ctio
n
Ad
ult
Ed
ucat
ion
A
gei
ng
Res
earc
h
Q
N/A
N
/A
Inte
rvie
ws
The
res
pond
ents
ref
lect
ed a
mix
of
educ
atio
nal
back
grou
nds.
As
expe
cted
, al
l of t
he u
nive
rsity
A
dult
Edu
catio
n pa
rtic
ipan
ts h
ad p
ostg
radu
ate
qual
ifica
tions
in e
duca
tion
and
had
exte
nsiv
e w
orki
ng e
xper
ienc
e in
adu
lt le
arni
ng, i
nclu
ding
T
echn
ical
and
Fur
ther
Edu
catio
n (T
AF
E)
and
scho
ol te
achi
ng e
xper
ienc
e. A
s on
e re
spon
dent
no
ted:
“I
’ve
been
an
adul
t edu
cato
r fo
r 30
yea
rs in
V
icto
ria w
orki
ng w
ith p
eopl
e w
ho a
re r
etur
ning
to
stu
dy a
fter
a co
nsid
erab
le ti
me
out o
f the
w
orkf
orce
, mos
tly w
omen
but
occ
asio
nally
m
en w
ho a
re lo
okin
g fo
r a
chan
ge in
car
eer
and
so o
n.”
[7P
R02
10#7
]
In a
dditi
on t
o m
anag
ing
olde
r ad
ult s
tude
nts
retu
rnin
g to
stu
dy fo
r ca
reer
cha
nges
, par
ticip
ants
w
ere
resp
onsi
ble
for
the
post
grad
uate
de
velo
pmen
t of t
each
ers
look
ing
for
a m
id-c
aree
r bo
ost,
and
for
teac
hers
pra
ctic
ing
in t
he T
AF
E a
nd
VE
T s
ecto
r.
Thi
rty
perc
ent (
30%
) of
the
Age
ing
Res
earc
h C
entr
es th
at p
artic
ipat
ed w
ere
led
by
educ
atio
nally
-qua
lifie
d D
irect
ors.
T
hese
Cen
tres
are
con
cern
ed w
ith r
esea
rch
outs
ide
the
biom
edic
al p
arad
igm
, and
focu
s on
the
anal
ysis
and
app
licat
ion
of s
ocia
l iss
ues
in t
he w
ider
ar
ena.
For
exa
mpl
e, o
ne C
entr
e fo
cuse
d on
spi
ritua
lity
and
past
oral
car
e in
age
ing,
one
co
ncen
trat
ed o
n le
gal i
ssue
s re
leva
nt t
o ol
der
peop
le, a
nd t
he o
ther
on
broa
d, e
xper
ient
ial
educ
atio
nal a
ctiv
ities
in th
e he
alth
car
e co
ntex
t. A
s on
e of
thes
e C
entr
e D
irec
tors
sta
ted:
“W
ell i
t’s b
een
a lo
ng 1
7 ye
ars.
I ha
ve a
Mas
ters
of A
dult
Edu
catio
n, in
Age
ing,
and
that
le
d m
e on
to t
he P
hD s
tuff
and
cert
ainl
y I h
ave
been
tea
chin
g in
it a
ll th
at ti
me.
My
thes
is
was
look
ing
at h
ealth
-rel
ated
dec
isio
n m
akin
g in
old
er p
eopl
e… In
my
Bac
helo
r of
Art
s I
did
a m
ajor
in B
ehav
iour
al S
cien
ce t
here
and
whe
n I l
ook
back
at t
hat t
here
was
qui
te a
bi
t of
agei
ng s
tuff
in it
whi
ch I
was
del
ight
ed a
bout
…. I
taug
ht n
ursi
ng f
or y
ears
and
I ra
n an
und
ergr
adua
te h
ealth
edu
catio
n co
urse
”
[12L
M01
11#5
]
Fur
ther
evi
denc
e of
a s
olid
edu
catio
nal b
ackg
roun
d w
as p
rovi
ded
by a
noth
er C
entr
e D
irec
tor,
who
rep
orte
d:
“I
tea
ch E
lder
Law
. And
I m
ean,
my
back
grou
nd, m
y M
aste
rs is
in C
urric
ulum
D
evel
opm
ent a
nyw
ay a
nd s
o it’
s de
velo
ping
the
cour
se E
lder
Law
…. W
ell,
my
first
qu
alifi
catio
n w
as a
Dip
lom
a in
Edu
catio
n, in
nur
se e
duca
tion,
and
I’ve
tau
ght e
very
thin
g fr
om s
kill
shar
e to
pos
tgra
d, a
nd I
also
hav
e a
Cer
tific
ate
4 in
Wor
kpla
ce T
rain
ing”
[8S
F09
10#4
]
A C
ase
fo
r E
duc
atio
nal
Ge
ron
tolo
gy in
Ad
ult E
du
catio
n
Cha
pter
4
123
ELE
ME
NT
Edu
catio
nal
Exp
erie
nce
of
Res
pond
ent
co
nt.
Dat
a C
olle
ctio
n
Ad
ult
Ed
ucat
ion
A
gei
ng
Res
earc
h
Inte
rvie
ws
con
t.
The
re w
as s
tron
g co
mm
ents
and
dis
cuss
ion
abou
t th
eir
pass
ion
for
thei
r te
achi
ng a
rea
and
for
the
deve
lopm
ent a
nd e
mpo
wer
men
t of i
ndiv
idua
ls.
Thi
s is
evi
denc
ed b
y a
typi
cal s
tate
men
t:
“T
hat’s
one
of t
he g
reat
thin
gs a
bout
wor
king
w
ith a
dults
, the
re is
a w
hole
ran
ge o
f pla
ces
whe
re p
eopl
e ar
e di
sem
pow
ered
and
(fo
r th
em)
to r
ealiz
e th
at it
s no
t due
to th
eir
lack
of
inte
llige
nce
or a
bilit
y or
wha
teve
r, I
mea
n th
at
is t
he c
ase
for
som
e bu
t the
re a
re m
any
who
ju
st h
ave
had
bad
life
circ
umst
ance
s. O
nce
the
real
izat
ion
is t
here
that
they
can
act
ually
go
ahe
ad w
ith w
hat t
hey’
ve g
ot, t
hen
it’s
just
th
e m
ost i
ncre
dibl
e ex
peri
ence
as
an
educ
ator
.”
[7P
R02
10#1
2]
The
re w
as a
sig
nific
ant f
ocus
on
prep
arin
g te
ache
rs fo
r th
e T
AF
E e
nviro
nmen
t, an
d of
the
agei
ng s
taffi
ng is
sues
with
in t
he te
achi
ng s
ecto
r ge
nera
lly. R
ecog
nitio
n of
the
incr
easi
ng n
umbe
r of
ol
der
teac
hers
was
app
aren
t, w
ith o
ne r
espo
nden
t no
ting:
“A
s it
is a
t the
mom
ent I
go
out
and
obse
rve
thes
e yo
ung
TA
FE
teac
hers
, our
stu
dent
te
ache
rs w
hen
they
go
out a
nd th
ey a
re
alm
ost
alw
ays
inev
itabl
y as
sign
ed to
an
olde
r te
ache
r be
caus
e th
ey a
re t
he o
nes
that
do
min
ate
this
sec
tor
curr
ently
.”
[5R
S13
09#2
]
Fin
ally
, one
res
pond
ent w
ith a
soc
ial g
eron
tolo
gy b
ackg
roun
d re
itera
ted
the
Cen
tre’
s co
ntri
butio
n to
edu
catio
n in
the
heal
th c
are
setti
ng, b
y st
atin
g:
“I
am
affi
liate
d w
ith th
e un
iver
sity
as
I hav
e ac
adem
ic s
tatu
s an
d I t
each
onl
ine
post
grad
uate
wor
k, a
nd w
e ha
ve a
lot o
f inp
ut in
to th
e ho
spita
l in-
serv
ice
educ
atio
n be
caus
e fir
st o
f al
l we
sit
on th
e ed
ucat
ion
com
mitt
ee, a
nd s
econ
dly
we
prov
ide
som
e of
th
at o
urse
lves
, in-
serv
ice
educ
atio
n, s
o w
e ar
e dr
ivin
g so
me
of th
e cu
rric
ulum
with
in th
e he
alth
ser
vice
.”
[10S
D12
10#2
]
No
furt
her
inte
rvie
w c
omm
ents
wer
e fo
rthc
omin
g.
A C
ase
fo
r E
duc
atio
nal
Ge
ron
tolo
gy in
Ad
ult E
du
catio
n
Cha
pter
4
124
ELE
ME
NT
Edu
catio
nal
Exp
erie
nce
of
Res
pond
ent
co
nt.
Dat
a C
olle
ctio
n
Ad
ult
Ed
ucat
ion
A
gei
ng
Res
earc
h
Inte
rvie
ws
con
t.
Sig
nific
ant k
now
ledg
e of
the
fram
ewor
k of
A
ustr
alia
n V
ocat
iona
l Edu
catio
n an
d T
rain
ing
(VE
T)
sect
or w
as r
evea
led,
eve
n in
clud
ing
a hi
stor
ical
per
spec
tive,
with
one
res
pond
ent
stat
ing:
“.
.as
part
of m
y P
hD I
wro
te a
sto
ry o
n vo
catio
nal e
duca
tion
and
adul
t edu
catio
n in
V
icto
ria a
nd h
ow te
ache
rs, w
ho d
idn’
t hav
e an
y fo
rmal
qua
lific
atio
ns…
. w
ere
requ
ired
to
join
the
VE
T s
ecto
r.”
[7P
R02
10#1
6]
One
of t
he r
espo
nden
ts c
o-or
dina
ted
prog
ram
s on
ly th
roug
h di
stan
ce e
duca
tion,
whi
ch li
mite
d th
e ab
ility
to
com
men
t on
perc
eptio
ns a
bout
the
chan
ging
nat
ure
adul
t edu
catio
n du
e to
an
agei
ng
dem
ogra
phic
. H
owev
er, t
his
part
icul
ar r
espo
nden
t re
mar
ked:
“…
we
cert
ainl
y ha
ven’
t loo
ked
at w
hat i
t wou
ld
be li
ke to
wor
k w
ith o
lder
wor
kers
.”
[7P
R02
10#2
]
A C
ase
fo
r E
duc
atio
nal
Ge
ron
tolo
gy in
Ad
ult E
du
catio
n
Cha
pter
4
125
ELE
ME
NT
Edu
catio
nal
Exp
erie
nce
of
Res
pond
ent
co
nt.
Dat
a C
olle
ctio
n
Ad
ult
Ed
ucat
ion
A
gei
ng
Res
earc
h
Inte
rvie
ws
con
t.
One
res
pond
ent h
ad s
ome
exp
erie
nce
teac
hing
ol
der
adul
ts.
The
des
crip
tion
of th
e ex
per
ienc
e in
clud
ed:
“I
kno
w w
hen
I wor
k w
ith o
lder
peo
ple,
ther
e is
an
ass
umpt
ion
mad
e ab
out t
he m
ode
of
inst
ruct
ion
bein
g fa
irly
dida
ctic
. It’s
like
‘you
tel
l m
e w
hat I
nee
d to
kno
w u
ntil
I rea
lize
I kn
ow
mor
e th
an y
ou d
o’ a
nd th
en y
ou k
ind
of b
ack
off t
hat a
nd th
ey h
ave
the
sudd
en r
ealiz
atio
n th
at th
ey a
re k
now
ledg
eabl
e pe
ople
… a
nd
once
the
y re
aliz
e th
ey c
an m
ake
conn
ectio
ns
betw
een
life
exp
erie
nce
and
theo
ry o
r w
hate
ver
it m
ight
be,
it ju
st u
nbel
ieva
ble
to
see
the
rate
at w
hich
the
ir se
lf-es
teem
roc
kets
, an
d th
ey s
ay ‘H
ey I
do k
now
mor
e th
an th
at
Yea
r 12
gra
duat
e.’ I
’ve
seen
tha
t tim
e an
d tim
e ag
ain.
”
[7P
R02
10#1
0]
INT
ER
PR
ET
AT
ION
T
he n
umer
ous,
and
com
preh
ensi
ve in
terv
iew
com
men
ts fr
om p
artic
ipan
ts r
evea
l a d
eep
unde
rsta
ndin
g of
adu
lt ed
ucat
ion
conc
epts
and
ext
ensi
ve e
xper
ienc
e in
ac
hiev
ing
a ra
nge
of th
e po
sitiv
e ou
tcom
es fo
r ad
ults
as
lear
ning
exp
ands
the
ir ho
rizo
n. T
his
resu
lt su
gges
ts th
at, w
hile
no
evid
ence
of
educ
atio
nal g
eron
tolo
gy w
as
pres
ente
d by
Adu
lt E
duca
tion
part
icip
ants
in P
art T
wo,
a s
olid
fou
ndat
ion
is in
pla
ce fo
r ex
tend
ing
andr
agog
y in
to g
erag
ogy.
A s
igni
fican
t num
ber
of A
gein
g R
esea
rch
Cen
tre
Dir
ecto
rs h
ave
back
grou
nd q
ualif
icat
ions
in e
duca
tion,
how
ever
res
ults
sho
w t
hat t
hese
par
ticip
ants
are
lim
ited
to
Res
earc
h C
entr
es w
ith r
esea
rch
inte
rest
s ou
tsid
e th
e bi
omed
ical
par
adig
m. I
n ad
ditio
n, t
hese
spe
cific
par
ticip
ants
do
not r
evea
l day
-to-
day
appl
icat
ion
of th
eir
educ
atio
nal k
now
ledg
e in
the
ir re
spec
tive
Cen
tres
. W
hile
pro
vidi
ng a
nat
ural
foun
datio
n fo
r un
ders
tand
ing
adul
t edu
catio
n, t
he r
esul
t doe
s no
t ind
icat
e th
at th
e pa
rtic
ipan
ts fr
om th
is r
esea
rch
loca
tion
have
ext
ende
d th
eir
educ
atio
nal k
now
ledg
e to
incl
ude
issu
es s
peci
fic to
old
er a
dult
lear
ning
.
A C
ase
fo
r E
duc
atio
nal
Ge
ron
tolo
gy in
Ad
ult E
du
catio
n
Cha
pter
4
126
ELE
ME
NT
A
TT
RIB
UT
ES
OR
CH
AR
AC
TE
RIS
TIC
S
Inte
rdis
cipl
inar
y R
esea
rch
Foc
us
Cap
acity
for
inte
rdis
cipl
inar
y re
sear
ch w
ould
be
evid
ence
d by
col
labo
rativ
e re
sear
ch c
apab
ilitie
s on
the
basi
s of
join
t app
licat
ions
for
res
earc
h fu
ndin
g an
d gr
ants
, and
the
com
posi
tion
of r
esea
rch
team
mem
bers
dra
wn
from
dis
cipl
ines
ack
now
ledg
ed a
s co
ntri
butin
g to
adv
anci
ng
educ
atio
nal g
eron
tolo
gy a
s an
are
a of
stu
dy a
nd a
s pr
actic
e.
Dat
a C
olle
ctio
n
Ad
ult
Ed
ucat
ion
A
gei
ng
Res
earc
h
Q3
Not
one
Adu
lt E
duca
tion
part
icip
ant r
epor
ted
any
rese
arch
affi
liatio
n w
ith a
uni
vers
ity A
gein
g R
esea
rch
Cen
tre.
One
Age
ing
Res
earc
h C
entr
e re
port
ed a
res
earc
h af
filia
tion
with
a F
acul
ty o
f Edu
catio
n.
Q4
N/A
T
he p
urpo
se b
ehin
d th
is a
ffilia
tion
was
for
usin
g ar
chiv
al e
duca
tiona
l dat
a.
Q7
No
othe
r lin
ks to
Age
ing
Res
earc
h w
as
repo
rted
. N
o ot
her
links
to A
dult
Edu
catio
n re
port
ed.
Q8(
k)
No
colla
bora
tive
appl
icat
ions
for
gran
ts o
r fu
ndin
g re
port
ed.
No
evid
ence
of t
his
activ
ity r
epor
ted.
Inte
rvie
ws
Ver
y lit
tle in
terd
isci
plin
ary
rese
arch
was
ev
iden
t in
uni
vers
ity A
dult
Edu
catio
n pr
ogra
ms.
O
ne r
espo
nden
t hel
d a
mem
bers
hip
to a
mul
ti-di
scip
linar
y re
sear
ch c
entr
e, in
whi
ch th
e fo
cus
was
on
prof
essi
onal
pra
ctic
e ac
ross
five
fa
culti
es, b
ut n
o ag
eing
-rel
ated
res
earc
h ha
d be
en c
ondu
cted
with
in th
is f
orum
. T
his
acad
emic
not
ed:
“I
am
a m
embe
r of
a r
esea
rch
grou
p th
at
look
s at
the
impl
icat
ions
of t
rans
disc
iplin
ary
prac
tice…
but
I kn
ow th
at r
esea
rch
cent
re
cert
ainl
y do
esn’
t loo
k at
tho
se (
agei
ng)
issu
es. B
ut I
don’
t thi
nk g
eron
tolo
gy
appe
ars
anyw
here
in th
e re
sear
ch
findi
ngs.
”
[7P
R02
10#1
]
Whi
le th
e A
gein
g R
esea
rch
Cen
tres
wer
e al
l foc
used
ver
y di
stin
ctly
on
agei
ng r
esea
rch,
so
me
wer
e m
ore
limite
d in
thei
r re
sear
ch s
cope
than
oth
ers.
For
exa
mpl
e, o
ne D
irect
or
desc
ribe
d th
e fo
cus
of h
is C
entr
e in
the
follo
win
g w
ay:
“I
ts p
urel
y a
rese
arch
cen
tre,
we
don’
t tea
ch a
ny c
ours
es.…
I be
lieve
it s
tart
ed o
ut a
s ve
ry m
uch
a re
sear
ch c
entr
e fo
r ps
ychi
atric
epi
dem
iolo
gy b
ut n
ow it
’s a
cen
tre
conc
erne
d w
ith m
enta
l hea
lth r
esea
rch.
The
re’s
bee
n no
col
labo
ratio
n w
ith o
ther
re
sear
cher
s an
d ot
her
inst
itutio
ns, b
ut g
ener
ally
foc
used
bro
adly
in th
e ps
ycho
logy
and
ag
eing
are
as.
Bec
ause
we
are
com
plet
ely
depe
ndan
t on
gra
nt m
oney
we
have
to b
e ve
ry f
ocus
ed o
n w
hat
we
do to
mak
e su
re o
ur r
esea
rch
activ
ities
are
like
ly to
enh
ance
ou
r op
port
unity
to g
et m
oney
in t
he fu
ture
, but
at t
he s
ame
time
it al
so m
eans
that
we
are
open
to
colla
bora
tions
that
mig
ht a
gain
ser
ve th
ose
goal
s. It
wou
ld d
epen
d on
wha
t m
utua
l ben
efit
was
ava
ilabl
e fr
om a
ny c
olla
bora
tion
of t
hat t
ype.
”
[9T
W11
10#1
]
A C
ase
fo
r E
duc
atio
nal
Ge
ron
tolo
gy in
Ad
ult E
du
catio
n
Cha
pter
4
127
ELE
ME
NT
Inte
rdis
cipl
inar
y R
esea
rch
Foc
us
cont
.
Dat
a C
olle
ctio
n
Ad
ult
Ed
ucat
ion
A
gei
ng
Res
earc
h
Inte
rvie
ws
con
t.
One
res
pond
ent r
epor
ted
som
e pr
evio
us
invo
lvem
ent i
n an
age
ing
rese
arch
pro
ject
, st
atin
g:
“I
’ve
wor
ked
on th
e ed
ge o
f som
e of
the
se
prog
ram
s, o
n a
cam
pus
whe
re t
hey
trai
n ru
ral d
octo
rs a
nd th
ey h
ave
som
e pr
ojec
ts,
ther
e’s
a de
mog
raph
ic p
roje
ct I
was
in
volv
ed w
ith o
n th
e m
argi
ns o
ver
the
last
co
uple
of y
ears
and
they
wer
e as
sess
ing
the
need
s of
the
agei
ng d
emog
raph
ic
acro
ss th
e ci
ty o
f [Lo
catio
n D
elet
ed],
in
term
s of
the
faci
litie
s, e
duca
tiona
l op
port
uniti
es, a
ccom
mod
atio
n op
tions
and
th
at s
ort
of th
ing.
”
[7P
R02
10#1
0]
Ano
ther
Cen
tre
Dir
ecto
r st
ated
:
“W
hat w
e ha
ve a
rea
l foc
us o
n is
res
earc
h in
to a
gein
g th
at h
ave
part
ners
hip
appr
oach
es
and
that
’s p
artn
ersh
ips
with
gov
ernm
ent a
t all
leve
ls,
with
com
mun
ity o
rgan
isat
ions
and
no
n-go
vern
men
t pro
vide
r ag
enci
es. I
thin
k w
hat w
e ar
e do
ing
incr
easi
ngly
is o
peni
ng u
p op
port
uniti
es fo
r co
llabo
ratio
n ac
ross
dis
cipl
ines
. As
a re
sear
ch c
entr
e ou
r pr
imar
y go
al
is n
ot to
teac
h, it
’s to
res
earc
h….”
[3H
B24
08#5
]
A C
ase
fo
r E
duc
atio
nal
Ge
ron
tolo
gy in
Ad
ult E
du
catio
n
Cha
pter
4
128
ELE
ME
NT
Inte
rdis
cipl
inar
y R
esea
rch
Foc
us
cont
.
Dat
a C
olle
ctio
n
Ad
ult
Ed
ucat
ion
A
gei
ng
Res
earc
h
Inte
rvie
ws
con
t.
One
uni
vers
ity A
dult
Edu
catio
n re
spon
dent
de
scri
bed
an in
volv
emen
t in
agei
ng r
esea
rch
whi
ch w
as b
orn
out o
f gov
ernm
ent g
rant
s,
busi
ness
inte
rest
s an
d es
tabl
ishe
d co
nsul
tanc
ies.
How
ever
, no
link
s to
adu
lt ed
ucat
ion
prog
ram
s or
act
iviti
es w
ere
mad
e fr
om th
is r
esea
rch
whi
ch w
as a
ssoc
iate
d w
ith
an a
gein
g lo
cal g
over
nmen
t wor
kfor
ce. T
he
resp
onde
nt d
escr
ibed
how
res
earc
h fin
ding
s w
ould
be
diss
emin
ated
to s
take
hold
ers,
who
th
en h
ad t
he fr
eedo
m to
app
ly th
e fin
ding
s in
an
y w
ay th
ey c
hose
. C
omm
ents
incl
uded
:
“Y
eah
it is
sha
red.
Peo
ple
who
are
goi
ng to
pr
ovid
e th
e fu
nds
cert
ainl
y w
ant s
omet
hing
fo
r th
eir
mon
ey a
nd s
o yo
u w
ould
go
back
an
d sh
are
the
resu
lts o
f you
r re
sear
ch
cert
ainl
y an
d re
port
to
them
. Oth
ers.
.. ca
n pi
ck u
p th
e in
form
atio
n th
at’s
bee
n dr
awn
out o
f tha
t res
earc
h th
roug
h pu
blic
atio
ns
that
com
e fr
om th
at p
iece
of r
esea
rch.
”
[2IJ
0708
#4]
Som
e ho
wev
er,
wer
e m
ore
succ
essf
ul a
t ex
pand
ing
colla
bora
tion
for
rese
arch
pur
pose
s. F
or
exam
ple,
one
Cen
tre
Dire
ctor
not
ed:
“M
y in
tere
st w
as t
o fo
cus
on a
bro
ader
focu
s of
aca
dem
ic r
esea
rch
abou
t age
ing
in th
e un
iver
sitie
s. U
p un
til, y
ou k
now
, cer
tain
ly s
ay 5
yea
rs a
go, a
ll re
sear
ch a
bout
age
ing
has
been
abo
ut p
atho
logi
es o
f age
ing,
it w
as in
the
Med
ical
Fac
ulty
, per
haps
Hea
lth o
r C
omm
unity
Hea
lth, o
r ev
en t
o a
smal
l ext
ent
Soc
ial w
ork.
