Post on 11-Jan-2016
3Understanding
Human Development
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Objective
• Distinguish between growth and development.
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Understanding Human Development• Growth refers to physical changes• Stages of development are similar for
almost everyone
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For Discussion
• What is the difference between growth and development?
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Objective
• Identify the main types of human development.
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Physical Development
• Physical development includes– gross-motor skills, such as walking and
throwing– fine-motor skills, such as picking up objects
and eating with a spoon
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Cognitive Development
• Cognition involves– knowing– memorizing– sensing– organizing
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continued
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Cognitive Development
• Cognitive development is also called intellectual development
• Cognitive skills increase gradually over time
• Connections between brain nerve cells is key to cognitive development
• Brain connections strengthen with experiences starting in infancy
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Social-Emotional Development• Social-emotional development includes
– relationships– feelings– social skills– self-confidence and self-esteem– self-control
continued
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Social-Emotional Development
• Challenges increase as development progresses
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Objective
• Develop examples that illustrate principles of development.
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Principles of Human Development• Development is relatively orderly• Developing is a gradual, continual
process• Development is interrelated• Development varies among individuals
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Development Is Relatively Orderly• Development occurs in a sequence of
steps• Predictable steps consistently follow
one after another• Teachers use this knowledge to design
appropriate learning strategies for their students’ age
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For Discussion
• Give examples of how development occurs in predictable steps.
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Development Is a Gradual, Continuous Process