So
I w
as v
ery
keen
, an
d so
se
ven
year
s ag
o, I
got t
he u
nive
rsity
to a
llow
me
to p
ut to
geth
er a
mul
ti-fa
culty
cen
tre
to
focu
s on
the
broa
der
issu
es o
f res
earc
h ab
out t
he d
emog
raph
ic c
hang
es in
Aus
tral
ia
and
our
agei
ng p
opul
atio
n. T
he F
acul
ties
invo
lved
wer
e th
e F
acul
ties
of A
rts
and
Soc
ial
Sci
ence
s, th
e F
acul
ty o
f Com
mer
ce, t
he F
acul
ty o
f Bui
lt E
nviro
nmen
t, th
e F
acul
ty o
f La
w.
And
I di
d in
vite
the
Fac
ulty
of M
edic
ine.
And
so
that
was
abo
ut p
uttin
g to
geth
er a
ll th
e pe
ople
in v
ario
us a
reas
who
wer
e lo
okin
g at
the
ran
ge o
f iss
ues
whi
ch w
ould
be
both
op
port
uniti
es a
nd c
halle
nges
, co
ncer
ning
our
age
ing
popu
latio
n. S
o I r
an t
he c
entr
e fo
r se
ven
year
s. T
he d
egre
e of
sup
port
from
the
othe
r fa
culti
es h
as b
een
abso
lute
ly z
ero
beca
use
of th
e na
ture
of
com
petit
ive
fund
ing
has
been
that
they
, th
e ot
her
Dea
ns, h
ave
been
unw
illin
g to
allo
w th
eir
staf
f to
do p
ublic
atio
ns a
nd g
rant
s th
roug
h th
is C
entr
e be
caus
e th
en t
hey
won
’t ge
t the
res
earc
h qu
antu
m. S
o it’
s th
e co
mpe
titiv
e na
ture
of
univ
ersi
ty fu
ndin
g w
hich
has
ver
y m
uch
cons
trai
ned
the
oppo
rtun
ity fo
r re
ally
sig
nific
ant
inte
r-di
scip
linar
y re
sear
ch w
hich
is w
hat I
thin
k is
nec
essa
ry.”
[4D
O07
09#1
]
INT
ER
PR
ET
AT
ION
D
ata
obta
ined
from
Adu
lt E
duca
tion
part
icip
ants
indi
cate
that
ther
e is
littl
e or
no
reco
gniti
on o
f the
pos
sibi
litie
s fo
r ad
vanc
ing
educ
atio
nal g
eron
tolo
gy th
roug
h co
llabo
ratio
n w
ith A
gein
g R
esea
rch
Cen
tres
. T
he r
easo
ns o
r pu
rpos
es u
nder
pinn
ing
such
col
labo
ratio
n m
ay n
ot y
et b
e fu
lly u
nder
stoo
d du
e to
the
curr
ent
unfa
mili
arity
with
edu
catio
nal g
eron
tolo
gy c
once
pts
or th
e ra
nge
of c
ontr
ibut
ing
disc
iplin
es.
Whi
le A
gein
g R
esea
rch
Cen
tres
dis
play
a w
illin
gnes
s to
col
labo
rate
, and
ge
nera
lly w
elco
me
inte
rdis
cipl
inar
y re
sear
ch p
roje
cts,
the
resu
lts in
dica
te s
ome
barr
iers
exi
st to
this
occ
urrin
g. T
hese
bar
riers
incl
ude
fund
ing
allo
catio
ns, a
nd a
m
easu
re o
f dis
trus
t in
the
degr
ee o
f co
ntrib
utio
n A
dult
Edu
catio
n ca
n m
ake
to A
gein
g R
esea
rch,
whi
ch s
ugge
sts
a po
tent
ial l
ack
of a
ppre
ciat
ion
for
or u
nfam
iliar
ity
with
the
pote
ntia
l con
trib
utio
n a
spec
ialis
t in
olde
r ad
ult e
duca
tion
mig
ht m
ake
to th
e re
sear
ch e
ffort
.
A C
ase
fo
r E
duc
atio
nal
Ge
ron
tolo
gy in
Ad
ult E
du
catio
n
Cha
pter
4
129
ELE
ME
NT
A
TT
RIB
UT
ES
OR
CH
AR
AC
TE
RIS
TIC
S
Life
long
Le
arni
ng C
ultu
re
Dis
play
ing
a ca
paci
ty fo
r th
e ad
optio
n of
edu
catio
nal g
eron
tolo
gy th
roug
h a
lifel
ong
lear
ning
cul
ture
wou
ld b
e ev
iden
ced
by a
con
nect
ed s
yste
m
that
cov
ers
all p
urpo
sefu
l lea
rnin
g ac
tivity
, whe
re t
hose
act
iviti
es a
im to
impr
ove
know
ledg
e an
d co
mpe
tenc
ies.
Ove
rlap
ping
with
Soc
ial
Ger
onto
logy
Foc
us a
nd U
nder
stan
ding
of E
duca
tiona
l Ger
onto
logy
, the
cul
ture
dis
cuss
ed h
ere
wou
ld b
e fo
cuse
d on
old
er a
dult
lear
ners
, the
ir ch
angi
ng le
arni
ng n
eeds
, in
tern
al m
otiv
atio
ns a
nd le
arni
ng c
onte
xts,
and
be
base
d on
mul
tiple
edu
catio
nal o
bjec
tives
and
inte
rdis
cipl
inar
y pe
rspe
ctiv
es.
Dat
a C
olle
ctio
n
Ad
ult
Ed
ucat
ion
A
gei
ng
Res
earc
h
Q8(
j) N
o ev
iden
ce o
f the
gen
eral
app
licat
ion
of
educ
atio
nal g
eron
tolo
gy p
rinci
ples
was
rep
orte
d.
No
evid
ence
of t
his
elem
ent w
as r
epor
ted.
Inte
rvie
ws
The
top
ic o
f life
long
lear
ning
was
men
tione
d re
peat
edly
dur
ing
the
univ
ersi
ty A
dult
Edu
catio
n in
terv
iew
s, a
nd w
as a
lso
incl
uded
in a
des
crip
tion
of th
e ov
erar
chin
g ap
proa
ch t
o cu
rric
ulum
de
velo
pmen
t. O
ne A
dult
Edu
catio
n re
spon
dent
de
scri
bed
his
appr
oach
as:
“the
fram
ewor
k th
at’s
bui
lt ar
ound
my
teac
hing
in
thos
e un
its a
nd t
he w
ritin
g of
tho
se u
nits
, is
all a
bout
life
long
lear
ning
.”
[2IJ
0708
#1]
Des
crip
tions
of l
ifelo
ng le
arni
ng p
rese
nted
the
co
ncep
t as
an
issu
e of
acc
ess,
whe
re le
arni
ng
oppo
rtun
ities
had
littl
e to
do
with
chr
onol
ogic
al
age.
One
Adu
lt E
duca
tion
desc
ript
ion
conc
lude
d th
at: “
the
prin
cipl
e of
life
long
lear
ning
allo
ws
peop
le f
rom
any
age
to
deve
lop
beyo
nd th
at
age.
Life
long
lear
ning
… a
llow
s pe
ople
the
free
dom
to le
arn
whi
chev
er w
ay th
ey d
esire
.”
[2IJ
0708
#1]
Whi
le o
ne A
gein
g R
esea
rch
Cen
tre
resp
onde
nt id
entif
ied
the
need
for
ret
iree
s to
sta
y in
telle
ctua
lly a
ctiv
e an
d ke
en t
o pr
ove
to t
heir
child
ren
that
the
y w
ere
still
“with
it…
, an
d ab
le to
hav
e so
me
sort
of a
ccre
dita
tion”
[4D
O07
09#5
]
No
spec
ific
lifel
ong
lear
ning
cul
ture
or
unde
rpin
ning
phi
loso
phy
with
in t
he A
gein
g R
esea
rch
Cen
tre
was
art
icul
ated
. F
rom
an
orga
niza
tiona
l per
spec
tive,
one
Cen
tre
Dir
ecto
r ac
know
ledg
ed t
he n
eed
for
com
mun
ity e
ngag
emen
t in
educ
atio
nal a
ctiv
ities
and
the
link
to
lifel
ong
lear
ning
by
stat
ing:
“Ano
ther
par
t of t
he v
isio
n fo
r m
e is
the
oppo
rtun
ity f
or s
enio
r ci
tizen
s to
eng
age
in w
hat
the
univ
ersi
ty o
ffers
, the
y do
n’t h
ave
to d
o a
form
al d
egre
e, a
lthou
gh s
ome
do.
But
the
re
is s
ome
flexi
bilit
y in
the
sys
tem
whe
reby
they
can
opt
into
diff
eren
t co
urse
s an
d fo
r pa
rts
of c
ours
es a
nd h
ave
redu
ced
fees
and
so
on.
But
I m
ean
that
’s a
diff
eren
t mat
ter.
Tha
t’s
abou
t life
long
lear
ning
, bu
t it a
ll re
late
s an
d I t
hink
any
Cen
tre
on A
gein
g ne
eds
to h
ave
the
enga
gem
ent o
f the
com
mun
ity t
o m
ake
it, y
ou k
now
to h
ave
that
app
lied
kind
of
focu
s an
d I t
hink
tha
t’s o
ne w
ay o
f doi
ng it
.”
[3H
B24
08#1
2]
A C
ase
fo
r E
duc
atio
nal
Ge
ron
tolo
gy in
Ad
ult E
du
catio
n
Cha
pter
4
130
ELE
ME
NT
S
Life
long
Le
arni
ng C
ultu
re
cont
.
Dat
a C
olle
ctio
n
Ad
ult
Ed
ucat
ion
A
gei
ng
Res
earc
h
Inte
rvie
ws
con
t.
D
urin
g th
e in
terv
iew
, on
e C
entr
e D
irect
or a
gree
d in
tens
ely
with
the
impo
rtan
ce o
f life
long
le
arni
ng, r
ecou
ntin
g a
pers
onal
exp
erie
nce
in th
e fo
llow
ing
way
:
“My
part
ner
is 6
6. H
e’s
retir
ed n
ow. I
am
tryi
ng t
o ge
t him
inte
rest
ed in
som
ethi
ng. H
e’s
been
a m
an w
ho h
as b
een
activ
e ph
ysic
ally
, but
no
long
er h
as th
e ca
paci
ty to
do
so,
so
he h
as n
othi
ng t
o do
. H
e is
get
ting
bore
d, s
o I h
ave
been
try
ing
to g
et h
im in
volv
ed in
th
e in
tern
et. Y
ou k
now
, to
get
him
invo
lved
in c
ompu
ting.
He’
s an
inte
rest
ing
man
, he’
s kn
owle
dgea
ble,
he
wou
ld h
ave
inte
rest
s. N
ow it
’s e
xtre
mel
y di
fficu
lt be
caus
e th
e pe
ople
w
ho a
re r
unni
ng a
lot o
f the
se c
ours
es h
ave
neve
r ta
ught
old
er p
eopl
e. T
he in
stru
ctor
as
sum
ed a
who
le la
yer
of k
now
ledg
e w
hich
he
didn
’t ha
ve, a
nd w
hen
he d
idn’
t hav
e it,
he
was
mad
e to
fee
l lik
e a
child
. A
nd s
o he
sai
d, I’
m n
ot g
oing
aga
in.
So
now
he
won
’t go
.”
[4D
O07
09#1
1]
INT
ER
PR
ET
AT
ION
Thi
s da
ta in
dica
tes
that
whi
le a
gro
unde
d kn
owle
dge
of t
he te
nets
of l
ifelo
ng le
arni
ng a
re u
nder
stoo
d an
d ap
prec
iate
d by
bot
h re
sear
ch c
ohor
ts, t
he fu
ll re
latio
nshi
p be
twee
n lif
elon
g le
arni
ng a
nd e
duca
tiona
l ger
onto
logy
hav
e no
t yet
bee
n ex
trap
olat
ed a
nd u
nder
stoo
d by
thos
e pa
rtic
ipat
ing
in th
is s
tudy
.
Ane
cdot
al e
vide
nce
prov
ided
in th
e in
terv
iew
s re
veal
that
life
eve
nts
inev
itabl
y in
volv
e le
arni
ng a
t the
late
r st
age
of li
fe,
and
prov
ide
conf
irmat
ion
that
edu
catio
nal
gero
ntol
ogy
has
a si
gnifi
cant
rol
e to
pla
y in
impr
ovin
g th
e sk
ills
of th
ose
wor
king
with
old
er a
dult
lear
ners
.
A C
ase
fo
r E
duc
atio
nal
Ge
ron
tolo
gy in
Ad
ult E
du
catio
n
Cha
pter
4
131
ELE
ME
NT
A
TT
RIB
UT
ES
OR
CH
AR
AC
TE
RIS
TIC
S
Org
anis
atio
nal
Infr
astr
uctu
re
The
cap
acity
for
the
stud
y or
app
licat
ion
of e
duca
tiona
l ger
onto
logy
can
be
enha
nced
, or
cons
trai
ned,
by
orga
niza
tiona
l sys
tem
s, p
olic
ies
and
proc
edur
es th
at in
clud
e re
port
ing
stru
ctur
es, d
ecis
ion-
mak
ing
path
way
s, d
ivis
ion
of r
espo
nsib
ilitie
s an
d po
licy-
mak
ing
proc
esse
s. T
his
elem
ent
wou
ld
be d
eter
min
ed a
s su
ppor
tive
of e
duca
tiona
l ger
onto
logy
by
prov
idin
g st
ruct
ures
tha
t ena
ble
deci
sion
s on
the
basi
s of
soc
ial g
eron
tolo
gy p
rinci
ples
w
here
edu
catio
nal o
utco
mes
are
for
the
ben
efit
of o
lder
adu
lts. F
or t
his
reas
on, t
here
is s
ome
over
lap
to d
ata
obta
ined
in in
vest
igat
ing
the
Soc
ial
Ger
onto
logy
Foc
us.
Dat
a C
olle
ctio
n
Ad
ult
Ed
ucat
ion
A
gei
ng
Res
earc
h
Q10
O
ne A
dult
Edu
catio
n re
spon
dent
iden
tifie
d “i
nstit
utio
nal r
igid
ities
” as
a b
arrie
r to
adv
anci
ng
educ
atio
nal g
eron
tolo
gy.
Oth
er b
arrie
rs r
epor
ted
incl
uded
:
• ge
ogra
phic
al r
emot
enes
s;
• tim
e, a
nd
• fu
ndin
g.
One
Age
ing
Res
earc
h C
entr
e D
irect
or d
id n
ot id
entif
y an
y ba
rrie
rs t
o co
llabo
ratio
n w
ith A
dult
Edu
catio
n. T
he r
emai
ning
par
ticip
ants
iden
tifie
d a
varie
ty o
f bar
riers
incl
udin
g:
• T
ime
and
reso
urce
s •
Ver
y sp
ecia
lized
are
a, n
eed
to p
repa
re o
ur o
wn
staf
f edu
catio
nally
; •
Unf
amili
arity
with
res
earc
hers
in e
duca
tion;
•
Tim
e an
d co
mm
itmen
t fro
m u
nive
rsity
Adm
inis
trat
ion
and
Dea
n;
• La
ck o
f int
eres
t an
d ex
pert
ise
in a
gein
g is
sues
; •
Unc
erta
in b
enef
its fo
r a
rese
arch
org
aniz
atio
n;
• N
eed
for
colla
bora
tors
to
have
a g
ood
rela
tions
hip
and
resp
ect f
or e
ach
othe
r’s a
rea
of
expe
rtis
e, a
nd s
imila
r va
lue
syst
ems.
Inte
rvie
ws
All
of th
e un
iver
sity
Adu
lt E
duca
tion
resp
onde
nts
wer
e pl
aced
in S
choo
ls w
ithin
F
acul
ties,
and
this
org
aniz
atio
nal s
egm
enta
tion
appe
ared
to
limit
the
oppo
rtun
ity fo
r co
llabo
ratio
n ac
ross
dis
cipl
ines
for
the
pur
pose
s of
age
ing-
rela
ted
curr
icul
um r
evie
w, p
rogr
am
deve
lopm
ent,
entr
epre
neur
ialis
m o
r re
sear
ch
initi
ativ
es. I
n ex
plai
ning
the
stru
ctur
e, o
ne A
dult
Edu
catio
n re
spon
dent
sta
ted:
“We’
re a
Sch
ool w
ithin
a F
acul
ty o
f A
rts.
The
S
choo
l tha
t is
mor
e in
tere
sted
in th
e ag
eing
ar
ea is
the
Sch
ool o
f Soc
ial S
cien
ce a
nd
Art
s.”
[5R
S13
09#6
]
Res
pond
ents
iden
tifie
d se
vera
l per
ceiv
ed b
arrie
rs to
col
labo
ratio
n. T
he m
ajor
ity o
f the
se b
arri
ers
rela
ted
to la
ck o
f kno
wle
dge
of e
duca
tiona
l res
earc
h is
sues
.
As
a D
irect
or n
oted
“The
re a
re s
truc
tura
l bar
riers
to in
terd
isci
plin
ary
colla
bora
tion,
just
com
ing
up w
ith a
n ap
proa
ch
that
is a
ccep
tabl
e to
eve
rybo
dy a
nd o
verc
omin
g so
me
of t
he s
truc
tura
l bar
rier
s to
doi
ng th
at.”
[3H
B24
08#7
]
A C
ase
fo
r E
duc
atio
nal
Ge
ron
tolo
gy in
Ad
ult E
du
catio
n
Cha
pter
4
132
ELE
ME
NT
Org
anis
atio
nal
Infr
astr
uctu
re c
ont
Dat
a C
olle
ctio
n
Ad
ult
Ed
ucat
ion
A
gei
ng
Res
earc
h
Inte
rvie
ws
con
t.
Lim
itatio
ns fo
r cu
rric
ulum
rev
iew
opp
ortu
nitie
s w
ere
also
men
tione
d as
par
t of t
he A
dult
Edu
catio
n or
gani
zatio
nal s
yste
m, d
escr
ibed
in
the
follo
win
g w
ay:
“Our
cou
rses
are
rev
iew
ed e
very
five
yea
rs
so th
ere’
s a
five
year
cyc
le fo
r ea
ch c
ours
e to
be
look
ed a
t, us
ually
in a
way
that
re
spon
ds to
dem
and
and
so o
n fr
om o
ur
cons
umer
s, s
o I t
hink
we’
ve d
one
that
but
of
cou
rse
we’
ve m
isse
d ou
t rat
her
poor
ly o
n th
e ge
ront
olog
y is
sue.
”
[7P
R02
10#1
]
Whi
le a
ckno
wle
dgin
g th
at s
enio
r F
acul
ty
mem
bers
mig
ht b
e m
ore
fam
iliar
with
the
over
arch
ing
mis
sion
and
goa
ls o
f the
ir co
rres
pond
ing
prog
ram
s th
an in
divi
dual
Adu
lt E
duca
tion
unit
co-o
rdin
ator
s, a
sen
se o
f is
olat
ion
from
dec
isio
n-m
akin
g an
d cu
rric
ulum
de
velo
pmen
t was
evi
dent
in th
e re
spon
ses.
O
ne r
espo
nden
t des
crib
ed h
is le
vel w
ithin
the
un
iver
sity
hie
rarc
hy in
the
follo
win
g w
ay:
“I f
ound
that
with
you
r qu
estio
nnai
re I
was
n’t
able
to a
nsw
er m
any
of th
e qu
estio
ns c
lear
ly b
ecau
se I
am o
nly
at th
e S
choo
l lev
el…
”
[2IJ
0708
#5]
In te
rms
of o
rgan
izat
iona
l com
posi
tion
supp
ortin
g ed
ucat
iona
l ger
onto
logy
, one
Dire
ctor
, a q
ualif
ied
soci
al g
eron
tolo
gist
, de
scri
bed
her
Cen
tre
as b
eing
wel
l-res
ourc
ed fo
r re
spon
ding
to
soci
al c
hang
e by
sta
ting:
“I r
egar
d th
e ce
ntre
as
one
staf
fed
by s
ocia
l sci
entis
ts.”
[10S
D12
10#1
]
How
ever
, th
ere
was
no
evid
ence
of p
lann
ed r
ecru
itmen
t rel
evan
t to
soci
al g
eron
tolo
gy, w
ithin
A
gein
g R
esea
rch
part
icip
ants
. R
athe
r, e
duca
tiona
l pra
ctic
es w
ere
dele
gate
d to
hea
lth e
duca
tors
, or
acad
emic
(te
achi
ng)
staf
f, ev
iden
ced
by th
e fo
llow
ing
stat
emen
t:
“Bec
ause
we
wer
e qu
ite o
ften
aske
d by
priv
ate
nurs
ing
hom
es to
pro
vide
ses
sion
s on
dem
entia
ca
re,
and
so w
e w
ork
in-h
ouse
with
our
clin
ical
nur
se e
duca
tor
to d
o ex
peri
entia
l stu
ff.”
[10S
D12
10#1
0]
Whe
n th
is c
entr
e D
irec
tor
was
ask
ed if
ther
e w
as a
n or
gani
zatio
nal o
ppor
tuni
ty fo
r th
e de
ploy
men
t of
edu
catio
nal s
peci
alis
ts in
the
cent
re, t
he r
espo
nse
was
:
“I t
hink
res
ourc
ing
wou
ld b
e th
e is
sue.
”
[10
SD
1210
#15]
Ano
ther
cen
tre
Dire
ctor
des
crib
ed th
e st
ruct
ure
of h
er id
eal r
esea
rch
orga
nisa
tion
in t
he fo
llow
ing
way
: “Wel
l, it
wou
ld b
e an
Inst
itute
. It
wou
ld b
e a
muc
h bi
gger
bea
st o
pera
ting
as w
e do
now
but
in a
m
uch,
muc
h m
ore
seri
ous
way
in w
hich
we
wou
ld in
tegr
ate
rese
arch
and
edu
catio
n, in
whi
ch w
e w
ould
bec
ome
both
ver
y in
volv
ed in
und
ergr
adua
te a
nd p
ostg
radu
ate
teac
hing
and
de
velo
pmen
t. Y
ou k
now
wha
t hol
ds u
s ba
ck is
we
don’
t hav
e th
e re
sour
ces.
”
[3H
B24
08#1
1]
A C
ase
fo
r E
duc
atio
nal
Ge
ron
tolo
gy in
Ad
ult E
du
catio
n
Cha
pter
4
133
ELE
ME
NT
Org
anis
atio
nal
Infr
astr
uctu
re c
ont
INT
ER
PR
ET
AT
ION
T
he in
vest
igat
ion
of th
is e
lem
ent r
evea
led
a di
spar
ity b
etw
een
the
two
rese
arch
loca
tions
in r
espe
ct o
f abi
lity
to c
omm
ent o
n th
e or
gani
zatio
nal i
nfra
stru
ctur
e, w
hich
lim
ited
the
rang
e of
res
pons
es.
Adu
lt E
duca
tion
part
icip
ants
rep
orte
d op
erat
ing
at a
leve
l fai
rly d
ista
nt fr
om o
rgan
izat
iona
l dec
isio
n-m
akin
g, w
hile
Age
ing
Res
earc
h C
entr
e D
irect
ors
wer
e di
rect
ly r
espo
nsib
le f
or c
ontr
ibut
ing
to t
he o
rgan
izat
iona
l iss
ues
of th
eir
resp
ectiv
e C
entr
es.
A r
esul
t of t
his
natu
re in
dica
tes
that
som
e hi
erar
chic
al im
pedi
men
ts e
xist
in
part
icip
atin
g A
dult
Edu
catio
n lo
catio
ns w
hich
has
the
pote
ntia
l to
nega
te t
he d
evel
opm
ent o
f tim
ely
soci
ally
-res
pons
ive
inno
vatio
ns s
uch
as e
duca
tiona
l iss
ues
for
an a
gein
g de
mog
raph
ic, p
artic
ular
ly w
here
gov
erna
nce
mig
ht d
icta
te th
e fo
cus
of in
nova
tions
and
fund
ing
prio
ritie
s.
For
the
Age
ing
Res
earc
h pa
rtic
ipan
ts, i
t was
app
aren
t tha
t the
re e
xist
som
e or
gani
zatio
nal o
bsta
cles
to c
olla
bora
tion,
incl
udin
g fu
ndin
g an
d re
sour
cing
for
staf
f and
exp
ansi
on
of th
e R
esea
rch
Cen
tre.
U
ltim
atel
y th
eref
ore,
pro
posa
ls to
adv
ance
edu
catio
nal g
eron
tolo
gy w
ould
hav
e to
be
clos
ely
alig
ned
with
org
aniz
atio
nal a
rran
gem
ents
and
be
min
dful
or
str
uctu
ral b
arrie
rs in
the
way
of
esta
blis
hing
this
cap
acity
.
A C
ase
fo
r E
duc
atio
nal
Ge
ron
tolo
gy in
Ad
ult E
du
catio
n
Cha
pter
4
134
ELE
ME
NT
A
TT
RIB
UT
ES
OR
CH
AR
AC
TE
RIS
TIC
S
Pol
icy
and
Fun
ding
C
lose
ly li
nked
to O
rgan
isat
iona
l Inf
rast
ruct
ure,
thi
s el
emen
t is
spec
ific
to th
e na
ture
and
em
phas
is o
n fu
ndin
g fo
r th
e ad
vanc
emen
t of e
duca
tiona
l ge
ront
olog
y th
roug
h in
terd
isci
plin
ary
colla
bora
tion.
It is
ass
umed
her
e th
at a
link
bet
wee
n th
e m
issi
on a
nd g
oals
of t
he o
rgan
izat
ion,
and
the
prim
ary
rese
arch
focu
s ex
ists
as
it ha
s th
e po
tent
ial t
o ha
ve a
n im
pact
on
the
scop
e (a
nd r
ange
) of
fund
ing
appl
icat
ions
.
Dat
a C
olle
ctio
n
Ad
ult
Ed
ucat
ion
A
gei
ng
Res
earc
h
Q1
100%
of t
he A
dult
Edu
catio
n re
spon
dent
s id
entif
ied
Tra
inin
g an
d D
evel
opm
ent
as th
eir
prim
ary
orga
nisa
tiona
l foc
us.
A w
ide
rang
e of
res
earc
h fo
ci w
as r
epor
ted
.
Inte
rvie
ws
All
resp
onde
nts
refe
rred
to
a di
rect
rel
atio
nshi
p be
twee
n fu
ndin
g an
d th
e fu
ture
com
men
cem
ent o
f an
y in
itiat
ive
in t
he e
duca
tiona
l ger
onto
logy
are
a.
The
nee
d fo
r a
mar
ket-
driv
en a
ppro
ach
was
ev
iden
t, a
s w
as th
e se
nse
that
the
univ
ersi
ty
adm
inis
trat
ors
wer
e no
t par
ticul
arly
rec
eptiv
e to
so
cial
ly-d
riven
age
ing
rela
ted
curr
icul
um
deve
lopm
ent,
proj
ects
or
cons
ulta
ncie
s, w
ithou
t si
gnifi
cant
cos
t-ju
stifi
catio
n. T
o co
nfirm
this
, it
was
no
ted
that
:
“I
t w
ould
dep
end
on th
e re
turn
for
us a
s a
Sch
ool.
If it
was
a g
roup
of p
eopl
e co
min
g al
ong
to d
o th
at (
educ
atio
nal g
eron
tolo
gy
prog
ram
) w
e w
ould
cer
tain
ly p
ick
it up
and
we
wou
ld d
evel
op s
omet
hing
for
the
grou
p, b
ut
agai
n it
all d
epen
ds o
n fu
ndin
g an
d co
sts
and
hirin
g an
d en
gagi
ng p
eopl
e to
get
invo
lved
in
that
way
. It’s
got
to
be w
orth
our
whi
le,
I mea
n,
it m
eans
that
it’s
got
to b
e so
me
sort
of
fund
ing
arra
ngem
ent f
or th
is t
o ta
ke p
lace
. If
its o
ne s
ingl
e ex
pres
sion
of i
nter
est
we
wou
ld
inve
stig
ate
a pl
ace
for
them
to g
o an
d ta
lk t
o so
meo
ne e
lse.
To
get i
nvol
ved
then
, w
e w
ould
ne
ed s
omet
hing
a li
ttle
mor
e su
bsta
ntia
l tha
n ju
st o
ne p
erso
n or
two
peop
le c
omin
g al
ong.
”
[2IJ
0708
#9]
Com
men
ts r
evea
l tha
t age
ing
is a
rec
ogni
zed
rese
arch
are
a, a
nd s
ome
univ
ersi
ty p
olic
ies
have
bee
n ab
le t
o ge
nera
te s
eed
fund
ing
for
the
esta
blis
hmen
t of
the
se C
entr
es.
As
one
Dir
ecto
r st
ated
:
“A
gein
g ha
s al
read
y be
en id
entif
ied
as a
prio
rity
area
with
in th
e un
iver
sity
. So
the
esta
blis
hmen
t of
the
Cen
tre
is v
ery
muc
h ab
out f
ulfil
ling
that
vis
ion
of h
avin
g a
Cen
tre
of E
xcel
lenc
e in
Age
ing.
I m
ean
agei
ng is
alw
ays
goin
g to
be
a pr
iorit
y bu
t hav
ing
said
th
at it
’s a
ver
y br
oad
chur
ch. I
t’s n
ot a
dis
ease
, it’
s no
t you
kno
w,
a ne
w k
ind
of n
ano-
tech
nolo
gy in
vent
ion.
It’s
a b
road
chu
rch
and
that
cre
ates
som
e di
fficu
lty in
its
own
righ
t, in
ter
ms
of tr
ying
to
serv
e th
e un
iver
sity
the
re is
so
muc
h to
do.
It’s
suc
h a
huge
an
d da
untin
g ta
sk.
And
Cen
tres
onl
y ge
t fun
ded
here
inte
rnal
ly fo
r fiv
e ye
ars
and
then
th
ey a
re s
uppo
sed
to b
e up
and
run
ning
. S
o yo
u kn
ow, e
xter
nal f
undi
ng is
bec
omin
g m
ore
impo
rtan
t.”
[3H
B24
08#2
]
No
evid
ence
of p
olic
y th
at s
uppo
rted
a m
utua
lly-b
enef
icia
l rel
atio
nshi
p be
twee
n ag
eing
re
sear
ch a
nd a
dult
educ
atio
n w
as r
epor
ted.
One
Cen
tre
Dir
ecto
r re
veal
ed c
once
rns
at th
is
by s
tatin
g:
“I
nter
estin
gly,
the
y ha
ve n
ever
sho
wn
any
inte
rest
, the
y do
n’t s
end
me
any
stud
ents
. I
have
act
ually
spo
ken
to t
he H
ead
of E
duca
tion
and
said
“W
hy d
on’t
som
e of
you
r st
uden
ts d
o m
y S
ocio
logy
of A
gein
g co
urse
?” a
nd h
e sa
id n
o, b
ecau
se t
heir
prog
ram
is
ful
l and
thei
r pr
ofes
sion
al r
espo
nsib
ilitie
s, y
ou k
now
the
ir so
rt o
f cur
ricul
um, i
s se
t.”
[4D
O07
09#6
]
A C
ase
fo
r E
duc
atio
nal
Ge
ron
tolo
gy in
Ad
ult E
du
catio
n
Cha
pter
4
135
ELE
ME
NT
Pol
icy
and
Fun
ding
con
t.
Dat
a C
olle
ctio
n
Ad
ult
Ed
ucat
ion
A
gei
ng
Res
earc
h
Inte
rvie
ws
con
t.
Lim
ited
soci
al a
war
enes
s or
com
mun
ity
resp
onsi
vene
ss w
as e
vide
nt in
cur
rent
pol
icy.
Dat
a re
veal
ed t
hat p
olic
y ch
ange
was
dep
enda
nt o
n ec
onom
ic r
atio
nale
s an
d vi
ewed
fro
m a
n or
gani
zatio
nal p
rodu
ctiv
ity p
ersp
ectiv
e. E
xam
ples
fr
om tw
o un
iver
sity
Adu
lt E
duca
tion
resp
onde
nts:
“We’
ve k
ind
of lo
oked
at i
t fro
m th
e ot
her
way
, w
e ha
ven’
t lo
oked
at t
he n
eeds
of o
lder
peo
ple,
bu
t w
e ar
e ce
rtai
nly
sayi
ng;
wha
t hap
pens
to
the
TA
FE
edu
catio
nal s
yste
m w
hen
fifty
pe
rcen
t of
thei
r st
aff i
s go
ing
to r
etir
e w
ithin
the
ne
xt 5
yea
rs?”
[7P
R02
10#2
]
And
…
“The
aca
dem
ic b
oard
bef
ore
last
, w
e w
ere
soun
ded
out
on th
e po
ssib
ility
of a
sui
te o
f aw
ards
tha
t bui
lt in
par
t of t
hat
wor
d ge
ront
olog
y fo
r th
e ol
der
lear
ner.
It w
as
sign
alle
d by
the
Sch
ool o
f S
ocia
l Sci
ence
and
A
rts
to th
e un
iver
sity
-wid
e go
vern
ing
body
. T
hey
wer
e no
t en
thus
iast
ic b
ut th
eir
ears
sor
t of
pric
ked
up a
littl
e bi
t –
I thi
nk th
ey a
re c
urio
us to
kn
ow m
ore
abou
t the
opp
ortu
nitie
s.” [5R
S13
09#3
]
A C
ase
fo
r E
duc
atio
nal
Ge
ron
tolo
gy in
Ad
ult E
du
catio
n
Cha
pter
4
136
ELE
ME
NT
Pol
icy
and
Fun
ding
con
t.
INT
ER
PR
ET
AT
ION
F
undi
ng w
ithin
the
part
icip
atin
g A
dult
Edu
catio
n ac
adem
ics
was
rev
eale
d to
be
depe
ndan
t on
sig
nific
ant c
ost j
ustif
icat
ion.
Pol
icy
such
as
that
ass
ocia
ted
with
the
curr
icul
um r
evie
w p
olic
y id
entif
ied
appe
ars
to h
ave
a le
ngth
y tim
e-fr
ame
and
does
not
app
ear
to h
ave
a cl
ose
alig
nmen
t with
wid
er s
ocia
l cha
nge.
For
Age
ing
Res
earc
h C
entr
es,
a di
stin
ct e
mph
asis
on
fund
ing
for
scie
ntifi
c or
hea
lth-r
elat
ed e
ndea
vour
s em
erge
d fr
om th
e da
ta,
and
this
sug
gest
s th
at, d
ue t
o th
e re
lianc
e on
fund
ing,
Age
ing
Res
earc
h C
entr
es’ a
bilit
y to
bro
aden
the
ir ac
tiviti
es to
incl
ude
inte
rdis
cipl
inar
y in
nova
tions
app
ears
to
be im
paire
d.
A C
ase
fo
r E
duc
atio
nal
Ge
ron
tolo
gy in
Ad
ult E
du
catio
n
Cha
pter
4
137
ELE
ME
NT
A
TT
RIB
UT
ES
OR
CH
AR
AC
TE
RIS
TIC
S
Soc
ial
Ger
onto
logy
F
ocus
A s
ocia
l ger
onto
logy
focu
s w
ould
be
char
acte
rised
by
cons
ider
atio
n of
the
way
in w
hich
soc
ial a
nd s
ocio
-cul
tura
l con
ditio
ns im
pact
on
the
proc
ess
of a
gein
g an
d on
wha
t the
soc
ial c
onse
quen
ces
of th
is p
roce
ss m
ight
be,
e.g
. he
alth
and
long
term
car
e, th
e w
orkp
lace
, pe
nsio
n an
d re
tirem
ent
prac
tices
, co
mm
unity
faci
litie
s, h
ousi
ng,
and
patte
rns
of g
over
nmen
t and
priv
ate
spen
ding
. In
add
ition
, so
cio-
polit
ical
str
uctu
res
that
affe
ct t
he
char
acte
ristic
s of
old
er a
dults
are
als
o co
nsid
ered
e.g
. civ
ic e
ngag
emen
t ini
tiativ
es. E
duca
tiona
l ger
onto
logy
is a
nat
ural
con
sequ
ence
of
soci
al
gero
ntol
ogy
as it
sup
port
s ol
der
adul
ts’ a
dapt
atio
n to
out
date
d ve
rsio
ns o
f lat
er li
fe a
nd c
hang
ing
soci
al p
atte
rns
of e
ngag
emen
t.
Dat
a C
olle
ctio
n
Ad
ult
Ed
ucat
ion
A
gei
ng
Res
earc
h
Q1
No
rese
arch
focu
s on
soc
ial g
eron
tolo
gy w
as
repo
rted
. O
ne c
entr
e id
entif
ied
soci
al g
eron
tolo
gy, a
nd w
orkp
lace
and
ret
irem
ent,
as a
res
earc
h fo
cus.
Inte
rvie
ws
Whi
le o
ne r
espo
nden
t ide
ntifi
ed th
e ro
le th
at th
e so
cial
sci
ence
s m
ight
per
form
in d
evel
opin
g kn
owle
dge
abou
t age
ing
and
olde
r pe
ople
, an
othe
r w
as a
war
e th
at s
ome
gero
ntol
ogic
al
inte
rest
was
com
ing
from
this
dis
cipl
ine.
How
ever
, no
t one
res
pond
ent r
evea
led
any
know
ledg
e of
how
or
why
the
soc
iolo
gica
l asp
ects
of
age
ing
mig
ht b
e in
tegr
ated
into
a f
orm
aliz
ed
prog
ram
for
deve
lopi
ng c
apac
ity fo
r th
e ag
eing
po
pula
tion.
An
awar
enes
s of
em
ergi
ng s
ocia
l ne
eds
was
indi
cate
d, w
ith o
ne r
espo
nden
t sta
ting:
“The
re a
re o
ppor
tuni
ties.
For
exa
mpl
e, a
n ai
rpor
t he
re h
as b
een
re-d
evel
oped
as
a gr
ay
nom
ad c
arav
an p
arki
ng p
lace
- le
ave
the
cara
van
here
and
driv
e in
to S
ydne
y an
d pi
ck it
up
on
the
way
out
- b
ut a
lso
from
ther
e as
a
larg
e sc
ale
flexi
ble
retir
emen
t hom
e. A
nd th
e co
unci
l the
re is
look
ing
for
activ
ities
that
cou
ld
be s
uita
ble
for
the
educ
atio
n of
thes
e pe
ople
w
hich
is d
iffer
ent f
rom
U3A
but
with
a lo
t of
flexi
bilit
y an
d in
depe
nden
ce t
hat t
hese
peo
ple
still
feel
, so
som
ethi
ng c
ould
be
offe
red
ther
e.”
[5R
S13
09#5
]
In A
gein
g R
esea
rch
Cen
tres
, the
re w
as a
com
mon
und
erst
andi
ng o
f soc
ial g
eron
tolo
gy
amon
gst t
hose
Cen
tres
that
focu
sed
thei
r ef
fort
s on
edu
catio
nal a
ctiv
ities
, tea
chin
g in
the
hum
aniti
es, a
nd o
n re
sear
ch o
utsi
de o
f the
clin
ical
par
adig
m. A
s on
e C
entr
e D
irect
or s
tate
d:
“One
of t
he r
easo
ns w
hy w
e al
so m
aint
ain
quite
a u
niqu
e st
atus
is th
at w
e br
ing
a so
cial
, I’d
like
to
say
soci
olog
ical
, pe
rspe
ctiv
e to
thin
gs th
at a
re la
rgel
y cl
inic
al.”
[10
SD
1210
#3]
The
ext
ent
of c
onte
nt k
now
ledg
e in
the
area
of s
ocio
logy
was
evi
dent
, sup
port
ed b
y st
atem
ents
suc
h as
:
“I h
ave
a ba
ckgr
ound
from
way
bac
k in
my
own
stud
ies
that
I lo
oked
at s
ocia
l ge
ront
olog
y.”
[12
LM01
11#1
]
And
“I t
each
a c
ours
e, th
e S
ocio
logy
of A
gein
g.”
[4D
O07
09#4
]
Evi
denc
e of
exp
erie
nce
and
qual
ifica
tions
in s
ocia
l ger
onto
logy
em
erge
d, a
s st
ated
:
“I t
augh
t at t
he C
entr
e fo
r S
ocia
l Ger
onto
logy
at K
eele
Uni
vers
ity, E
ngla
nd.”
[10
SD
1210
#5]
A C
ase
fo
r E
duc
atio
nal
Ge
ron
tolo
gy in
Ad
ult E
du
catio
n
Cha
pter
4
138
ELE
ME
NT
Soc
ial
Ger
onto
logy
F
ocus
con
t.
Dat
a C
olle
ctio
n
Ad
ult
Ed
ucat
ion
A
gei
ng
Res
earc
h
A
noth
er c
omm
unity
nee
d w
as id
entif
ied,
but
with
a
mor
e re
gion
al fo
cus.
Thi
s A
dult
Edu
catio
n re
spon
dent
sta
ted:
“We’
ve g
ot a
bod
y of
ret
ired
teac
hers
, usu
ally
ve
ry s
tron
g on
es, w
ho w
ish
to d
o m
ore,
in
part
icul
ar u
nive
rsity
Tut
orin
g or
um
, be
an
advi
sory
in S
choo
ls,
so I’
ve b
een
thin
king
of
that
are
a an
d ho
w o
ne m
ight
pre
sent
som
e so
rt
of tr
ansi
tion
for
peop
le w
ho a
re la
te c
aree
r, s
o I
thou
ght I
’d li
ke to
add
ress
, say
, a p
rinci
pal’s
as
soci
atio
n, w
here
the
prin
cipa
ls a
re w
ithin
5
year
s of
ret
irem
ent…
Wha
t I w
ould
be
pres
entin
g th
ere
is a
pos
t-ca
reer
pat
hway
into
a
part
-tim
e ca
reer
pat
h, a
nd h
ow e
ven
som
e fu
rthe
r qu
alifi
catio
ns w
ould
aid
them
in th
is a
nd
wha
t sor
t of o
ptio
ns th
ere
wer
e…It
wou
ld b
e ha
lf m
arke
ting
and
half
com
mun
ity s
ervi
ce.”
[5R
S13
09#1
0]
A C
ase
fo
r E
duc
atio
nal
Ge
ron
tolo
gy in
Ad
ult E
du
catio
n
Cha
pter
4
139
ELE
ME
NT
Soc
ial
Ger
onto
logy
F
ocus
con
t.
Dat
a C
olle
ctio
n
Ad
ult
Ed
ucat
ion
A
gei
ng
Res
earc
h
P
erso
nal i
nter
ests
wer
e ex
pres
sed
as a
mot
ivat
ion
for
part
icip
atin
g in
fut
ure
com
mun
ity p
rogr
ams,
pa
rtic
ular
ly w
here
per
sona
l int
eres
ts w
ere
of
rele
vanc
e, a
nd w
here
som
e m
utua
lly b
enef
icia
l ou
tcom
e m
ight
aris
e. F
or e
xam
ple:
“I w
rite
loca
l his
torie
s an
d th
at s
ort o
f thi
ng. I
n th
e co
mm
unity
writ
ing
grou
p, I’
m a
judg
e fo
r th
eir
awar
d so
any
thin
g lik
e th
at is
my
inte
rest
. In
thes
e la
rger
gro
ups
of o
lder
peo
ple
that
are
ou
t the
re. I
don
’t kn
ow if
the
re is
a c
ours
e ou
t th
ere,
it’s
mor
e an
ant
icip
atio
n of
wha
t mig
ht
happ
en.”
[5R
S13
09#7
]
INT
ER
PR
ET
AT
ION
T
here
is e
vide
nce
here
tha
t rec
ogni
tion
of a
sig
nific
ant s
ocia
l cha
nge
exis
ts a
mon
g th
e A
dult
Edu
catio
n co
hort
, and
in s
ome
inst
ance
s th
ere
is a
lso
evid
ence
of
reco
gniti
on o
f how
dem
ogra
phic
cha
nge
is c
reat
ing
educ
atio
nal o
ppor
tuni
ties.
How
ever
, da
ta s
ugge
sts
that
the
rela
tions
hip
betw
een
soci
al g
eron
tolo
gy a
nd o
lder
ad
ult
educ
atio
n ha
s no
t yet
bee
n fu
lly u
nder
stoo
d by
thes
e pa
rtic
ipan
ts.
Thi
s is
als
o tr
ue o
f the
Age
ing
Res
earc
h C
entr
e re
spon
dent
s. H
owev
er,
ther
e w
as r
ecog
nitio
n of
the
exis
tenc
e of
the
field
of
soci
al g
eron
tolo
gy,
even
tho
ugh
ther
e w
as n
o ev
iden
ce o
f any
Age
ing
Res
earc
h ce
ntre
fully
ope
ratio
nalis
ing
this
dis
cipl
ine
with
in th
eir
port
folio
of s
ervi
ces
and
activ
ities
.
A C
ase
fo
r E
duc
atio
nal
Ge
ron
tolo
gy in
Ad
ult E
du
catio
n
Cha
pter
4
140
ELE
ME
NT
A
TT
RIB
UT
ES
OR
CH
AR
AC
TE
RIS
TIC
S
Und
erst
andi
ng o
f E
duca
tiona
l G
eron
tolo
gy
A c
apac
ity f
or u
nder
stan
ding
edu
catio
nal g
eron
tolo
gy w
ould
be
char
acte
rise
d by
firs
tly, a
leve
l of f
amili
arity
with
the
fiel
d, a
nd th
en b
y an
abi
lity
to
artic
ulat
e th
e re
latio
nshi
p be
twee
n co
ntrib
utin
g di
scip
lines
and
an
expl
anat
ion
of h
ow t
his
tran
slat
es in
to th
e de
velo
pmen
t (an
d em
pow
erm
ent)
of t
he
olde
r ad
ult t
hrou
gh e
duca
tiona
l end
eavo
urs
that
incl
ude
the
conc
ept
of g
erag
ogy.
Dat
a C
olle
ctio
n
Ad
ult
Ed
ucat
ion
A
gei
ng
Res
earc
h
Q5
One
Adu
lt E
duca
tion
resp
onde
nt d
escr
ibed
the
ir kn
owle
dge
of E
duca
tiona
l Ger
onto
logy
as
very
fa
mili
ar.
How
ever
, tw
o re
spon
dent
s de
scrib
ed
thei
r kn
owle
dge
as s
light
ly fa
mili
ar a
nd t
wo
repo
rted
no
know
ledg
e of
the
area
.
The
se r
esul
ts a
re s
how
n gr
aphi
cally
in F
igur
e 4.
4.
Leve
l of
Fam
iliar
ity o
f A
dult
Edu
catio
n A
cade
mic
w
ith E
duca
tiona
l Ger
onto
logy
.
In in
vest
igat
ing
the
leve
l of k
now
ledg
e of
edu
catio
nal g
eron
tolo
gy, t
wo
Age
ing
Res
earc
h C
entr
e re
spon
dent
s de
scri
bed
thei
r un
ders
tand
ing
of e
duca
tiona
l ger
onto
logy
as
very
fam
iliar
, thr
ee
resp
onde
nts
rate
d th
eir
know
ledg
e as
fam
iliar
, thr
ee a
s sl
ight
ly fa
mili
ar a
nd t
he r
emai
ning
four
re
port
ed n
o kn
owle
dge
of th
e ar
ea.
The
se r
esul
ts a
re p
rese
nted
gra
phic
ally
in F
igur
e 4.
5 Le
vel o
f Fam
iliar
ity o
f Age
ing
Res
earc
h C
entr
e w
ith E
duca
tiona
l Ger
onto
logy
.
Fig
ure
4.3
Leve
l of F
amili
arity
of A
dult
Edu
catio
n A
cade
mic
wi
th
Edu
catio
nal G
eron
tolo
gy
0
0.51
1.52
Num
ber
Non
eS
light
Fam
iliar
Ver
y
Leve
l
Que
stio
n #5
Fig
ure
4.4
Leve
l of F
amili
arity
of A
gein
g R
esea
rch
Cen
tre
Dire
ctor
with
Edu
catio
nal
Ger
onto
logy
0
0.51
1.52
2.53
3.54
Num
ber
Non
eS
light
Fam
iliar
Ver
y
Leve
l
Que
stio
n #5
A C
ase
fo
r E
duc
atio
nal
Ge
ron
tolo
gy in
Ad
ult E
du
catio
n
Cha
pter
4
141
ELE
ME
NT
Und
erst
andi
ng o
f E
duca
tiona
l G
eron
tolo
gy c
ont.
Dat
a C
olle
ctio
n
Ad
ult
Ed
ucat
ion
A
gei
ng
Res
earc
h
Inte
rvie
ws
con
t.
Inte
rvie
w d
ata
reve
aled
tha
t the
ext
ent
of
know
ledg
e of
edu
catio
nal g
eron
tolo
gy in
un
iver
sity
Adu
lt E
duca
tion
prog
ram
s w
as li
mite
d to
ane
cdot
al in
put.
As
one
resp
onde
nt n
oted
:
“It [
educ
atio
nal g
eron
tolo
gy] i
s us
ually
com
ing
acro
ss id
ly in
con
vers
atio
n w
ith c
olle
ague
s or
be
ing
pick
ed u
p th
roug
h th
e m
edia
. I w
ould
cl
aim
no
expe
rtis
e in
hav
ing
cons
ulte
d th
e re
sear
ch li
tera
ture
, it’s
just
whe
n I
occa
sion
ally
co
me
acro
ss it
and
I ha
ve f
riend
s w
orki
ng in
th
e fie
ld a
nd it
’s c
erta
inly
an
issu
e an
d a
star
ter
of c
onve
rsat
ion.
”
[7P
R02
10#3
]
In A
gein
g R
esea
rch
Cen
tres
, kn
owle
dge
of e
duca
tiona
l ger
onto
logy
was
lim
ited
to th
ose
Cen
tre
Dir
ecto
rs w
ith a
n ed
ucat
iona
l bac
kgro
und,
or
with
a s
olid
und
erst
andi
ng o
f soc
ial g
eron
tolo
gy. I
n on
e in
stan
ce, t
his
exp
erie
nce
was
of t
he h
ighe
st in
tern
atio
nal c
alib
re, e
vide
nced
by
the
follo
win
g st
atem
ent:
“I w
orke
d ve
ry c
lose
ly w
ith F
rank
Gle
nden
ning
who
was
edi
tor
of E
duca
tiona
l Ger
onto
logy
, and
so
an
unde
rsta
ndin
g of
edu
catio
nal g
eron
tolo
gy w
as th
e na
tura
l ord
er o
f thi
ngs.
And
I ta
ught
at
the
Cen
tre
for
Soc
ial G
eron
tolo
gy a
t K
eele
Uni
vers
ity, E
ngla
nd.”
[10S
D12
10#4
]
Thi
s sa
me
Cen
tre
Dire
ctor
als
o ar
ticul
ated
som
e sp
ecifi
c ed
ucat
iona
l goa
ls fo
r he
r C
entr
e, w
hich
in
clud
ed th
e fo
llow
ing:
“Wha
t I w
ould
like
, is
to u
se m
y C
entr
e as
a c
ondu
it fo
r pr
ovid
ing
the
know
ledg
e an
d un
ders
tand
ing
that
wou
ld f
eed
skill
s te
ams
that
wou
ld g
o in
and
use
men
torin
g an
d ac
adem
ic
deta
iling
, in
prac
tice,
on
the
war
ds, s
o th
at in
divi
dual
s w
ho w
ere
lear
ning
this
way
cou
ld p
ass
that
on
to n
ew s
taff
so it
was
sus
tain
able
. We
spen
d a
lot o
f tim
e re
peat
ing
educ
atio
nal
sess
ions
bec
ause
the
re h
as b
een
a m
ajor
tur
nove
r in
sta
ff. A
nd I
belie
ve t
hat i
s a
poor
use
of
the
educ
atio
nal c
apac
ity o
f the
org
aniz
atio
n. I
abso
lute
ly th
ink
it ha
s be
en t
oo c
lass
room
-ba
sed.
”
[10S
D12
10#1
]
A C
ase
fo
r E
duc
atio
nal
Ge
ron
tolo
gy in
Ad
ult E
du
catio
n
Cha
pter
4
142
ELE
ME
NT
Und
erst
andi
ng o
f E
duca
tiona
l G
eron
tolo
gy c
ont.
Dat
a C
olle
ctio
n
Ad
ult
Ed
ucat
ion
A
gei
ng
Res
earc
h
Inte
rvie
ws
con
t.
One
uni
vers
ity A
dult
Edu
catio
n re
spon
dent
rat
ed
thei
r kn
owle
dge
of th
is a
rea
as v
ery
fam
iliar
in th
e qu
estio
nnai
re r
espo
nse,
but
this
was
not
va
lidat
ed in
the
inte
rvie
w.
No
evid
ence
was
pr
ovid
ed o
f any
kno
wle
dge
of th
e ph
iloso
phy
unde
rpin
ning
the
pra
ctic
e, o
r of
the
pra
ctic
al
appl
icat
ion
of e
duca
tiona
l ger
onto
logy
prin
cipl
es.
In c
onve
rsat
ion
it w
as r
evea
led
that
the
exte
nt o
f kn
owle
dge
was
lim
ited
to m
anag
emen
t of
clas
sroo
m b
ehav
iour
, w
ith th
e re
spon
dent
co
mm
entin
g:
“Wel
l it’s
rea
lly e
xper
ienc
e fo
r m
e, a
lthou
gh I
have
n’t
had
the
oppo
rtun
ity to
be
invo
lved
with
an
y st
ruct
ured
lear
ning
par
ticul
arly
for
the
olde
r ag
eing
pop
ulat
ion…
. W
e ap
prec
iate
, in
clas
ses,
whe
re w
e ha
ve a
lot
of y
oung
er
peop
le,
we
find
that
the
olde
r fo
lk c
erta
inly
se
ttle
the
grou
p do
wn.
”
[2I
J070
8#2]
In te
rms
of fu
ture
edu
catio
nal g
eron
tolo
gy in
volv
emen
t, on
e C
entr
e D
irec
tor
stat
ed th
at a
Fac
ulty
of
Edu
catio
n co
uld
mak
e a
sign
ifica
nt c
ontr
ibut
ion
to th
e C
entr
e’s
futu
re c
urric
ulum
pla
ns.
She
sai
d:
“The
re h
ave
been
dis
cuss
ions
with
pop
ulat
ion
heal
th, w
ith p
hysi
othe
rapy
, w
ith p
sych
olog
y, w
ith
soci
al w
ork
and
now
we’
ve g
ot n
ursi
ng o
n bo
ard
in t
he u
nive
rsity
cou
rse,
they
wou
ld b
e th
ere
too,
and
um
, reh
ab s
cien
ces,
they
wou
ld b
e th
ere
too.
The
Sch
ool o
f E
duca
tion
coul
d de
finite
ly
mak
e a
cont
ribut
ion.
I m
ean,
I’ve
bee
n qu
ite s
urpr
ised
that
the
re’s
bee
n no
nat
ural
sor
t of
syne
rgie
s th
at h
ave
aris
en.
But
you
kno
w I
have
spo
ken
with
peo
ple
in e
duca
tion
who
’ve
had
a so
rt o
f fle
etin
g in
tere
st in
age
ing
or d
isab
ility
and
ther
e ar
e ve
ry c
lear
sub
ject
con
tent
co
nnec
tions
that
cou
ld b
e pu
rsue
d. B
ut I
thin
k al
so in
term
s of
edu
catio
nal s
trat
egie
s, y
ou
know
, the
y w
ould
hav
e a
cont
ribu
tion
to m
ake
as w
ell.”
[3H
B24
08#8
]
A C
ase
fo
r E
duc
atio
nal
Ge
ron
tolo
gy in
Ad
ult E
du
catio
n
Cha
pter
4
143
ELE
ME
NT
Und
erst
andi
ng o
f E
duca
tiona
l G
eron
tolo
gy c
ont.
INT
ER
PR
ET
AT
ION
D
ata
indi
cate
s th
at th
ere
exis
ts a
low
leve
l of k
now
ledg
e ab
out t
he p
rinci
ples
and
pra
ctic
es o
f edu
catio
nal g
eron
tolo
gy a
mon
gst t
he p
artic
ipat
ing
Adu
lt E
duca
tion
acad
emic
s.
Whi
le th
e qu
estio
nnai
re r
esul
ts in
dica
ted
that
one
res
pond
ent f
rom
this
coh
ort d
escr
ibed
thei
r le
vel o
f fam
iliar
ity a
s “v
ery
fam
iliar
,” th
is p
artic
ular
par
ticip
ant
did
not
agre
e to
be
inte
rvie
wed
. It
was
ther
efor
e im
poss
ible
to a
scer
tain
how
wel
l thi
s st
atem
ent r
efle
cts
a br
oade
r kn
owle
dge
of th
e to
pic.
Ove
rall,
this
res
ult i
s co
nsis
tent
with
oth
er r
esul
ts th
at
indi
cate
tha
t thi
s co
hort
rev
eal a
pau
city
of
evid
ence
reg
ardi
ng: t
he d
evel
opm
ent o
f tra
inin
g pr
ogra
ms
to a
nd fo
r ol
der
adul
ts; i
nter
disc
iplin
ary
rese
arch
col
labo
ratio
ns;
an
unde
rsta
ndin
g of
soc
ial g
eron
tolo
gy a
nd it
s re
latio
nshi
p w
ith e
duca
tiona
l ger
onto
logy
; and
the
theo
retic
al c
ompl
emen
tarit
ies
that
exi
st b
etw
een
adul
t ed
ucat
ion
and
educ
atio
nal g
eron
tolo
gy.
Age
ing
Res
earc
h C
entr
e re
spon
dent
s de
scri
bing
thei
r kn
owle
dge
of e
duca
tiona
l ger
onto
logy
as
none
or
slig
htly
fam
iliar
in th
e su
rvey
did
not
rep
ort o
n th
e de
velo
pmen
t of
any
adul
t tra
inin
g an
d de
velo
pmen
t pro
gram
s sp
ecifi
c to
old
er a
dults
. One
res
pond
ent f
rom
this
cat
egor
y di
d de
scrib
e th
e ba
ckgr
ound
to a
pro
gram
dev
elop
ed f
or c
areg
iver
s, b
ut
the
cont
ent
was
bas
ed a
roun
d in
form
atio
n te
chno
logy
and
is c
onsi
dere
d no
t app
licab
le.
Res
pond
ents
in t
hese
tw
o ca
tego
ries
also
did
not
indi
cate
any
col
labo
rativ
e lin
ks to
un
iver
sity
Adu
lt E
duca
tion
for
the
deve
lopm
ent
of T
rain
ing
Pro
gram
s.
The
thr
ee A
gein
g R
esea
rch
Cen
tre
resp
onde
nts
desc
ribi
ng th
eir
know
ledg
e of
edu
catio
nal g
eron
tolo
gy a
s fa
mili
ar d
id n
ot r
epor
t an
y lin
ks to
adu
lt ed
ucat
ion,
des
pite
list
ing
a va
riety
of t
rain
ing
prog
ram
topi
cs d
evel
oped
thr
ough
the
ir ce
ntre
. The
se t
opic
s in
clud
e E
nhan
cing
Age
d C
are
Pra
ctic
e, D
emen
tia, H
ealth
Ser
vice
Eva
luat
ion,
and
Sem
inar
s.
Oth
er to
pics
incl
uded
aw
ard
prog
ram
s in
Age
ing,
and
the
deve
lopm
ent
of o
nlin
e sh
ort c
ours
es in
Pub
lic H
ealth
Impl
icat
ions
of a
n A
gein
g S
ocie
ty, a
nd th
e de
velo
pmen
t of a
va
riety
of
educ
atio
nal m
ater
ials
.
Of t
he t
wo
resp
onde
nts
very
fam
iliar
with
edu
catio
nal g
eron
tolo
gy, o
ne r
espo
nden
t dev
elop
ed p
rogr
ams
arou
nd le
gal i
ssue
s af
fect
ing
seni
ors,
but
had
no
link
to u
nive
rsity
A
dult
Edu
catio
n an
d w
as n
ot c
olla
bora
ting
with
an
Adu
lt E
duca
tion
prog
ram
in a
ny w
ay.
The
oth
er r
espo
nden
t ver
y fa
mili
ar w
ith e
duca
tiona
l ger
onto
logy
rep
orte
d a
gene
ral
link
to a
Fac
ulty
of
Edu
catio
n, to
geth
er w
ith f
utur
e pl
ans
to in
tegr
ate
agei
ng c
onte
nt a
cros
s ge
nera
l uni
vers
ity c
urric
ulum
, but
did
not
rep
ort a
ny c
urre
nt c
olla
bora
tive
effo
rts
or
spec
ific
rela
tions
hip
with
Adu
lt E
duca
tion
prog
ram
s.
Res
ults
from
Age
ing
Res
earc
h C
entr
es th
eref
ore
indi
cate
that
, w
hile
the
re is
gro
win
g re
cogn
ition
of t
he r
ole
that
edu
catio
n m
ight
pla
y in
dai
ly C
entr
e ac
tiviti
es, a
nd s
ome
core
co
ncep
ts a
bout
edu
catio
nal g
eron
tolo
gy c
ompo
nent
s, t
here
is n
o ev
iden
ce o
f the
ope
ratio
nalis
atio
n of
edu
catio
nal g
eron
tolo
gy in
to th
e pa
rtic
ipat
ing
Res
earc
h C
entr
es,
and
ther
e ap
pear
s to
be
a cu
rren
t lac
k of
und
erst
andi
ng o
f how
this
mig
ht o
ccur
as
a m
eans
to e
xpan
d th
e ac
tiviti
es a
nd c
apab
ilitie
s of
the
rese
arch
org
anis
atio
n.
A C
ase
fo
r E
duc
atio
nal
Ge
ron
tolo
gy in
Ad
ult E
du
catio
n
Cha
pter
4
144
ELE
ME
NT
A
TT
RIB
UT
ES
OR
CH
AR
AC
TE
RIS
TIC
S
Mot
ivat
ion/
Oth
er
Mot
ivat
ion
unde
rpin
s al
l hum
an a
ctiv
ities
and
cap
abili
ties.
For
edu
catio
nal g
eron
tolo
gy h
owev
er, m
otiv
atio
n w
ould
be
char
acte
rize
d by
evi
denc
e of
a m
ore
hum
anis
tic p
hilo
soph
y of
edu
catio
n, w
here
adu
lt ed
ucat
ion
activ
ities
are
pre
dica
ted
on th
e m
oral
impe
rativ
e of
em
pow
erm
ent
of d
isad
vant
aged
old
er
adul
ts w
here
age
ism
mig
ht p
reva
il. It
is a
lso
char
acte
rised
by
an a
ppre
ciat
ion
of th
e w
ider
ben
efits
of s
ocia
l eng
agem
ent t
hrou
gh le
arni
ng fo
r th
e ol
der
pers
on, i
nclu
ding
psy
chol
ogic
al,
phys
ical
and
spi
ritua
l ben
efits
.
Dat
a C
olle
ctio
n
Ad
ult
Ed
ucat
ion
A
gei
ng
Res
earc
h
Q9
60%
of r
espo
nden
ts c
onsi
dere
d fu
ture
co
llabo
ratio
ns to
be
of b
enef
it to
thei
r in
stitu
tion.
The
ful
l ran
ge o
f per
ceiv
ed b
enef
its g
lean
ed f
rom
Q
uest
ion
9 is
illu
stra
ted
in T
able
4.4
Per
ceiv
ed
Ben
efits
to C
olla
bora
tion
with
Age
ing
Res
earc
h C
entr
es.
75%
of r
espo
nden
ts c
onsi
dere
d fu
ture
col
labo
ratio
n w
ith a
n A
dult
Edu
catio
n to
be
of v
alue
to
thei
r or
gani
zatio
n.
The
ful
l lis
t is
illus
trat
ed in
Tab
le 4
.5 P
erce
ived
Ben
efits
to
Col
labo
ratio
n w
ith A
dult
Edu
catio
n P
rogr
ams.
A C
ase
fo
r E
duc
atio
nal
Ge
ron
tolo
gy in
Ad
ult E
du
catio
n
Cha
pter
4
145
Tab
le 4
.2
Per
ceiv
ed B
enef
its to
Col
labo
ratio
n w
ith A
gein
g R
esea
rch
Cen
tres
Per
ceiv
ed B
enef
its to
Col
labo
ratio
n w
ith A
gein
g R
esea
rch
Cen
tres
No
com
men
t.
Par
tner
ship
for
desi
gnin
g pr
ogra
ms
for
the
olde
r ad
ult w
here
spe
cific
pr
ogra
ms
for
olde
r ad
ults
are
req
uest
ed.
Fut
ure
plan
s m
ight
incl
ude
colla
bora
tion
with
a d
evel
opin
g ag
eing
rese
arch
cen
tre
for
deve
lopi
ng n
ew u
nits
with
a g
eron
tolo
gy
pers
pect
ive.
Cou
ld p
rovi
de s
tude
nts
for
our
Deg
ree
prog
ram
s.
Non
e pe
rcei
ved.
Tab
le 4
.3
Per
ceiv
ed B
enef
its to
Col
labo
ratio
n w
ith A
dult
Edu
cat
ion
Pro
gram
s
Per
ceiv
ed B
enef
its to
Col
labo
ratio
n w
ith A
dult
Edu
cat
ion
Pro
gram
s
Col
labo
ratio
n in
res
earc
h gr
ant a
pplic
atio
ns in
edu
catio
nal g
eron
tolo
gy &
cu
rric
ulum
dev
elop
men
t.
Stu
dent
sup
ervi
sion
.
Edu
catin
g th
e pu
blic
abo
ut g
eron
tolo
gy
Cur
ricul
um d
evel
opm
ent,
teac
hing
trai
ning
and
pra
ctic
e
Com
ing
from
a N
ursi
ng e
duca
tion
back
grou
nd, I
onl
y se
e be
nef
its if
the
F
acul
ty o
f Edu
catio
n ha
d a
soun
d gr
ound
ing
in g
eron
tolo
gy.
Col
labo
rativ
e re
sear
ch o
n le
arni
ng a
spir
atio
ns a
nd r
equi
rem
ents
of o
lder
ad
ults
.
Cur
ricul
um d
evel
opm
ent,
teac
hing
trai
ning
and
pra
ctic
e
Uns
ure
No
idea
Col
labo
rativ
e re
sear
ch a
nd c
ours
e de
velo
pmen
t
Inve
stig
ate
outc
omes
of s
hort
cou
rse
Not
cle
ar,
perh
aps
addi
ng c
ours
ewor
k to
res
earc
h tr
aini
ng d
egre
e
Dev
elop
ing
adul
t ed
ucat
ion
stra
tegi
es fo
r ol
der
adul
ts.
We
have
the
pro
fess
iona
l exp
ertis
e in
com
mun
icat
ion
and
agei
ng a
nd
wou
ld p
roba
bly
bene
fit fr
om th
e ex
per
tise
of th
ose
in e
duca
tion
abou
t how
to
pro
mot
e ef
fect
ive
com
mun
icat
ion
for
olde
r pe
ople
.
A C
ase
fo
r E
duc
atio
nal
Ge
ron
tolo
gy in
Ad
ult E
du
catio
n
Cha
pter
4
146
ELE
ME
NT
Mot
ivat
ion/
Oth
er
cont
.
Dat
a C
olle
ctio
n
Ad
ult
Ed
ucat
ion
A
gei
ng
Res
earc
h
Inte
rvie
ws
The
re w
as u
nani
mou
s su
ppor
t ex
pres
sed
amon
gst t
he u
nive
rsity
Adu
lt E
duca
tion
resp
onde
nts
for
the
deve
lopm
ent o
f edu
catio
nal
gero
ntol
ogy
emer
ging
out
of c
urre
nt a
dult
educ
atio
n of
ferin
gs,
and
for
a fu
ture
pro
gram
w
here
old
er a
dults
wer
e fe
atur
ed m
ore
stro
ngly
in
educ
atio
nal p
olic
y fo
rmul
atio
n an
d so
cial
in
clus
iven
ess.
Com
men
ts in
clud
ed:
“You
hav
e ju
st p
ut a
ligh
t bul
b on
and
I th
ink
wel
l thi
s is
goi
ng t
o be
com
e a
real
ly im
port
ant
issu
e, w
heth
er it
s ab
out d
ealin
g w
ith th
e ne
eds
of o
lder
Aus
tral
ians
dire
ctly
or
whe
ther
its
as
you
said
bef
ore,
how
new
peo
ple
com
ing
into
an
are
a ar
e go
ing
to b
e pr
epar
ed t
o de
al w
ith
olde
r st
aff.
I thi
nk it
’s ju
st a
que
stio
n w
e ha
ven’
t as
ked.
”
[7P
R02
10#1
3]
“My
mod
el f
or th
e fu
ture
is fo
r so
met
hing
like
th
e U
3A in
tha
t the
ext
ra ti
me
and
thou
ght j
ust
give
s th
em m
ore
oppo
rtun
ity t
o pu
rsue
the
ir ow
n in
tere
sts
but i
n th
e sh
orte
r te
rm th
at it
w
ould
be
linke
d m
ore
to g
ainf
ul, m
aybe
par
t-tim
e em
ploy
men
t of
a s
ort t
hat i
s go
ing
to b
e m
ore
stim
ulat
ing
and
less
dra
inin
g.”
[
5RS
1309
#12]
The
re w
as w
ides
prea
d su
ppor
t for
edu
catio
nal g
eron
tolo
gy to
be
inco
rpor
ated
into
age
ing
rese
arch
in
the
futu
re.
One
Cen
tre
Dire
ctor
sai
d:
“Ano
ther
par
t of t
hat
visi
on is
whe
re th
e un
iver
sity
act
ually
inco
rpor
ates
U3A
. S
o yo
u kn
ow, y
ou
have
the
opp
ortu
nity
for
seni
or c
itize
ns t
o en
gage
in w
hat t
he u
nive
rsity
offe
rs th
roug
h so
me
spec
ial c
hann
els
and
agai
n w
here
the
uni
vers
ity e
nvir
onm
ent c
ater
s fo
r th
at. I
rea
d on
e ve
ry
inte
rest
ing
artic
le w
here
the
y ha
ve a
ctua
lly c
reat
ed a
hal
l of r
esid
ence
for
Sen
iors
.”
[3H
B24
08#1
2]
Thi
s vi
ew w
as d
iffer
ent i
n C
entr
es w
here
edu
catio
nal s
ervi
ces
wer
e ap
plie
d di
rect
ly to
sta
ff in
the
nurs
ing
and
heal
th s
ecto
r. A
s on
e C
entr
e D
irec
tor
stat
ed:
“Qui
te fr
ankl
y I h
ave
som
e re
serv
atio
ns a
bout
str
aigh
t edu
catio
n be
ing
tran
sfor
mat
ive
and
chan
ging
atti
tude
s. I
thin
k ed
ucat
ion
is th
e ap
prop
riate
con
text
, the
y ne
ed t
hat,
but t
he p
robl
em
is,
and
this
is n
ot s
o m
uch
an e
duca
tiona
l pro
blem
as
a la
ck o
f un
ders
tand
ing
of h
ow a
pplie
d ge
ront
olog
y w
orks
or
the
appl
icat
ion
of k
now
ledg
e w
orks
. M
anag
emen
t with
in t
he o
rgan
isat
ion,
th
e po
licy-
mak
ers
thin
k if
you
give
them
edu
catio
n th
ey w
ill g
o aw
ay a
nd th
ey p
ut it
into
pra
ctic
e,
than
k yo
u ve
ry m
uch
we
have
don
e pe
rson
-cen
tred
car
e. W
hen
in fa
ct w
hat y
ou h
ave
is p
eopl
e w
ho h
ave
been
giv
en th
at e
duca
tion,
are
put
bac
k in
a s
yste
m th
at d
oes
not l
end
itsel
f w
ell t
o th
at
appr
oach
and
then
they
get
frus
trat
ed w
hen
they
can
’t ap
ply
that
kno
wle
dge.
We
need
a m
uch
mor
e gr
ound
ed a
ppro
ach,
and
par
tly th
is is
wha
t ou
r C
entr
e tr
ies
to d
o. W
e tr
y an
d w
ork
thou
gh
som
e of
this
stu
ff w
ith th
e pe
ople
. T
hey
don’
t ful
ly c
ompr
ehen
d th
e im
pact
that
a d
ysfu
nctio
nal
syst
em c
an h
ave
on tr
ying
to im
plem
ent
chan
ge.
The
re’s
not
rea
lly a
ful
l com
mitm
ent t
o cu
ltura
l ch
ange
. T
hey
do th
ink
a bi
t of e
duca
tion
will
sor
t it o
ut,
but t
hey
real
ly d
o ha
ve to
und
erst
and
that
ap
plyi
ng k
now
ledg
e is
ver
y im
port
ant.”
[10S
D12
10#8
]
A C
ase
fo
r E
duc
atio
nal
Ge
ron
tolo
gy in
Ad
ult E
du
catio
n
Cha
pter
4
147
ELE
ME
NT
Mot
ivat
ion/
Oth
er
cont
.
Dat
a C
olle
ctio
n
Ad
ult
Ed
ucat
ion
A
gei
ng
Res
earc
h
T
he p
rosp
ect o
f pos
tgra
duat
e re
sear
ch in
the
field
of
edu
catio
nal g
eron
tolo
gy w
as w
elco
med
by
the
maj
ority
of A
dult
Edu
catio
n re
spon
dent
s. O
ne c
o-or
dina
tor
of p
ostg
radu
ate
prog
ram
s in
adu
lt ed
ucat
ion
stat
ed:
“I’d
be
delig
hted
if s
omeo
ne w
ante
d to
do
a P
hD in
this
fiel
d, a
bsol
utel
y de
light
ed.
I thi
nk it
’s, u
m, p
artic
ular
ly s
ince
you
’ve
sent
ou
t you
r su
rvey
its
mad
e m
e th
ink
quite
de
eply
abo
ut th
ese
and
it ha
s be
en in
my
thou
ghts
in a
num
ber
of o
ther
are
as a
nd I
have
tho
ught
: W
hy d
on’t
we?
Abs
olut
ely
why
do
n’t
we
do s
omet
hing
abo
ut th
is?
I thi
nk y
ou’re
ont
o so
met
hing
ver
y im
port
ant.”
[7P
R02
10#4
]
Wor
kloa
d ch
alle
nges
from
Adu
lt E
duca
tion
resp
onde
nts
wer
e in
dica
ted
by th
is c
omm
ent:
“It’s
the
sort
of t
hing
that
I m
ight
mov
e on
if I
had
the
time
and
the
incl
inat
ion
at th
at ti
me
to
cont
ribu
te to
it in
som
e fo
rm…
. Tha
t’s w
hy I
sign
al t
hat c
ompe
ting
prio
ritie
s, I
’m n
ot s
ure,
so
I’ll
cast
my
eye
on t
hat o
ne a
nd s
ee w
hat
kind
of
cove
rage
is a
lrea
dy t
here
bec
ause
I do
n’t
wan
t to
repl
icat
e w
hat’s
alr
eady
bee
n do
ne,
and
whe
re I
mig
ht v
alua
bly
add
som
ethi
ng w
ithou
t ove
r-co
mm
ittin
g m
ysel
f.”
[5R
S13
09#8
]
In te
rms
of a
dult
lear
ning
spe
cial
ist’s
futu
re p
artic
ipat
ion
in A
gein
g R
esea
rch
Cen
tres
, one
Cen
tre
Dir
ecto
r su
ppor
ted
this
by
stat
ing:
“I d
o, I
see
an a
dult
lear
ning
spe
cial
ist f
ittin
g in
. I th
ink
ther
e is
sig
nific
ant s
cope
for
this
. I th
ink
we
have
bee
n fa
r to
o re
liant
on
disc
iplin
e-sp
ecifi
c th
ings
like
clin
ical
nur
se e
duca
tors
, I th
ink
that
kin
d of
spe
cial
ist c
ould
lend
itse
lf ve
ry w
ell t
o ho
w t
o ap
ply
that
kin
d of
edu
catio
nal g
eron
tolo
gy, t
hat
wou
ld b
e ve
ry g
ood.
I th
ink
the
ques
tion
com
es d
own
to r
esou
rces
, it
wou
ld p
roba
bly
have
to b
e do
ne o
n a
cons
ulta
ncy
basi
s, b
ecau
se I
am n
ot s
ure
if H
ealth
Ser
vice
s ar
e re
ady
to p
rovi
de
reso
urce
s fo
r th
at, b
ut h
avin
g sa
id th
at th
ough
, the
y ar
e ve
ry k
een
to b
ring
in c
onsu
ltant
s.”
[10
SD
1210
#14]
Thi
s is
a v
iew
rei
tera
ted
by m
any
of th
e C
entr
e D
irect
ors,
for
exa
mpl
e:
“Abs
olut
ely,
peo
ple
who
wer
e sk
illed
in e
duca
tion
and
lifel
ong
lear
ning
will
hel
p. W
hat w
e ca
ll T
he S
trok
e P
roje
ct, w
here
pat
ient
s w
ho h
ave
had
a st
roke
are
edu
cate
d in
wha
t str
oke
mea
ns
and
wha
t the
y ne
ed t
o do
to s
top
them
hav
ing
a se
cond
str
oke,
tha
t’s v
ery
muc
h an
edu
catio
n pr
oces
s. A
nd if
the
re a
re te
chni
ques
, edu
catio
nal t
echn
ique
s th
at a
re d
iffer
ent,
espe
cial
ly fo
r ol
der
peop
le, t
hat w
e co
uld
appl
y in
our
day
to d
ay w
ork,
the
n th
at w
ould
be
of v
alue
.”
[6JB
2709
#14]
And
fina
lly, t
he a
ckno
wle
dgem
ent
of th
e gr
owin
g im
port
ance
of l
earn
ing
in a
gein
g re
sear
ch w
as
prov
ided
in th
e fo
llow
ing
stat
emen
t:
“As
a re
sear
ch c
entr
e th
ough
, I s
uspe
ct th
e do
or is
wid
e op
en f
or a
lot
of to
pics
bec
ause
lear
ning
, w
e’re
fin
ding
, com
es in
to a
who
le r
ange
of i
ssue
s in
term
s of
age
ing.
Um
, so
we
coul
d pr
obab
ly
incr
ease
our
col
labo
ratio
n be
caus
e le
arni
ng c
omes
into
act
ive
agei
ng, i
t co
mes
into
wel
l-be
ing,
it
com
es in
to h
appi
ness
and
a w
hole
ran
ge o
f ot
her
thin
gs, s
o le
arni
ng b
rings
larg
e op
port
uniti
es.”
[11L
B18
10#3
]
A C
ase
fo
r E
duc
atio
nal
Ge
ron
tolo
gy in
Ad
ult E
du
catio
n
Cha
pter
4
148
ELE
ME
NT
Mot
ivat
ion/
Oth
er
cont
.
INT
ER
PR
ET
AT
ION
T
he r
esul
ts o
f the
exa
min
atio
n of
thi
s el
emen
t rev
eal t
hat a
sig
nific
ant m
ajor
ity o
f Adu
lt E
duca
tion
part
icip
ants
rep
orte
d w
hole
hear
ted
supp
ort f
or t
he a
dvan
cem
ent o
f ed
ucat
iona
l iss
ues
for
the
bene
fit o
f old
er a
dults
. Int
ervi
ew r
espo
nses
rei
tera
ted
the
posi
tive
view
tow
ards
exp
andi
ng c
urre
nt A
dult
Edu
catio
n ac
tiviti
es a
nd p
rogr
ams
and
supp
ort f
or r
esea
rch
into
edu
catio
nal g
eron
tolo
gy a
cros
s th
is d
isci
plin
e.
Age
ing
Res
earc
h C
entr
e re
sults
mirr
or th
is p
ositi
ve r
espo
nse
to a
dvan
cing
edu
catio
nal g
eron
tolo
gy, p
artic
ular
ly in
the
cont
ext
of a
sha
red
purp
ose
and
over
arch
ing
goal
of
deve
lopm
ent o
f the
old
er a
dult.
Thi
s op
timis
m is
tem
pere
d by
req
uire
men
ts t
hat e
duca
tiona
l ger
onto
logy
mak
es a
con
trib
utio
n to
the
Res
earc
h C
entr
e th
at is
bas
ed o
n co
ntex
tual
pra
ctic
aliti
es a
nd m
utua
l org
anis
atio
nal b
enef
it.
A Case for Educational Gerontology in Adult Education
Chapter 4 149
PART FOUR
4.6 Key Findings
4.6.1 Evidence of Educational Gerontology
From the data received from the participating Adult Education academics, the findings
are that there is little to no evidence of any educational gerontology strategies within
participating Adult Education programs that develop internal staff about older adult
education or that support ageing educational research. In addition, there is no evidence
of the development of educational gerontology curriculum or programs that include
consideration of geragogical issues underpinning the creation of age-friendly learning
environments.
Moreover, there is no evidence of social structures within participating Adult
Education locations that support the advancement of educational gerontology through
engagement with external stakeholders. This includes engagement through private sector
projects such as community education, information and guidance services, and
consultancies. In addition, there is no evidence of organisational structures that enable
development or accreditation of curriculum for the purposes of professional
development and training in the aged sector.
In Ageing Research centres, data revealed some evidence of activities consistent
with educational gerontology practices, and targeted towards development of the older
person. This was particularly evident in centres led by Directors with a social
gerontology background, or where the centre welcomed a broad range of disciplines
(including the social sciences) into the setting. However, the educational programs
identified did not include concepts of geragogy, and no evidence of applied expertise in
educational gerontology is evident. The preparation of adult educators specifically for
older adults is therefore not evident in the ageing research arena. There is also evidence
of numerous social structures in place that might support the advancement of
educational gerontology. These include established private sector collaborations,
community involvement for educational purposes, information and guidance services
and an established track record of internal development through seminars and short
courses.
A Case for Educational Gerontology in Adult Education
Chapter 4 150
4.6.2 Capacity for Educational Gerontology
Results reveal that some personal capacity exists within participating Adult Education
academics for the advancement of educational gerontology on the basis of established
educational knowledge and experience, and the incorporation of a lifelong learning
culture into institutional orientations. In addition, there exists recognition of benefits for
a specialisation in educational gerontology, and appreciation of the moral imperative
underpinning education for social and emotional well-being. The personal capacity of
Ageing Research participants for advancing educational gerontology was also evident,
based on a fundamental orientation towards health information, and in some instances
based on a highly developed understanding of social gerontology and the link to adult
education.
However, data indicates that there is currently limited organisational capacity
within participating Adult Education settings to integrate the discipline of social
gerontology into established adult education conceptualisations, to collaborate across
disciplines, or to develop new curriculum specifically for and about older adults.
Organisationally, the Ageing Research centers display a natural springboard for
generating capacity for educational gerontology due to established educational
mechanisms and dissemination networks.
Findings indicate that the professional capacity to apply educational gerontology
in Adult Education programs is hindered by a low level of familiarity with educational
gerontology concepts, and the existence of organisational impediments which reduce
availability of resources and that constrict educational innovations. This is a result
mirrored in the Ageing Research results, where the lack of focus on geragogy and the
general lack of knowledge regarding the field of educational gerontology is exacerbated
by organizational impediments such as funding priorities and sponsor requirements that
are orientated towards a biomedical orientation to research and education.
4.6.3 Educational Gerontology Curriculum
Results reveal that Adult Education programs represented by participants in this study
can be enhanced by curriculum review which includes elements of educational
gerontology, and that consider issues specific to and for older adults. In addition, the
A Case for Educational Gerontology in Adult Education
Chapter 4 151
findings reveal that there is a need for professional development activities that introduce
educational gerontology concepts and processes to a wide variety of professionals in the
workplace which will ultimately benefit the older adult.
A Case for Educational Gerontology in Adult Education
Chapter 5 152
Chapter 5 Discussion, Conclusion and Recommendation s
5.1 Introduction and Structure of this Chapter
This study is placed in the context of an ageing Australian population and the
implications for education and training of older adults. The study has been drawn from a
synthesis of literature relating to contemporary theories in adult learning, lifelong
learning, social gerontology and the process of geragogy (Formosa, 2002; John, 1988;
Lemieux & Martinez, 2000). Research findings indicate that educational gerontology
practices are inextricably linked to older adult learners reaching their full potential
across a range of learning contexts, including both leisure and work (Wahrendorf et al.,
2006) and there are empirical findings that reinforce the link between good health and
social engagement through learning (Herzog & House, 1991). Drawing on an
overarching purpose of empowerment for the older learner (Cusack, 1999), the study is
predicated on the broad principles of educational gerontology presented in Chapter 2
which incorporates knowledge about older learners and knowledge for direct benefit of
older learners (Walker, 1996). It is not clear however to what extent Australian
universities have responded to this demographic imperative. By developing a proposed
model of educational gerontology out of existing definitions of this field, the intention of
this study was to investigate educational gerontology in Australian university Adult
Education and Ageing Research, to determine how these two sites complement the
advancement of education specifically for the older adult. To achieve this, the study
asked:
� What evidence of the practice of educational gerontology exists in Australian
university Adult Education programs and Ageing Research Centres?
� What capacity exists in these two disciplinary domains for the application of
educational gerontology principles?
� What elements of educational gerontology are required for the development of
curriculum content that extends current adult learning concepts for those preparing to
work in the aged sector?
A Case for Educational Gerontology in Adult Education
Chapter 5 153
This chapter firstly discusses the findings regarding an investigation of the evidence
of educational gerontology which determined whether a range of educational activities
were aligned with a focus on the older adult. This is followed by a discussion of the data
collected to determine capacity for educational gerontology that can be advanced in the
two research locations. In order to achieve a comprehensive perspective of educational
gerontology capacity, the findings are then applied against a typology of the concept of
capacity, including: internal and organisational capacity, external capacity and other
influencing factors such as contextual and societal forces. A discussion of the
professional capacity underpinning the advancement of educational gerontology in
Australian universities then generates a platform for discussing the framework of an
educational gerontology curriculum, and in identifying the content elements necessary
for developing educational gerontology as an extension of Adult Education programs in
Australian universities. Following a summary of the findings, the chapter is finalised by
a translation of the study outcomes into a sequence of conclusions and
recommendations.
5.2 Conceptual Framework
To understand how an ageing population has become the catalyst for a specialised focus
on the older adult learner, the following diagram Figure 5.1 Effects of Demographic
Change on Education and Training to and for the Older Adult illustrates how changing
lifecycle dimensions translate into older adult training needs.
A Case for Educational Gerontology in Adult Education
Chapter 5 154
Figure 5.1
Effects of Demographic Change on Education and Trai ning to and for the Older Adult
This diagram also identifies how the discipline of social gerontology, which is
concerned with the way in which ageing affects older people and the social structures
that surround them, encompasses human behaviour patterns, social conventions, and
government policy. Changing patterns of behaviour in work for example has the
potential to create opportunities for older workers’ education and training, where new
work roles emerge as older people adjust to new technologies, transitions to retirement,
or opportunities for knowledge sharing. Social issues such as contemporary
perspectives of successful ageing can create powerful forces that influence older
people’s activities where it is desirable to be viewed as a “successful older adult.” The
literature has shown that purposeful engagement is a cornerstone of successful ageing
and can impact on life satisfaction (Dorin, 2007) which has the potential to emphasise
older adults’ engagement in education or training. Finally, government legislation can
create opportunities for education and training, particularly where these policies affect
active citizenry, and where the role of the older adult as a productive member of society
is seen as affecting the economy.
A Case for Educational Gerontology in Adult Education
Chapter 5 155
By implication, then, these forces have the potential to impact on adult education
practices. In Figure 5.2 The Contribution of University Adult Education towards
Education to and for the Older Adult illustrates the range of possible strategies that
Adult Education might adopt as a response to an ageing population.
Figure 5.2
The Contribution of University Adult Education towa rds Education to and for the Older
Adult
These strategies can be applied externally and involve community and other
stakeholders, institutionally where students become skilled in understanding older adults
as learners and skilled in geragogical techniques, and internally in the form of staff
development. It has been argued that by advancing educational gerontology, which is
“the study of how and why older adults learn; an interface between adult education and
social gerontology” (Moseley & Dessinger, 2007, p. 334), university adult education can
play a vital role in assisting older adult reach their potential.
It is within this conceptual framework, developed from the literature, that the key
findings to this study are presented.
A Case for Educational Gerontology in Adult Education
Chapter 5 156
5.3 Key Findings
In investigating evidence of educational gerontology, this study has found:
� There is little to no evidence of educational gerontology activities or
strategies within participating Adult Education programs and Ageing
Research Centres;
� There is little to no evidence of social structures within participating Adult
Education and Ageing Research locations that support the advancement of
educational gerontology.
In examining the capacity for educational gerontology, results indicate:
� Some personal capacity exists within participating Adult Education academics and
Ageing Research Centre Directors for the advancement of educational gerontology;
� There is currently limited organisational capacity within participating Adult
Education and Ageing Research respondents to advance educational gerontology;
� The professional capacity to apply educational gerontology within participating
Adult Education and Ageing Research settings is hindered by a range of internal and
external factors.
In determining curriculum elements necessary to advance educational gerontology,
the study has found:
� Adult Education programs represented in this study can be enhanced by including
educational gerontology constructs;
� Ageing Research Centres represented in this study can be enhanced by professional
development that introduces educational gerontology to their staff and client base.
5.4 Discussion
5.4.1 Evidence of Educational Gerontology
While the overarching philosophy of educational gerontology is that of advocacy for the
improvement of older adults’ lives, educational gerontology can be operationalised
through a variety of adult education activities. Firstly, teaching instructional processes
relevant to geragogy would provide evidence of an educational gerontology orientation,
A Case for Educational Gerontology in Adult Education
Chapter 5 157
together with the creation of age-friendly learning environments. Other activities include
training programs for internal staff development and to benefit older adults directly, and
participation in ageing educational research all represent the variety of educational
gerontology applications which might emanate from adult education. This research
investigated whether evidence of these activities could be found in the two research
locations. The first finding generated from this investigation is that:
Finding One:
There is little to no evidence of educational gerontology activities or strategies within
participating Adult Education programs and Ageing Research Centres
This finding means that details about the inherent activities in educational gerontology
as noted by Engelbrecht (2006), Findsen (2006), Ilmarinen (2005), Lumsden (1985) and
Withnall and Percy (1994) do not exist in Adult Education programs and Ageing
Research Centres, based on the data provided by the respondents for this investigation.
The range of potential educational gerontology activities and strategies drawn from the
literature include:
� internal staff development,
� ageing educational research,
� the creation of age-friendly learning environments, and
� the development of curriculum or programs to and for the older adult learner.
The literature has indicated that economic implications of an ageing population
are undeniable and inevitable. However, as more adults’ age, additional lifecycle
dimensions such as educational activities, retirement patterns, savings patterns and
leisure activities will become more apparent (Bloom & Canning, 2006). This social
upheaval has been the driving force behind the development of the emerging discipline
of social gerontology (Hooyman & Kiyak, 2002). However, in addition to obvious
behavioral changes, new conceptualisations of old age where the older adult is viewed in
a biopsychosocial framework (Whitbourne, 2001) and where active ageing is the goal
(Herzog & House, 1991), has altered the way older adults and their learning is viewed.
A Case for Educational Gerontology in Adult Education
Chapter 5 158
For example, while older learners are acknowledged as experiencing some sensory
decline (Albinet et al., 2007), this is tempered with the growing recognition that learning
can be achieved through adaptive strategies and can even delay cognitive decline
(Schneider, 2003). Purposeful mental engagement can also contribute to a sense of well-
being and improve health outcomes (Wahrendorf et al., 2006). Seen together, this can
only be described as a rapid expansion of synthesised, interdisciplinary knowledge
relevant to the education of older adults. This study has argued that educational
gerontology, which has emerged as an outcome of this synthesized approach, is an
appropriate theoretical platform from which to develop adult educators to better meet
emerging older adult learning needs.
It is therefore concerning that the findings of this study reveal that no internal
staff development regarding older adults is evident in the participating Adult Education
settings. There is also no evidence of ageing educational research. This indicates that in
these settings there exists a serious delay in acknowledgement of this growing body of
content in accepting the need for a wider disciplinary perspective and in understanding
the applicability of this information to effective instruction for older adults. It is
essential therefore that future staff development seminars or focus groups be developed
to introduce concepts that extend adult education programs by integrating with other
disciplines including gerontology and social gerontology. Collaborative research
projects between Adult Education and other ageing-related disciplines can expand
knowledge of ageing, introduce innovative ways to approach challenges, and by
implication, serve as a university role model in community social development. Of
particular importance to Adult Education staff development programs, is the inclusion of
the concept of geragogy and its relationship to effective learning environments because
it automatically provides a focus for older adult learners.
Geragogy
Geragogical strategies are focused specifically on process strategies for the older adult
(John, 1988) and represent a move beyond strategies in adult learning, or andragogy
(Knowles, 1980). Justifying the need for a more focused treatment of older adult
education, Cusack (1999) states that “we agree that teaching older adults is qualitatively
A Case for Educational Gerontology in Adult Education
Chapter 5 159
different from teaching adults, because the social circumstances and developmental tasks
of third-age persons in today’s world are unique” (p. 22).
The findings of this study indicate that no identifiable geragogical strategies are
evident within participating university Adult Education programs. Results indicate that
there is little understanding of this concept or the range of activities associated with the
practice. This is an important finding, as knowledge and understanding of the range of
strategies underpinning geragogy is central to older adult learning, and underpins future
professional development to adult educators in community and workplace settings. It is
essential therefore that Adult Education academics attend to staff development in order
to acquire skills that enable the incorporation of geragogical strategies into their
programs that change social attitudes and behaviours towards older workers, address
political disincentives to work and tailor skill development activities for the mature-aged
to suit their circumstances (Thomson et al., 2005).
This assertion is supported by Ilarinen’s (2005) view that the general ageing of
the working individual requires specialist knowledge and understanding to support older
workers’ learning. It is a point further confirmed by the statement that older adults
possess different characteristics to general adults (Cusack, 1999; Tornstam, 2005). These
unique differences can include particular stages of life and resultant spiritual philosophy
(Tornstam, 2005), the extent of decline is some sensory areas (OECD, 2006), the
participation in transitionary career phases (Moseley & Dessinger, 2007), an outlook
affected by ageism (Thornton, 2002) particularly in the workplace (Encel & Studencki,
2004) and the required adaptation to a knowledge economy. Furthermore, these
personal elements can be influenced by other factors such as job type, job complexity,
learning culture and stereotyping; and the construction of meaning by the older adults
can also impact on the success of training interventions (Hodkinson et al., 2007).
The findings also indicate a delay in Adult Education participants in
acknowledging or applying broader methodologies suitable for older adults as suggested
by Ilmarinen (2005) which include:
� the use of a learning strategy that scaffolds on an existing and secure layer of
competence;
A Case for Educational Gerontology in Adult Education
Chapter 5 160
� learning conditions that accommodate the senses of the ageing learner where
sensory functions deteriorate with age;
� the use of images for enhanced motivation;
� a relaxed atmosphere of mutual respect and trust; and
� a knowledge of the variety of learning styles (p. 228).
More advanced geragogical strategies are also not in evidence. For example,
findings do not reveal the application of instructional strategies such as Socratic
Dialogue (Moody, 2006), establishing a safe dialogic learning environment (Simmons,
1999) or applying multiple methods (Callahan et al., 2003) that might extend to include
a spiritual dimension (Collins et al., 2007). The paucity of evidence indicating the
understanding or application of geragogical strategies within university Adult Education
programs means that undergraduate students intending to become adult educators will
not be familiar with this practice in the workplace, where older adult workers will by
implication require that the instructor (or WLP) be skilled enough to organise the
training beyond the terms of younger people (Ilmarinen, 2005; Moseley & Dessinger,
2007) and adopt a more critical orientation to adult learning (Merriam, 2004) where
“diversity is acknowledged, the status quo is challenged, inclusion is a goal, and
emancipation from oppressive social structures makes possible a context in which
learning can thrive” (Merriam, 2004, p. 213).
Geragogy therefore emphasises critical dialogue amongst older learners, provides
a platform for transactions that reflect the wisdom and contribution of the older learners
and provides outreach to all segments of the older population. For this reason, it
constitutes a valuable process tool that should form an essential part of the professional
repertoire of educators of the older adult.
Creating Age Friendly Learning Environments
The ability to create an age-friendly learning environment is also critical to older adults
and their effective engagement with learning. This is because oppressive social
structures that marginalize older adults can be exacerbated by ageist practices at work
and in learning settings. Socially and emotionally, ageism, which is defined as “a set of
A Case for Educational Gerontology in Adult Education
Chapter 5 161
beliefs, attitudes, social institutions, and acts that denigrate individuals or groups, based
on their chronological age” (Whitbourne, 2001, p. 14), is destructive and can limit the
potential of older adults as they encounter workplace transitions and intergenerational
environments. It is critical therefore that the findings of this study be used in staff
development activities to advance the understanding that organisational culture and
social structures and relations impact on the individual’s freedom, and that
emancipatory, geragogical strategies are able to remedy this by creating an environment
more aligned to older adults social settings and supportive of critical thought (Formosa,
2002). The findings of this study also have implications for future university programs
that advance the study of educational gerontology as a response to a changing audience
profile.
Educational Gerontology Programs
In tandem with the consideration of the unique characteristics of older adult learners
(Tornstam, 2005) and the achievement of inclusive, emancipative learning contexts as
described by Merriam (2004), the results of this study should act as a catalyst for the
merging of established adult education practices with contemporary older adult learning
concepts. While this may re-ignite that debate on the value of andragogy and its reliance
on atheoretical models of practice, this study has shown that the uniqueness of the older
adult is starting to be defendable. For example, the characteristics of older adult learners
identified in Chapter 2 of this study represent the beginning of a theoretical justification
for specialisation in older adult education.
Moreover, this study has shown that there is growing acknowledgement among
participating Adult Education academics that demographic changes are starting to affect
their disciplinary domains. Appreciating that training programs traditionally emerge out
of identified social needs, the changes emerging out of social upheaval as the population
ages is starting to be felt in workplaces in the face of skill shortages. This further
emphasizes the significance of the findings of this study that reveals a very low level of
familiarity with educational gerontology among Adult Education academics, because
this indicates a serious knowledge gap that hinders future curriculum development
specific to an ageing population. Such a low activity level in the area of educational
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gerontology contrasts strongly with the emerging human development needs identified
in the literature review (Baumgartner et al., 2003) and reveals poor consideration of the
socio-economic impacts of an ageing demographic (Bloom & Canning, 2006) which by
implication suggests that socio-cultural issues such as context and the learning lives of
older adult identities engaged in learning – and working – may have been overlooked in
established adult education (Hodkinson et al., 2007). These authors state that “we need
to understand adult learning as biological, cognitive, emotional and practical” (p. 15).
For this reason, adult education programs needs to extend their conceptual basis to
include a biopsychosocial perspective (Whitbourne, 2001), which by implication
requires interdisciplinary collaboration to develop university programs especially to and
for the older adult.
All of these activities are important, as contemporary literature about adult
education and educational gerontology has acknowledged that education can improve
the lives of older people through purposive learning engagement (Dorin, 2007), can
delay the onset of cognitive decline (Schneider, 2003), has been shown to improve self-
efficacy in dementia patients (Richeson et al., 2007) and is acknowledged as inevitably
being part of the life course (Settersten, 2003). Seen from the perspective of social
betterment, the knowledge gap between the academics in the area of adult education
within Australian universities, which based on the data gleaned from this research is of
substantive magnitude, is disconcerting. This position is supported by Findsen (2003)
who argues that practitioners working on behalf of or directly with older adults “have a
positive role to play in helping to demystify educational institutions and to help build
better bridges between providers of learning opportunities and older people’s daily
living routines” (p. 3).
The findings of this study therefore justify concerns about the lack of evidence of
educational gerontology in participating Adult Education programs in that, it is likely to
undermine the ability of Adult Education academics to keep abreast of the predicted
educational changes inherent in the dynamics of demographic change (Bloom &
Canning, 2006), to limit the ability of academics to prepare contemporary curriculum for
future WLPs as they encounter intergenerational workplaces (Hankin, 2005; Moseley &
Dessinger, 2007) to reduce the potential for social engagement which might directly
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benefit older adult workers and learners, and to exacerbate the structural lag (Findsen,
2003) current in Australian university Adult Education programs, curriculum and course
offerings. This finding has implications for teachers, trainers, human resource
developers, managers, supervisors, community workers, health care professionals,
researchers, and the older person whether in work or leisure settings.
Results obtained from Ageing Research Centre participants indicate that there is
also no evidence of strategies or activities that advanced an understanding of educational
gerontology in this university setting, and that there is also no evidence of activities
extending to:
� links to Adult Education programs for the purpose of advancing educational
gerontology;
� ageing educational research pertaining to older adult learning interest, styles
or needs; and
� consideration of the development of aged-specific learning environments or
instructional processes.
Finding Two:
There is little to no evidence of social structures within participating Adult Education locations
that support the advancement of educational gerontology.
Social structures are patterns of behavior and relationships (Burns, 2000) and in this
study, the behaviours and relationships within and across Adult Education programs and
Ageing Research Centres were examined to seek evidence of educational gerontology
practice. It is therefore concerning that the findings of this study reveal a significant
absence of social structures within Adult Education settings that supported or advanced
any aspect of educational gerontology. In particular, there was no evidence of structures
that support:
� private sector projects
� community education
� educational consultancy and advice
� evaluation or accreditation of educational programs;
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� information and guidance services;
� organizational policy; and
� professional development and training in the aged sector.
For this reason, it is useful to compare and contrast these findings with the results
obtained from the Ageing Research centre participants in order to identify possible
remedies to the current scenario and to illustrate how Adult Education programs might
broaden their reach. For example, results from university Ageing Research centres
yielded evidence of a variety of activities targeted towards development for and to the
older person. This included professional development programs for those active in the
aged care sector, a range of private sector projects for external clients including nursing
home sessions, and group presentations. While these structures are not directly
comparable to Adult Education, as the content of these projects was largely limited to
medical information sessions about aged care and the content was not focused on
educational issues, Adult Education can however emulate these structures as a means to
develop their own relationships to advance educational gerontology. This would be a
significant step forward in generating a more socially-responsive university presence.
For example, results indicated that numerous programs and educational materials are
being developed through participating Ageing Research centres and these are clearly
useful educational tools to promote understanding in specific health-related matters.
Information and guidance services are provided to various stakeholders that included
both internal and external audiences such as community groups and specialist care
teams, and were often initiated by health professionals for the medical, nursing or allied
health care professions. While in many instances the social structures appear to comply
with educational gerontology in that these structures support information about older
adults, they fall short of providing information relevant to the process and practice of
educating older adults, including geragogy. Conceptually, that is the established domain
of Adult Education because it is closely linked to established adult education and
lifelong learning concepts. The findings of this study illustrate how, in practical terms,
they might consider how to expand their activities to achieve this important objective.
One interesting element determined from this study was the correlation between
those Ageing Research centres reporting a high level of familiarity with educational
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gerontology and the sociological background of their Directors. While these centres had
trained health educators on staff and systematic ageing-related training and development
programs, factors emerged from these respondents that complement the influences of
social gerontology where the older individual is viewed in their unique social, emotional
and intellectual context (Withnall & Percy, 1994). On the surface, a continuum between
the types of Ageing Research centres and their potential for adopting educational
gerontology principles emerged during the analysis, largely due to the disparity in
knowledge about social gerontology among the respondents. It was therefore interesting
to find that deeper analysis of the interview transcripts revealed that a move beyond the
biomedical model into a more biopsychosocial approach may already be happening in
Ageing Research. For example, one medically-focussed Ageing Research centre has
recently been funded to research the attitudes of undergraduate medical students towards
geriatrics, to determine the attitudes towards that area of medicine. The centre Director
described it thus:
There’s other training programs that are being used in the staff within the health
services and what we are going to do is looking [sic] at the attitudes before and
after the training program to see whether the program makes a difference and
also whether they need it or whether they already have the appropriate attitudes
for this area. So we’ve just got funded to do that.
[1BW0308#5]
This paradigmatic blurring does not automatically suggest that Adult Education
will become integral to this setting. This is due to the fact that biomedically-focused
Ageing Research centres reporting no knowledge of educational gerontology were also
unclear about articulating a clear pathway for the dissemination or application of
research findings useful for the professional development of educational staff or for
advancing educational gerontology. Given that this study advances the discipline and
development of educational gerontology, this finding supports the assertion that the
dissemination of research findings about ageing delivered by adult educators
knowledgeable in educational gerontology can provide a potential conduit for
transmitting groundbreaking ageing research information. This structure has
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implications for those incumbent in the aged care sector and could ultimately enhance
the educational standards across the aged care sector. Appreciating that this will have to
be driven by a quality mechanism, it is argued that the human development challenges
facing an ageing Australia outlined in Chapter 2 provide a useful starting point for
articulating how educational gerontology might be integrated into serving an expanding
aged sector. This is consistent with the findings of Glista and Petersens (2003) who
revealed that over 70% of aged sector employees surveyed admitted to needing an
update of their knowledge about ageing. This is a sentiment echoed by Long (1990) who
describes educational gerontology as “including public endeavours designed to inform
about ageing and older people, and the preparation of those who intend to work in
human services for the aged” (p. 14). This means that there exists a natural clientele for
adult educators who are skilled in educational gerontology. Such advancements will
inevitably benefit the older person, which is the cornerstone of educational gerontology.
Findings indicate however that the potential contribution of a specialist in educational
gerontology who could develop geragogical programs specifically suited to the older
adult, did not appear to yet be warranted within the Ageing Research centres. It is
possible however that the concept has not yet been fully understood. For example, when
asked if an older adult learning specialist could contribute to the health care sector, one
centre Director responded by stating:
I think there is significant scope. I think we have been far too reliant on
discipline-specific things like clinical nurse educators. I think that kind of
specialist you are talking about could lend itself very well to how to apply that
kind of educational gerontology. That would be very good. I think the question
comes down to that it would have to be done on a consultancy basis, because I
am not sure if health services are ready to provide resources for that, but having
said that they are very keen to bring in consultants. I just don’t think they quite
understand it… uumm I think that’s the issue.
[10SD1210#14]
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5.4.2 Summary
Data from Ageing Research centre Directors indicate a limitation in expertise in areas
specific to educational gerontology—older adult learning, geragogy, and in some cases
social gerontology. Information from this study shows that within the majority of the
Ageing Research centres, there exists a strong focus on aged care and nursing and health
educators are deemed sufficiently skilled for these current purposes. On the other hand,
Australian university Adult Education programs possess a substantial knowledge base
around adult learning, lifelong learning and VET, and offer a solid educational basis on
which to build upon and offer studies in educational gerontology. Australian Adult
Education academics however appear not to have kept pace with advancing their
understanding of older adult learners and the relevance of ageing educational concepts,
educational psychology or lifespan theory linked to educational gerontology programs
and relevant to older adult education. Moreover, there is little indication that the older
adult learner has been identified as different to an adult learner in either settings and
there is no indication that traditional adult education concepts have been extended to
incorporate educational gerontology principles such as empowerment or critical
geragogy. Moreover, while it appears that the Australian Ageing Research centres are
involved in training and the professional preparation of those working in aged care,
results from this study show that there remains a propensity to advance and adhere to
medical-type training in which information and reference to care and treatment prevails
as opposed to educational preparation for the purposes of working for and engaging with
older people.
To conclude the discussion regarding evidence of educational gerontology in
Adult Education university programs and Ageing Research centres, a comparison of the
results of this study against the work of Findsen (2003) is warranted, due to this author’s
consistent argument for a more robust professional educational response to the ageing
population. He articulates seven penetrating questions for adult education providers and
agencies to address and they include:
� What do you know about the life patterns and learning opportunities for older
adults in your vicinity?
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� What is the responsibility of your agency to helping meeting the learning
needs of older adults?
� What do you really know about the older adult clientele attending your
programmes?
� Are any older adults involved in helping plan your provision?
� Does the existing programme reflect interests and needs of older adults in
your community?
� Have any programmes been planned in association with agencies which work
more closely with older people?
� Are there any statements of policy developed by your organisation about the
learning needs of older adults? (p. 10)
Considering the relevance and applicability of these questions in relation to this
study, and the data generated through this research, it is argued that currently within
Australian Adult Education programs and Ageing Research centres there exists a
significant lag in both locations’ professional response to advancing the study of
educational gerontology. Moreover, the details obtained from this study indicate a
wealth of data substantiating this position.
While this assertion does not suggest that it is a situation that cannot be altered,
the study is advancing that it is time to start addressing this significant lag in knowledge,
understanding and application of educational gerontology given the significant
influences of the changes in Australian demographics (Access Economics, 2001; Bloom
& Canning, 2006; Jorgensen, 2004; Thomson et al., 2005), the subsequent training skills
required of workplace learning and performance practitioners (WLPs) (Ilmarinen, 2005;
Moseley & Dessinger, 2007), and the predicted training needs of those incumbent in
allied health professions (Glista & Petersons, 2003) as our knowledge of ageing
expands. Findings also substantiate the call for a deeper consideration of the moral
imperative underpinning educational gerontology due to the empirical link between
social engagement, learning and ageing well (Bowling, 2007; Collins et al., 2007) and
the health implications of purposive intellectual engagement and increase in life
satisfaction (Dorin, 2007).
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5.4.3 Capacity for Educational Gerontology
The literature provides a strong theoretical case for the integration of adult education and
educational gerontology content in Australian adult education university programs. This
program development, given the details from this study, could result in an innovative
interdisciplinary program that extends adult education into a specialist educational
gerontology area. This is a logical merger of the two different areas of study pertaining
to adults, due to the existence of foundational knowledge in adult education principles
and processes and the rapid increase in knowledge about ageing held in gerontology
programs proliferating overseas (Howe, 1990) and within Australian Ageing Research
centres. However, to determine exactly where the capacity might exist for such an
initiative, and to identify potential for knowledge-sharing and collaboration, the second
research question for this study investigated:
� What capacity exists in these two domains (Adult Education programs and
Ageing Research centres) for the advancement or application of educational
gerontology principles?
The incorporation of educational gerontology in Australian university adult
education programs necessitates a significant shift in approach to traditional adult
education and will require interdisciplinary collaboration (Hooyman & Kiyak, 2002).
This shift will require some review of current curriculum content and learning processes.
Respondents in this study indicated however that there exist both internal and external
barriers and enablers to this specialist area becoming a reality, a situation that emerged
as more complex than first anticipated. This complexity made an evaluation of capacity
a difficult task. To address this, the combined data from both research locations was
applied against a range of capacities, including internal capacity (personal beliefs,
knowledge and attitudes), organizational capacity (mission, goals and plans) and
external capacity (links to community and other stakeholder groups). Finally, to provide
a wider context to establishing educational gerontology capacity, the challenges of
higher education within an ageing demographic are addressed together with a
consideration of the broad, and conflicting social theories of ageing currently in play in
Australia.
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Finding Three:
Personal capacity exists within participating Adult Education Academics and Ageing Research
Centre Directors for the advancement of educational gerontology
In discussing the internal capacity of the participants for incorporating educational
gerontology into their programs and organisational activities, the findings revealed a
consistent theme amongst all of the participants from both research data collection sites.
All of the respondents indicated that they had a deep held respect for older adults and a
substantial belief in the worth and value associated with older adults’ learning and
development. In addition, all of the participants in the research displayed a genuine
interest in older adults, and their role and contribution to the social well-being of older
people was revealed as a strong motivating factor for working with older people. This is
a significant finding, because it suggests that the participants in this study possess a
positive foundation for the advancement of educational gerontology and its philosophy.
Practically, the purpose of educational gerontology is ameliorative: to prevent
premature decline, to facilitate meaningful roles and to encourage psychological growth.
Conceptually, it focuses on the cognitive changes that occur throughout later life, the
resultant instructional changes that emerge in adaptation to these changes, and the
motivational factors determining participation and non-participation by older learners
(Petersen, in Glendenning, 2001).
Motivation
In terms of motivation towards educational gerontology by participants in this study,
Hiemstra (2002) regards personal philosophy as fundamental to educational
gerontology, a view that is further justified when linked to the increasing awareness that
successful ageing is an integral part of lifelong learning. It is important then that the
results of this study are also situated within broader lifelong learning approaches. This is
because results of this study indicate that among the participants there exists some
confusion about the relationship between lifelong learning as a system, and educational
gerontology as a practice. It is suggested therefore that the findings of this study can
further delineate between these two paradigms by emphasizing the specific focus of
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educational endeavours for the benefit of the older adult and by proposing how it might
rest within a broader lifelong learning system. Adult Education participants expressed
significant knowledge about their educational sectors, including TAFE, VET and online
education, and it is asserted here that is imperative to understand where educational
gerontology rests within this network of highly sectorised systems so that it might be
effectively adopted.
Nevertheless, all of the interview participants agreed with the human
development principles of educational gerontology, and some adult education academics
expressed regret in having overlooked the significance of this emerging field in teaching
programs and curriculum review processes. This is evidenced by the following
comment:
Particularly since you sent out this survey it’s made me think quite deeply about
these issues and it has been in my thoughts in a number of other areas and I have
thought “Why don’t we? Absolutely. Why don’t we do something about this?”
[7PR0210#4]
Educational Background
In addition to the contribution that a person’s belief and value system might make to
generating capacity for educational gerontology, it is also crucial to have a well-
developed understanding and appreciation of the study of adult education. As expected,
respondents from Adult Education university programs articulated the concept of self-
directed learning and Malcolm Knowles’ (Knowles, 1980) principles of adult education
in their responses to the interview. However, findings reveal that personal motivation
and adult education knowledge may not be enough for a career in educational
gerontology. Ilmarinen (2005) considers that “the instructors of ageing employees are
required to have special competence related to ageing and learning” (p. 226). Evidence
of this special competence was found in some Ageing Research centres where some
respondents held multi-disciplinary qualifications. For example, one respondent had
achieved postgraduate qualifications in both Nursing and Education, another had
qualifications in Law and Education and the third had completed studies in Pastoral Care
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and Adult Education. This highlights a significant finding of this study that has
implications for generating educational gerontology capacity in adult education: the
propensity for biomedical research and health education is more prevalent and marked
among the Ageing Research centre participants. This undoubtedly represents a potential
limitation of career opportunities for adult educators who do not possess health-related
or gerontology knowledge to transfer across into these settings. While this professional
distance could create a tension between the disciplines, it also represents an opportunity
for knowledge-sharing and professional development for both areas, particularly where
knowledge gaps are a barrier to educational gerontology becoming a reality in
Australian universities. It is interesting to note therefore that this potential barrier was
negated by the responses from centres displaying a social gerontology focus, where
some recognition of the contribution that educational gerontology could make to their
future goals exists, indicating some future potential activity in this area. It is therefore
interesting to note that this finding is consistent with Lowenstein (2004) who asserts that
social gerontology is at the point of becoming a distinct academic discipline overseas
because of its accumulating knowledge base and the increasing number of academic
programs offering postgraduate degrees in Applied Gerontology. This investigation
advances that Australian universities should focus on this interdisciplinary development
as a means to improve their internal capacity in the emerging field of educational
gerontology.
Internal resources underpinning personal capacity, such as an understanding of
Adult Education, therefore already exist in Adult Education Academics and in some
Ageing Research centre Directors, and this provides a suitable springboard from which
educational gerontology might be launched. This finding therefore supports the
argument that the advancement of educational gerontology could augment the offerings
across both these university settings, further justifying its advancement as an area of
Adult Education specialization.
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Finding Four:
There is currently limited organisational capacity within participating Adult Education and
Ageing Research respondents to advance educational gerontology
Appreciating that an overarching organisational/institutional strategy typically
influences the range of activities that are undertaken in any given organisation, it is
reasonable to assert that these same strategies will also impact on the organisational
capacity for educational gerontology. In order to advance the study of educational
gerontology in Australian university Adult Education programs and Ageing Research
centres, there is a need to establish a strategic plan which is cognisant of the sociological
influence of education on older adults, and in particular a mission statement in
appreciation of the role of universities as sites of education, citizenship and social justice
(Winter et al., 2006). It is of concern therefore to report that the findings in this study do
not reveal any ageing-relevant organisational/institutional strategy in place in adult
education responses; rather the reality of an organisational strategy appeared to be far
removed from the day-to-day adult education activities and programs currently offered.
One explanation for this outcome may be associated with recognition that the
participating Adult Education academics did not have a ready knowledge of their
specific overarching institutional strategy. Obviously there are implications from this
outcome, particularly where the link between education, civic engagement and social
betterment needs to be strengthened as the population ages (Bowling, 2007;
Hammersley, 1992). This is an important finding because education is a crucial element
in an ageing demographic, particularly seen from the ideal model of successful ageing.
Successful ageing is multi-disciplinary and accommodates sensitivities to differences in
cultural values, life events such as work and retirement, and the range of opportunities to
age successfully (Bowling, 2007; Wahrendorf et al., 2006). A lack of organizational
strategy is therefore of concern as it suggests the existence of a potential age structure
which is defined by Findsen (2006) thus: “Age structures lag behind changes in people’s
lives, resulting in a dialectic whereby social structures, norms, organisations and
institutions have failed to keep pace with what people actually do in their lives” (p. 3).
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Another explanation for this age structure could be found in top-down
hierarchical structures typical in Australian universities where more strategic decisions
are made by senior Faculty and university administrators in isolation of the individual
program academic. While a discussion of the management structures of Australian
universities are beyond the scope of this study, it is interesting to note the comment of
one Adult Education respondent who stated:
I mean universities are great places for ignorance in spite of the fact that we are
supposed to be enlightened and on the pulse but some questions I think we don’t
ask, and that’s [educational gerontology] one of them, and there are several other
questions I don’t think universities ask about their staff or where they’re going
with their programs. But certainly, broadly, across universities, I don’t think
there’s any actual commitment there [ageing], I don’t see any policies or practice
within our university at the moment.
[7PR0210#17]
In contrast, respondents from the Ageing Research centres involved in this study
showed that there was a close connection to the mission and goals of their organisation,
and this framed (and channelled) the activities of each research organisation. While
these missions and goals were particular to each respondent, it must be noted that
funding and its continuation clearly directed the Ageing Research centre activities,
collaborations and industry involvement. Recognising the influence of funding allowed
for an appreciation that it was therefore not surprising that Ageing Research centre
participants gave limited credence to the role that educational researchers might perform
in ageing research due to the propensity for funding to be awarded for health-related
research. The results from this study have noted that there is a direct focus on
biomedical issues in most Ageing Research centres which negates to a certain degree
any consideration of collaboration and joint applied research with Adult Education for
the betterment of older adults. This is supported by Winter et al. (2002) who write that
“applied research is outcome-directed with tangible benefits to communities” (p. 217).
This biomedical orientation to ageing research is of concern as the application of ageing
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research findings is regarded as fundamental to improving the lives of older people, a
view supported by Thornton (2002) who writes:
Academic and policy studies are seriously needed about education of and for an
ageing population, and about change in social institutions to minimize
institutional lag while maximizing sense of community. Studies in educational
gerontology and “critical gerontology” must be included in multi-disciplinary
studies about ageing. (p. 311)
This comment can be seen as a significant in relation to the findings of this
study. It also raises concerns because social gerontology is about how the older
population is affected by the social structure (Hooyman, & Kiyak, 2002), and it also
represents the origin of the development of the study of educational gerontology. While
acknowledging that health care is naturally bounded by ethical and medical parameters,
a health system that is too tightly bound has the potential to contradict the application of
more empowering or integrative educational strategies for older adults where “freedom
to engage in critical thought” is an overarching purpose (Formosa, 2002). Moreover,
Bowling (2007) describes the ideal model of successful ageing as being multi-
disciplinary, and one which accommodates sensitivities to differences in cultural values,
life events such as work and retirement and the range of opportunities to age
successfully. Educational gerontology supports successful ageing, and based on the
findings of this study that indicate the internal capacity exists for educational
gerontology to be applied, there is no reason why such a biopsychosocial approach
(Whitbourne, 2001) cannot be applied to the biomedical participants serving the aged
sector.
In terms of organizational leadership, the participants in this study were aligned
towards either the fulfillment of basic adult education program objectives (e.g.
preparation of TAFE teachers) or specific health-related research initiatives (e.g. mental
health research). There was no evidence of interdisciplinary innovations or research
initiatives. It is therefore of concern that Adult Education university participants in this
study reported that the lack of power or authority was a limiting factor in their adoption
of new curriculum or commencement of adult education research initiatives.
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Funding allocations, grant application processes and higher education reform
across Australia must also be acknowledged as having a potential impact on the
availability of organisational resources for research at the nexus of ageing and education.
Appreciating this situation, the results gleaned from this study found that coincidentally,
two long-standing Ageing Research centres located in universities closed shortly after
the completion of this study due to rationalisation and a lack of Faculty and
administrative support. It is of concern that neither of these centres that closed was bio-
medically focused. Significantly, they were both aligned with social gerontology: one
was concerned with ageing and retirement, and the other focused on ageing and social
change. Closure of centers within this discipline will weaken future research efforts into
the emerging social needs that arise as the population ages, and the findings of this study
therefore suggest caution by policymakers and strategic decision-makers against further
erosion of social gerontology efforts.
Other organisational/institutional university constraints impinging on the
capacity for educational gerontology included the problems associated with geographical
distance—this study found that this problem was particularly evident for regional
universities that supported a large distance education program. Generally, these
participants perceived that their isolation reduced the ability to engage across
disciplines. In addition to this isolation, Adult Education academics reported a slow and
lengthy curriculum review process adhered to by university administration, and it was
held that this problem had the potential to worsen the lag in institutional reactions to an
ageing society. These findings have therefore identified a range of unexpected systemic
barriers that will need to be overcome to advance educational gerontology.
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Finding Five:
The professional capacity of Adult Education academics to apply educational gerontology is
limited by a range of internal and external factors
Based on the findings discussed earlier, it could be argued that educational gerontology
requires an enhanced, more professional profile in order to achieve institutional and
industry recognition and policy relevance. It is likely that this could occur through
professional development, in-house training, and ageing-relevant seminars. However, to
specifically examine the findings of this study relevant to professional capacity
underpinning educational gerontology, it is useful to draw from the work of Stark,
Lowther and Hagerty (1987) who described six stages that have occurred in the process
of professional development of gerontology education. While not exactly applicable to
educational gerontology, these are recognised steps towards professionalisation of a new
content area and can be applied effectively to determine the stage at which educational
gerontology, a component of gerontology education, might currently reside. These
professional development stages include:
1. Apprenticeship (where there exists recognition of a need for specialised
services) where content experts conduct their own informal apprenticeships
and where serious novices move into leadership roles;
2. The generation of knowledge (usually purposeful, but non-credit
instruction in the form of workshops and training sessions) that is
inevitably overtaken by an expanding body of knowledge;
3. The classification of knowledge (development of units for systematic
teaching, categorisation of knowledge and ultimately part of higher
education itself);
4. The teaching of the knowledge (usually a short-term remedy that overlooks
underlying concepts and principles);
5. Formalisation of teaching (development of degree or certificate programs
that identify social norms and values that need to be addressed in the
curriculum); and
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6. Improvement of the profession. For educational gerontology to ultimately
be regarded as a profession, it would attract and retain full-time
practitioners, receive sponsorship and funding, be fed through a growing
body of literature, be developed through numerous training programs
across universities, and represented through academic journals (p. 242).
When comparing these elements as a professionalisation framework against the
findings of this study, it is clear that educational gerontology is in its early
developmental stages as a formalised area of study particularly in Australian university
adult education. The results of this study therefore justify the argument that social
forces associated with an ageing population (Bloom & Canning, 2006) require a
compression of this developmental time frame as a means to overcoming a disciplinary
lag. One initial strategy effective in developing the field of educational gerontology
could be the collaboration between Adult Educators and external stakeholders.
Collaboration of this kind however requires an availability of external capacity.
In analysing the external capacity for educational gerontology, there was
evidence of some Adult Education academics engaging in limited interactions with older
community groups, such as local writing associations. This engagement suggests an
increase in their perceptions of the needs of the older person. The results from this study
however noted that no Adult Education academics were involved in any ageing-related
lobby group or professional body, nor were they involved in any local or international
ageing research collaboration. There has been a strong move in Australian universities
to establish affiliations and interactions with external groups because they are seen as
being a valuable source of information for educationalists and strengthen the perception
of their contribution to the local community (Queensland University of Technology
[QUT], 2007). Advancing this community engagement represents a rich opportunity for
Australian university Adult Education programs to make a wider social contribution by
assisting with regional development and supporting skill development initiatives. This
also has the potential to increase the yield in human capital through investment in
education and training (Gunasekara, 2004) where universities should strive to be “a
campus that is newly-committed to serving the communities and constituencies that
surround and support it” (Ward, 2003, p. 15).
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It is interesting to note that the Ageing Research centres who contributed to this
study reported involvement in a wide range of external associations that included policy-
makers, government departments, health agencies, and community groups, and while
these may ultimately have specific educational outputs of benefit to the older Australian,
these associations do not advance educational gerontology specifically.
The findings of this study therefore identified an overwhelming disparity
between Adult Education programs and Ageing Research centres in their interaction
with ageing-relevant external groups. This is a significant finding because closer
education-community interaction is a cornerstone of educational gerontology as it
extends the potential for empowerment of older people irrespective of the learning
context and advances the humanist role of universities in local communities thereby
contributing to the general betterment of society. This assertion is supported by Winter
et al. (2006) who note that community engagement is a recognised university strategy in
promoting citizenship and social responsibility and is evidence of their commitment to
social equity (Ward, 2003). Making university resources (knowledge, skills and
practical resources) available to support marginalised groups is one activity that would
be helpful for advancing the discipline of education gerontology, but Australian
institutions have a “relatively understated commitment to values such as citizenship”
(Winter et al., 2006, p. 225).
Therefore, this finding requires that universities move beyond a purely
functionalist role where education is assessed on functional outcomes (e.g. reproductive
or economically-driven) as dictated by democratic capitalism (Kempner & Taylor,
1998), and into a role of promoting “active citizenry” (p. 301). In such an approach, the
value of higher education is to be found in how well it facilitates students to function
within a democratic society, particularly where those students might positively influence
“individuals who do not share the dominant culture or who are not active participants in
the private market sector of the global economy” (p. 302). It is argued here that older
adults fit this category based on ongoing ageism and socio-political manoeuvres that
erode power in older adults. The lack of community engagement by participating Adult
Education academics reported in this study advances the argument that the isolationist
approach of universities is no longer appropriate given the social needs that are
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emerging, the ageing of the workforce, and the increasing interest of business, public
administration and service industries in ageing and the market it represents (Ward,
2003). Moreover, DEST (2002) describes one of the purposes of higher education as
“fulfilling significant functions in our society” (DEST, 2005, p. 1) with the requirements
that
…institutions should add value to and enrich Australian society, culture and the
economy. There is an expectation that in their role as caretakers, creators and
transmitters of knowledge, higher education institutions will add value to
individuals and to the society in which they are a part. (p. 2)
Institutions do not operate in a vacuum; they need to respond to dynamic social
change and reflect the values of the community in which they operate. Therefore, this
finding adds impetus to the requirement that institutions will be equitable, responsive,
diverse, and innovative as they face new and changing environments (p. 2). This is a
significant social role. Ward (2003), in sketching the roles that faculty might perform in
areas outside of the traditional university domains, states that it is not only external
forces that will generate pressure to reconsider its position in society. The emergence of
a more developmental and multidisciplinary model of ageing in society (Bowling, 2007)
will inevitably add impetus to this adaptation. The findings of this study reveal therefore
that Adult Education programs do not yet indicate an appropriate degree of adaptation to
an ageing population, particularly in their capacity to engage with external stakeholders.
5.4.4 Summary
In examining the capacity of Adult Education programs to advance educational
gerontology, this study determined that there is a distinct knowledge gap of educational
gerontology amongst Adult Education academics that limits their immediate capacity for
incorporating fundamental older adult learning principles into current programs.
However, this is mitigated by the existence of a positive internal capacity from which to
launch educational gerontology, in the form of established adult education concepts and
an educational philosophy widely consistent with empowerment of the older person as
learner. In addition, findings indicate strong support for the ameliorative principles of
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educational gerontology and for collaborative research efforts with ageing researchers.
However, examination of the external capacity underpinning educational gerontology
reveals that the lack of a specific geragogical strategy undermines any likely ageing-
related interdisciplinary collaborations, as do institutional rigidities such as lack of
authority and lengthy curriculum review processes. Furthermore, findings suggest that
funding allocations, the grant application process, geographical isolation, heavy
workloads, and current higher education reform contrive to undermine capacity by
making ageing-relevant resources difficult to achieve. This has implications for extra-
curricular activities of adult education academics as they engage with external
stakeholders such as community groups or associations for the purpose of development
of the older person.
5.5 The Wider Context
In analysing the impact of the wider social context on the capacity for universities to
advance educational gerontology, it is important to examine the political agendas
underpinning the ageing population. This is an integral step in the process underpinning
curriculum development (Print, 1987) which is recognized as a significant step towards
advancing educational gerontology as a professional area of study (Stark et al., 1987).
In Australia, the ageing population has resulted in changes to superannuation
legislation, workplace reform and anti-discrimination legislation (McIntyre, 2005). In
addition, various reports have been published that outline strategies for education and
training and for valuing and investing in people, and include “Keeping Older Workers in
Work” (Department of Ageing, 2003) and “The Ageing Population: Implications for the
Australian Workforce” (Jorgensen, 2004). However, details found in this study show
that the cascading effect of these ageing-related documents on either day-to-day
activities or on the generation of organisational capacity have not yet reached these
participants. It is likely therefore that it is the impact of higher education reform in
operation since 2002 which is a primary obstacle in advancing educational gerontology.
The need to sustain competitiveness and counteract the pressures associated with
globalisation and the knowledge economy has overtaken issues that concern society and
the needs of marginalised groups such as the aged. This indicates a stagnant
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functionalism (Powell, 2001) or acquiescent functionalism (Townsend, 1981) in which
the causes of problems with ageing are “attributed to difficulties in individual
adjustment to ageing, retirement of physical decrescence, all the while acquiescing to the
states, the economy and inequality” (Townsend, 1980, p. 6).
If such a declinist approach is combined with a political economy view of
ageing, it will do little justice to the treatment of non-economic, personal and social
benefits attributed to lifelong learning. This might in some part be attributed to an
overlap or interconnection of social theories of ageing which are emerging as
contradictory as the social changes associated with an ageing population are manifested.
For example, while older adults are expected to operate in a functionalist role (Powell,
2001) on the basis of an political economy of ageing (Walker, 2005) where productivity
is paramount (Elsey, 1986; Lear, 2004), this has the effect of homogenising older people
(Walker, 2005) which is contradictory to the growing recognition that choice in career
decisions such as retirement and a greater consideration of purpose underpinning social
engagement is fundamental to successful ageing (Bowling, 2007). This author states
that a developmental focus encapsulates six criteria necessary for meeting the challenges
in older age, which include “positive interactions with others; a sense of purpose;
autonomy; self-acceptance; personal growth; and environmental fit” (p. 270).
The ideal model of successful ageing is a multi-disciplinary one that
accommodates sensitivities to differences in cultural values, life events such as work and
retirement, and the range of opportunities to age successfully (Bowling, 2007). The
findings of this study clearly indicate however that this more holistic view of older adult
learners has not been formulated in Australian university programs participating in this
study. As Findsen (2003) states, some higher education ageing policy has allowed “the
instrumental purpose of education to take precedence over the expressive” (p. 3).
Interdisciplinary collaboration is a key element in establishing and advancing
educational gerontology practice, particularly as it spans both adult education and social
gerontology disciplines. This study’s investigation into the degree to which
collaboration occurred between the Adult Education academics and Ageing Research
center Directors identified contextual barriers to collaboration with other disciplines.
For example, localised barriers to advancing educational gerontology through
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collaboration include issues such as lack of authority, the need for a shared interest with
other collaborators, interpersonal issues, personal workload, and resources such as
funding, the inclusion of broader contextual issues such as institutional rigidity and the
lack of interest or commitment from the university administration. The identification of
these elements reinforces and justifies the value of this investigation and highlights the
need for attention to these areas by universities because it is an appropriate response to
social change.
Other contextual influences relevant to the advancement of educational
gerontology included pressure from industry stakeholders and business associations
which can lead to the potential for over-emphasis on productivity-related curriculum
decisions (Kuchinke, 2000). This situation is critical to the advancement of educational
gerontology due to the fact that universities are recognised as having a key contribution
to make in meeting the needs of local communities through curriculum design and
content (Winter et al., 2006). While it is acknowledged that specific institutional
structures mediate the relationships between academics and the society that supports
them, this study shows that there is a need for the integration of gerontological
knowledge into a general understanding by organisations regarding the field of ageing
(Howe, 1990). This study has shown that such a curriculum does not yet exist in
Australian Adult Education programs.
The predominance of ageing programs that are linked to the medical model
should not be underestimated as an obstacle to the future of educational gerontology in
adult education as health issues increase in prominence as the population ages. This is
noted by Howe (1990) who reports that geriatric medicine programs have already been
extended to include sociologists and psychologists on the academic staff. In addition,
the presence of ageism in society has the potential to discourage educational gerontology
curriculum policy efforts. However it may be that the realities associated with the
general ageing of the workforce across academic and health-related professions might
reduce this damaging practice (Friedsam & Martin, 1980).
Professional and operational relationships between university Faculties, the
employment marketplace for graduates, and the infancy of educational gerontology as a
specialist field all represent further obstacles towards formulating an educational
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response to the ageing population. This study has revealed that while not
insurmountable these are real challenges that exist. Unfortunately, the sectorisation of
Australia’s education and training system and its Federal-State divisions also represent
obstacles to widening lifelong learning opportunities (McIntyre, 2005) and might
exacerbate competition among the various post-compulsory education providers.
Collectively, these contextual factors have the potential to hinder the
development of educational gerontology as an area of specialisation and to retard its
advancement within established adult education programs. However, equally powerful
but less obvious forces such as demographics, social change, workplace pressures,
democracy, citizenship (Winter et al., 2006) and the increasing value of human capital
(Gunasekara, 2004) represent a significant counterbalancing force that is likely to add
impetus to education and training activities (Bloom & Canning, 2006) and will by
implication support the advancement of adult education specific to older Australians.
Despite the data from this study that reveals a paucity of evidence of educational
gerontology in Adult Education programs, the implications of the data from this study
justify the position that, at the very least, recognition of the need for a suitable response
in respect of the education of older adults now exists.
5.6 Advancing Educational Gerontology Curriculum
In determining curriculum elements necessary to advance educational gerontology, the
study has found:
Finding Six:
Adult Education programs represented in this study can be enhanced by a review and
restructure of existing curriculum to include elements of educational gerontology that consider
issues to and for older adults
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In addition to discipline-based curriculum review, this study has found that:
Finding Seven:
Educational capacity within Ageing Research Centres represented in this study can be enhanced
by participating in professional development activities that introduce educational gerontology
concepts to and for the older adult
The findings of this study reveal a significant lack of knowledge about educational
gerontology constructs and of the breadth and scope of educational endeavours to and
for older adults. Without a comprehensive understanding of this emerging specialisation,
it is unlikely that effective older adult learning will be achieved out in the field. This
study has shown that it is a situation that has implications for professional development
of adult education academics, workplace learning and performance practitioners and
those involved in health education.
To commence curriculum development activities for new programs, Print (1987)
states that development should begin with the conceptualisation of content across
numerous domains, a process referred to as curriculum presage (p. 48). Curriculum
presage involves consideration of those activities and forces that influence curriculum
decision-making tasks and is described as “those basic forces that shape the minds of the
curriculum developers” (p. 48).
There are three sources that can inform the basis of curriculum development:
philosophical concepts of the nature and value of knowledge; the studies of sociology
and culture; and studies of learners and learning theory (Print, 1987, p. 51). The
findings of this study reveal a strong support for valuing learning as experience. This
position is consistent with Dewey’s theory of learning as a social activity (Dewey,
1938). The significance of a common philosophy in advancing educational gerontology
curriculum development is highlighted in this study because it symbolises support for a
progressive educational philosophy. Progressive education is consistent with Dewey’s
concepts of the nature and value of knowledge which involves learning as a social event
(Dewey, 1938). This approach gives life to the nature of the experience where the
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quality of the experience is characterized by the following progressive education
principles:
� Expression and cultivation of individuality
� Free activity
� Learning through experience
� Acquiring skills as a means to attaining ends which make vital direct appeal
� Making the most of the opportunities of present life
� Making acquaintance with a changing world (p. 5).
A progressive educational philosophy is concerned with the nature of value
(Dewey, 1938). For the purposes of this study, it is asserted that the nature of value lies
in the quality of the learning experience of the older Australian. This position is
consistent with fundamental educational gerontology objectives including emancipation
and empowerment (Formosa, 2002) and the notion of successful ageing (Bowling,
2007). Such an axiological consideration is important in development of curriculum for
future generations or in situations where social transformation is required (Print, 1987).
It introduces the notion of ethics, the right or wrong and the good or bad as it applies to
social and human behaviour, and this justifies further the placement of concepts of
citizenship, human rights, equity and democracy within educational gerontology
curriculum, particularly where ageism is concerned (Phillipson & Biggs, 1998).
Findings in this study support the view that a curriculum that addresses ageism,
its origins and prevalence in contemporary social and community settings, is
fundamental to advancing educational gerontology. This assertion is supported by
Sheldon (1998) who developed a process to reflect on personal age bias in a lifespan
development course, and recommended that students understand how research reinforces
ageist stereotypes. Stereotypes reinforce ageist practices and erode the self-worth of
older people (T.D Nelson, 2002). Curriculum that debunks the myths of ageing can also
be useful in introducing lifespan issues such as old-old compared to the young-old, and
rethinking notions of retirement to challenge socioeconomic indicators that are
perpetuated by the media (Sheldon, 1998).
Another important element for educational gerontology curriculum development
is the clarification of practice skills necessary to engage with and provide service for
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older adults. This is significant given the poor rate of engagement with and for older
adult learners by the participants in this study. The full range and diversity of potential
clients in the aged sector cannot be overlooked, particularly as the field of ageing serves
multiple clienteles where “older people are only one of them” (Wendt & Peterson, 1993,
p. 184). It is widely acknowledged that older learners become less homogenous as they
age (Thornton, 2002), requiring a wider repertoire of practitioner skills (Moseley &
Dessinger, 2007). An appreciation of the diversity of the learning population as it
relates to education and training methodologies (Ilmarinen, 2005) is therefore also a
critical element to educational gerontology curriculum development.
Over time, as the perceptions of the societal and business benefits of older adults
begins to increase, the need for professional practitioners to acquire knowledge about
ageing and society will prevail. This position complements the purpose and influence of
this investigation. It is imperative that core educational gerontology curriculum
elements should therefore include an integration of concepts derived from social
gerontology, where the older person is viewed from a biological, psychological and
social perspective (Whitbourne, 2001) and the social structures within which they
operate (Hooyman & Kiyak, 2002), to determine an educational platform from which to
operate. A biological consideration of ageing would address how the passage of time
affects physiological systems and be useful in the development and selection of age-
friendly instructional methods and media (Victor, 2004). Psychological considerations
include mental function (Bromley, 1990) and notions of self and identity (Phillipson &
Biggs, 1998; Hodkinson et al., 2007), both highly relevant to our expanding
understandings of learning and work and the influence of relationships on learning.
Sociological understandings include the perceptions of the ageing individual learner, the
position and experience of the older learner within society and how this might be shaped
by structural forces such as class, gender and ethnicity (Whitbourne, 2001). As ideas
regarding the nature of successful ageing have developed and continue to emerge, the
importance of the social context for the shaping of the experience of old age has
assumed greater prominence (Victor, 2004). Specific social topics such as new versions
of retirement (Walker, 1996) and workplace learning in intergenerational contexts
(Hankin, 2005) are further justification for including sociological content in an
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educational gerontology curriculum framework. Understanding social theories of ageing
is therefore critical to the study of and curriculum content for educational gerontology as
it examines how social institutions respond to the increased number and visibility of
older people (Powell, 2001).
Finally, a focus on older adult learning is of paramount importance to
educational gerontology curriculum development, particularly in the professional
development of future WLPs (Moseley & Dessinger, 2007). Elements crucial to this
curriculum content include new understandings of the characteristics of the older adult
learner (Baumgartner et al., 2003; Tornstam, 2005), including the range of geragogical
methods for teaching older adults as provided by Ilmarinen (2005). Consideration of the
types of older adult learning needs, different motivations underpinning learning at an
older age, and the impact of relationships and self-identity on workplace learning
(Hodkinson et al., 2007) particularly amidst transitionary career phases, is also essential.
While educational gerontology is acknowledged as currently in an embryonic stage, it
will also be critical for older adult educators to understand the scope of future delivery
mechanisms for educational gerontology across community, workplace and higher
education sectors.
5.7 Conclusions
The changing Australian demographic, which indicates that the median age in Australia
is expected to reach 46 years by 2051 (Access Economics, 2001), adds to the
justification for focusing this research on the contribution that Adult Educators skilled in
educational gerontology might make to the lives of older people. Demographics predict
a future of enormous change where older adults will extend their working lives and
where by implication traditional notions of ageing as an inevitable process of decline
will be replaced with a focus on developmental ageing where continuity and social
engagement is highlighted to encourage well-being. Adult education is therefore
compelled to widen its theoretical basis beyond that of “the art and science of helping
adults learn” (Knowles, 1980, p. 43) to meet educational challenges inherent in an
ageing population. Making use of research effectively is critically important for the
Adult Education sector, where improving learner’s outcomes and widening participation
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is a fundamental goal, due to economic rationalization, globalization and market
influences (Hillier & Jamieson, 2003). The changes associated with demographic
change have added further impetus to research into adult education issues.
Unfortunately, research often arrives too late and by then policy in this sector has moved
on (Hillier & Jamieson, 2003). As a consequence, this renders a disservice to adult
learning generally, and misses the opportunity to “mine the rich vein of interpretive
sociology in order to provide an account of adult learning as a dialectical relationship of
human consciousness and social setting” (McIntyre, 1997, p. 297).
Details gleaned from the research methodology in conjunction with issues and
themes related to the literature on educational gerontology have determined that social
change has not yet been translated into educational practices developed specifically for
the older adult, leading to the development of research to:
a) Seek evidence of educational gerontology activities in Adult Education
programs in Australian university Adult Education Faculties and Schools,
and Ageing Research Centres;
b) Investigate the current capacity of Australian universities to advance
educational gerontology in Adult Education programs; and
c) Develop a framework for educational gerontology curriculum elements to
extend current Adult Education programs.
Drawing from the results of this research it can be concluded that:
� Adult Education programs in Australian universities have not responded to
an ageing population through the development of programs and activities that
reflect the constructs of educational gerontology.
� Despite growing economic and social pressures to educate older people, and
the acknowledgement that education has an integral role to play in successful
ageing, educational gerontology is in its infancy as a specialist area in
Australia.
� While the capacity for applying educational gerontology exists in Australian
universities, systemic and contextual barriers currently impede the
advancement of this field.
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� Educational gerontology is able to make a significant contribution to the
learning experiences of older adults by extending current understandings of
adult education among adult educators to include the biopsychosocial needs
of older adults.
� Academics responsible for current Australian university adult education
programs require professional development in educational gerontology in
order to provide effective teaching to and for this emerging demographic.
� Australian university curriculum relevant to professional preparation in
educational gerontology is achievable through a synthesis of content
extracted from the disciplines of sociology, behavioural and educational
psychology, gerontology and adult education.
5.8 Significance of the Findings
For educational gerontology as a specialist area, these findings represent a realistic
assessment of its stage of development, and its likelihood of successful integration into
established Australian university Adult Education programs. Due to its relative infancy
as a distinctive field, findings of this study have established the baseline from which
future developmental activities are needed to promote the field generally. In some cases
this study will have introduced educational gerontology to practising adult educators for
the first time, and will assist in articulating possible ways in which to expand and
develop their own understanding of older adult learners. This study has therefore made a
significant contribution towards introducing, promoting and advancing the field of
educational gerontology generally.
For practitioners, the results of this study have the potential to raised awareness
of and potential for educational gerontology as an extension of current university
activities. From a professional development perspective, these findings have identified
some major skills and knowledge gaps in adult educators and researchers in ageing.
This study has also provided an analysis of the educational gerontology shortcomings
relevant to Australian university Ageing Research Centres’ missions and goals. The
potential applicability of educational gerontology has been also been analysed to reveal
where current understandings need development to meet emerging educational needs.
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Such a springboard is beneficial for professional development planning, career
pathways, personal development and entrepreneurial projects.
This study has also identified areas in adult education that require policy
development and adaptation. At the government level, these results identify a critical
need for the development of a policy that ensures a quality standard in the education of
older adults irrespective of their settings. The incorporation of educational gerontology
principles in the drafting of this policy will ensure that the overarching ameliorative
purpose behind educating older adults is achieved, and will encourage practitioners to
apply appropriate geragogical instructional strategies when planning education and
training interventions. Administrators in the higher education sector have also been
provided with substantive social and demographic information essential to the
development of an accurate and strategic operational plan.
Seen from a curriculum development perspective, this study has generated a
comprehensive situational analysis from which to launch curriculum activities relevant
to the older learner. In addition, findings have generated a strong case for collaboration
between distinct disciplines to achieve a curriculum more appropriate for the older adult
educator. This study will support the argument for a more responsive curriculum review
process that reflects changing social circumstances.
There is educational significance to this study, particularly for researchers
interested in exploring the synergistic opportunities that lie between the disciplines of
adult education and social gerontology. This study has provided a strong sociological
argument for collaboration. From a theoretical perspective, this study has challenged the
status quo of traditional understandings of adult education and identified how adults’
learning might be affected by environments and their sense of self. This study pioneers
educational gerontology as a step forward in the evolution of adult education practice,
and provides a starting point for future research into the range of educational
gerontology activities that emerged out of the literature. It is significant therefore that
this study has generated for researchers the first model of educational gerontology
operating within the Australian university sector and the first account of the current level
of activity in universities across the country.
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Economically, this study is significant as the findings demonstrate that the
educational profile of the older individual requires significant attention in relation to the
overall economic prosperity of the nation. Moreover, this study has narrowed the gap
between work and life, and introduced age management into organisational management
practices. To achieve this, ageist practices that create obstacles to training opportunities
and workforce participation will require dismantling, to be replaced with more equitable
investment in education and training in the workplace. Momentum generated by
equitable workplace practices will consequently be felt in communities as more older
people experience empowerment and self-determination, supported by age-friendly work
environments, revised notions of retirement, skilful knowledge management strategies
that value the tacit knowledge of older employees, and community consultation from
both employment stakeholders and university academics.
5.8.1 Limitations of the Research
The scope of this study is limited to two specific Australian university settings and it is
acknowledged that other university entities might be applying educational gerontology
in a variety of ways that have not been identified in this research. The study is also
limited to coordinators of Adult Education programs and Directors of Ageing Research
centres employed in this capacity at the time of the study. It is also acknowledged that
the study did not extend to a detailed training needs analysis of staff within each setting,
and it is possible that some knowledge of older adult learning might exist among other
Faculty members. In addition, this study has not examined the private sector to
determine evidence or capacity of this specialist field, nor has it analysed the
geragogical quality of ad hoc educational programs, resources or toolkits developed
specifically for the older person.
Methodologically, the study utilised electronically-based technologies to
overcome issues of geographical distance, and it is acknowledged that this method may
not have been familiar or convenient to all participants. The use of the telephone for the
interview process may also have affected the quality of the contributions made by
participants due to a lack of face-to-face contact, and the short time available to establish
a rapport with the participant.
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In practical terms, the workload of some participants necessitated that interviews
be held after work hours. While this indicated a high level of commitment and interest
in the study, it should be acknowledged that participants were tired at this time of day
which may have affected the breadth of their contribution.
5.8.2 Recommendations for Future Work
There exists enormous scope for further work in the area of educational gerontology,
and this ranges from research activities, development of educational resources, through
to community projects. From a research perspective, it is vital that research is
undertaken to extend the understanding of older adult learners and the influence of their
contexts and life stage on the effectiveness and suitability of their learning experiences.
In addition, it is important to encourage further postgraduate work in geragogy, to
promote educational gerontology as a specialist area and to raise its profile in adult
education and lifelong learning. Globally, it is worth investigating other countries reach
into educational gerontology through a comparative analysis of social gerontology
programs or undergraduate degrees in Applied Gerontology.
Based on the findings of this study that reveals educational gerontology to be at
an early developmental stage, it is important to continue to develop educational
gerontology as a specialised field through the establishment of networks and
associations that can collaborate to arrange colloquia, lobby for overseas speakers and
generate a body of literature relevant to the field. Other collaborative enterprises that
can promote the field include research entities, aged care organisations and
consultancies, community groups, employer groups and government agencies. These
activities will however require a more comprehensive adoption of educational
gerontology as a recognised body of knowledge within adult education, whereby
universities recruit and develop staff able to deliver educational gerontology content to
students, to participate in community projects, and to promote the value of education to
older adults though business forums, at leisure clubs and associations, sporting venues
and in retirement villages, thereby contributing towards a more equitable society within
which the oldest among us are bestowed with both value and respect.
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Appendix 1: Project introductory correspondence
QUT Letterhead Faculty of Education <<Insert date>> <<Insert Organisational Title>> <<Insert Centre Name>> <<Insert Address>> <<Insert Telephone No>> <<Insert Email Adress>> Dear Sir Re: Research study in educational gerontology in ageing research and development The establishment of Ageing Research Centres is important to improve our understanding of the older Australian and their physical, emotional and social needs, and is justified in respect of Australia’s ageing population. This Doctoral research project is concerned with examining how Higher Education might participate in this research domain. In particular, it focuses on adult education, and the relationship between the practice of educational gerontology and the application of geragogical principles in educational programs relevant to the older Australian. The sample for this research comprises twenty Ageing Research Centres identified across Australia. As you represent an active member of this community, I would like to invite you to participate in my study. Please be assured that your privacy and anonymity will be maintained at all times during the project. To illustrate this, I have attached a description of the data collection method and ethical protocols, and a sample of the questions to be asked, together with a consent form for your convenience. I look forward to hearing from you regarding participation in this project. If you have any questions please don’t hesitate to contact me at c2.engelbrecht@student.qut.edu.au or by telephone on (07) 3864 3456. Yours sincerely Mrs Cappy Engelbrecht
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Appendix 2 211
Appendix 2: Research Protocols
THE EXTENT OF EDUCATIONAL GERONTOLOGY
IN AGEING RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT
RESEARCH PROTOCOLS
Researcher : Mrs Cappy Engelbrecht Centre for Learning Innovation Faculty of Education, QUT Victoria Park Road Kelvin Grove Qld 4059 Telephone 07 3864 3456 Email: c2.engelbrecht@student.qut.edu.au
Supervisor : Dr Tricia Fox School of Learning and Professional Studies Faculty of Education, QUT Victoria Park Road Kelvin Grove Qld 4059 Telephone 07 3864 3798 Email: t.fox@qut.edu.au
Description of Project This study is investigates the extent of educational gerontology in ageing research and development in Australian Higher Education. A telephone interview, based on the questions provided in the enclosed questionnaire, forms the basis for the investigation. Eligibility You are eligible to participate if you perform a leadership role in a university-affiliated Research Centre concerned with Ageing Research and Development. Voluntary participation Your participation in this project is entirely voluntary. You may withdraw your comments at any time during the project. Your decision to participate will in no way impact upon your personal standing, your future career, and will not in any way influence the success of your Centre. A consent form is provided overleaf for your convenience. Anonymity and confidentiality Information gained during the telephone interviews will be confidential and the identities of the participants, and the individual centres, will be anonymous. It will not be possible to link your or your centres’, contribution to the research findings. While the telephone conversations will be recorded for transcription purposes, tapes will be cleaned once transcription is complete. Final interview results will be accessible to the research team only for research and educational purposes, and will be stored for five years in a lockable filing cabinet, then destroyed. Questions and further information For additional information or questions about the project, you are welcome to contact the project leader, Mrs Cappy Engelbrecht, on 3864 3456 or by email c2.engelbrecht@student.qut.edu.au Concerns or complaints If you have any concerns or complaints about the ethical conduct of this research you are welcome to contact the Research Ethics Officer 3864 2340 or email ethicscontact@qut.edu.au. Please quote the University Human Research Ethics Committee Reference Number 4155H. Thank you very much for participating in this study.
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Appendix 3 212
Appendix 3: Consent Form
THE EXTENT OF EDUCATIONAL GERONTOLOGY
IN AGEING RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT
CONSENT FORM
By signing this consent form, I am indicating that I:
• Have understood the information about this research project;
• Have had any questions answered to my satisfaction;
• Understand that I may withdraw my comments at any time;
• Understand that I may contact the research team if there are any questions about the project, or the Research Ethics Officer on 07 3864 2340 or ethicscontact@qut.edu.au if I have any concerns about the ethical conduct of the project; and
• Agree to participate in the project.
Centre: …………………………………………………………………………………………………. Name:..…………………………………………………………………………………………………. Signature: ...........………………………………………………………………………………………. Date: …………./……………./…………. My preferred date for the telephone interview is: ………/……………/…………. My preferred time for the telephone interview is: ……………………………….am/pm. (It is advisable to set aside at least 30 minutes for this interview).
Please return this form to Mrs Cappy Engelbrecht, using one of the options below: 1. By Email: c2.engelbrecht@student.qut.edu.au OR 2. By Fax: 07 3864 3025 OR 3. By Post: Level 5, B Block Centre for Learning Innovation Faculty of Education Queensland University of Technology Victoria Park Avenue Kelvin Grove Qld 4059
A Case for Educational Gerontology in Adult Education
Appendix 4 (a) 213
Appendix 4 (a): Sample Survey Instrument/Ageing Re search Centre
1. What is the primary research focus of your Centre?
Health/Biomedical
Social Gerontology
Aged Care & Services
Education & Training
Workplace & Retirement
Multi-disciplinary
Other (please describe)
2. How long has your centre been established?
Less than 3 years
3 to 5 years
6 to 8 years
9 to 10years
More than 10 years
3. Is there a direct affiliation between your Research Centre and a University?
Yes
No Please go to Question 5
4. If yes, please indicate what purposes these affilia tions serve (please tick all that apply).
Postgraduate Student Supervision
University Policy Formulation
Funding
Research Collaboration
Curriculum Development
Consultancy and Advice
Administration
Industry Links
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Appendix 4 (a) 214
Community Links
Other (please list)
5. How familiar are you with the practice of education al gerontology?
Not familiar
Slightly familiar
Familiar
Very Familiar
Please comment on the reasons for your answer:
6. Does your Research Centre design or deliver any adu lt education or training programs specific to the older Australian?
Yes
No
If Yes Please describe the topics/content of adult education programs offered by your Centre:
7. Does your Centre have any links to a Faculty of Edu cation?
Yes
No Please go to Question 9
8. Please indicate to what extent collaboration betwee n your Centre and a Faculty of Education has involved any of the following activities:
Definition of Terms
Not at all no interaction whatsoever
Minor involvement occasional interaction with Faculty staff
Regular involvement ongoing interaction with key Faculty members
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Significant involvement sustained interaction with key Faculty members for joint project outcomes.
Not
at all Minor
involvement Regular
involvement Significant
involvement
Please elaborate on your answer (no word limit)
8a Curriculum Review
8b Curriculum Development
8c Program Development
8d Professional Development of Centre Staff
8e Professional Development of University Staff
8f
Professional Development of Private (Aged) Sector employees
8g Evaluation of Community Educational Programs for the Aged
8h
Development of Accreditation Standards or Best Practice Guidelines
8i Geragogical Interventions or Program Delivery
8j Application of General Educational Gerontology Principles
8k Applications for Grants or Funding
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Appendix 4 (a) 216
9. Please describe how a Faculty of Education might co ntribute to your Research Centre in the future:
10. Please describe any perceived barriers/obstacles to collaboration with a Faculty of Education
in the future?
11. Would you be prepared to participate in a follow up interview based on your
responses?
Yes
No
If Yes please provide contact details:
Your Name:
Phone Number:
12. Do you wish to receive a copy of the results of this study?
Yes
No
If Yes please provide contact details:
Your Name (optional):
Research Centre: Postal Address:
Email (if preferred):
A Case for Educational Gerontology in Adult Education
Appendix 4 (b) 217
Appendix 4 (b): Sample Survey Instrument/Faculty o f Education
1. What is the primary research focus of your Faculty?
Health/Biomedical
Social Gerontology
Aged Care & Services
Education & Training
Workplace & Retirement
Multi-disciplinary
Other (please describe)
2. How long has your faculty been established?
Less than 3 years
3 to 5 years
6 to 8 years
9 to 10years
More than 10 years
3. Is there any affiliation between your Faculty and a n Ageing Research Centre?
Yes
No Please go to Question 5
4. If yes, please indicate what purposes these affilia tions serve (please tick all that apply).
Postgraduate Student Supervision
University Policy Formulation
Funding
Research Collaboration
Curriculum Development
Consultancy and Advice
Administration
Industry Links
Community Links
Other (please list)
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Appendix 4 (b) 218
5. How familiar are you with the practice of education al gerontology?
Not familiar
Slightly familiar
Familiar
Very Familiar
Please comment on the reasons for your answer:
6. Does your Faculty design or deliver any adult educa tion or training programs specific to the
older Australian?
Yes
No
If Yes Please describe the topics/content of adult education programs offered by your Centre:
7. Does your Faculty have any links to Ageing Research ?
Yes
No Please go to Question 9
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Appendix 4 (b) 219
8. Please indicate to what extent collaboration betwee n your Faculty and an Ageing Research Center has involved any of the following activities :
Definition of Terms
Not at all no interaction whatsoever
Minor involvement occasional interaction with Faculty staff
Regular involvement ongoing interaction with key Faculty members
Significant involvement sustained interaction with key Faculty members for joint project outcomes.
Not
at all Minor
involvement Regular
involvement Significant
involvement
Please elaborate on your answer (no word limit)
8a Curriculum Review
8b Curriculum Development
8c Program Development
8d Professional Development of Centre Staff
8e Professional Development of University Staff
8f
Professional Development of Private (Aged) Sector employees
8g Evaluation of Community Educational Programs for the Aged
8h
Development of Accreditation Standards or Best Practice Guidelines
8i Geragogical Interventions or Program Delivery
8j Application of General Educational Gerontology Principles
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8k Applications for Grants or Funding
9. Please describe how an Ageing Research Centre might contribute to your Faculty in the
future:
10. Please describe any perceived barriers/obstacles to collaboration with an Ageing Research
Centre in the future?
11. Would you be prepared to participate in a follow up interview based on your responses?
Yes
No
If Yes please provide contact details:
Your Name:
Phone Number:
12. Do you wish to receive a copy of the results of this study?
Yes
No
If Yes please provide contact details:
Your Name (optional):
Research Centre: Postal Address:
Email (if preferred):
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Appendix 5: Research Sample: Australian Ageing Res earch Centres
Name Location
1. Ageing and Long Term Care Policy and Practices Unit
University of Melbourne
www.socialwork.unimelb.edu.au/research/ageing
2. Alma Unit for Research on Ageing (AURA)
Victoria University
www.staff.vu.edu.au/AURA
3. ANZAC Research Institute
Concord Repatriation Hospital, Sydney, NSW www.anzac.edu.au
4. Australasian Centre on Ageing (ACA)
The University of Queensland www.uq.edu.au/aca
5. Centre for Ageing Studies
(CAS)
Flinders Institute of Health Research, Flinders University.
www.cas.flinders.edu.au
6. Centre for Ageing and Pastoral Studies (CAPS)
Barton, Canberra ACT. www.centreforageing.org.au
7. Centre for Applied Gerontology (CAG)
Research Unit of Bundoora Extended Care Centre of Northern Health, Victoria.
www.nh.org.au/Research_and_Education/Centre_for_Applied_Gerontology_CAG
8. Centre for
Education and Research on Ageing (CERA)
Concord Repatriation General Hospital, Sydney.
www.cera.usyd.edu.au
9. Centre for Elder Law University of Western Sydney
www.uws.edu.au/about/acadorg/clb/sl/research/elderlaw
10. Centre for Mental Health Research: Ageing Research Unit
Australian National University, ACT www.anu.edu.au/cmhr/ageing/
11. Centre for Physical Activity in Ageing (CPAA)
Northfield, South Australia. Specialised Unit of Hampstead Rehabilitation Centre of the Royal Adelaide Hospital.
www.cpaa.sa.gov.au
12. Centre for Research into Aged Care Services (CRACS)
Division of Health Sciences, Curtin University of Technology WA www.cracs.curtin.edu.au
13. Centre for Research and Education in Ageing (CREA)
University of Newcastle, NSW
www.newcastle.edu.au/faculty/health/research/crea.htm
14. Centre for Social Change Research
Queensland University of Technology www.socialchange.qut.edu.au/about
15. Communication Disability in Ageing Research Unit (CDARU)
University of Qld, Department of Speech Pathology and Audiology
www.shrs.uq.edu.au/cdaru/cdaru/index.html
16. Lincoln Centre for Ageing and Community Care Research
Australian Institute for Primary Care, La Trobe University, Victoria
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www.latrobe.edu.au/aipc/lincoln.htm
17. Monash Ageing Research Centre (MONARC)
Monash University. Southern Health’s Aged care program
www.med.monash.edu.au/healthservices/monarc/
18. National Ageing Research Institute
University of Melbourne. Melbourne Extended Care and Rehabilitation Service
www.nari.unimelb.edu.au
19. National Seniors Productive Ageing Centre
University of the Sunshine Coast
www.usc.edu.au/Rsearch/Centres/NSPAC
20. Research Centre on Ageing and Retirement (RCAR)
Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences, University of NSW
www.arts.unsw.edu.au/ageing/
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Appendix 7 223
Appendix 6: Research Sample/Adult Education
Faculty/School University
School of Learning and Professional Studies Queensland University of Technology
School of Education Charles Sturt University
School of Education Southern Cross University
Faculty of Education Curtin University of Technology
Faculty of Education University of Tasmania
Faculty of Education University of Technology Sydney
Faculty of Education University of Western Sydney
Faculty of Education University of South Australia
School of Education and Professional Studies Griffith University
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Appendix 7 224
Appendix 7: Sample NVivo Interview Transcript and Coding
<Documents\Faculty Transcripts\Interview Transcription 7 August 2006> - § 1 reference coded [100.00% Coverage] Reference 1 - 100.00% Coverage Interview Transcription 7 August 2006
C: k well you’ve probably heard that this telephone conversation will be recorded. So perhaps if I could just start by thanking you again for participating in the research and mentioning a few housekeeping rules. The first is that as you heard the conversation is being recorded and in fact I will get a CD with the recording in due course. The second is that you will remain anonymous in the transcription once it’s written up there won’t be any way to identify you and your own particular opinions. Also you can ask me to stop at any time if you feel the conversation is going nowhere or you’ve had enough just say so and it’s entirely up to you. And the final point is that you can withdraw any comment that you make if you think later on that you would rather not have that recorded your entitled to say so. I: Ok. C: Alright, so maybe we could just get started then by me asking you just a little bit about your role in um your particular faculty I: My role there is a lecturer I’m involved with ah teaching in the bachelor of adult and community learning in a unit that’s called facilitation 2 which is structured its about structured teaching, structured learning. I’m also involved with the writing of ah unit outlines and unit profiles for 2 new certificate, ah grad certificate units. I’m also involved with the coordination of a program for visiting Vietnamese academics. I _____ with the university is simply a contract that completes in September. So that’s my position currently. C: Mm ok. Now can I then ask straight away if any of those activities that _____ that you’ve just listed involve consideration of the fact that the Australian population is aging? I: No, but I would say that the job that I have, it helps greatly that I have had a lot of experience in regards to adult learning and that I had completed a Phd. Um that in itself in itself indicates to me that I have been able to get this job because I am an older person. I wouldn’t not have got this job if I was a younger person without the experience. C: Ok, ok. So perhaps I should just clarify sorry if I confused you there. What I was really asking about in the teaching that you do in those bachelor of community learning and those units that you write. Any of those activities are they influenced at all in what you teach or how you teach by the fact that the Australian population is aging? I: No C: So the content hadn’t been influenced by that yet or the strategy that you employ haven’t been influenced by that I: Ah the strategies are in that the framework that’s built around my teaching in those units and the writing of those units is about life long learning
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ANNOTATIONS AND CODING 1. Teaches the process of facilitation, writes unit outlines, professional development 2. No connection to phenomenon of ageing population. 3. No content linked to ageing, but recognises the overarching link to lifelong learning. 4. Vague description of lifelong learning, with association to lifespan and stage of life (multiple stages), and links it to one of the major principles of adult learning (self-directedness) 5. Teaches concept of lifelong learning. Does not extend content to include the older learner though. 6. No affiliations with research centres or other faculties. Other staff might have. EG knowledge created through experience. No formal study in the area. Some experience with non-accredited programs for seniors. No conceptualisation of the older adult as learner, or content knowledge. General group process and classroom dynamics. No other concepts. Acknowledges the possibility of an educational gerontology unit. 7. Misunderstanding by respondent who is taking about programs specifically delivered for seniors only. 8. Chooses to combine and dilute (reduce) the issue into concept of lifelong learning. Does not willingly separate adult learners from older adult learners. Reflects lack of comprehension about lifespan and learning theory, cognition, instructional processes, physiology, social gerontology etc. 9. Evident links to ageing research. Colleagues with research interests. Students research on that topic. Internal links and external links (e.g. consultancies with local government)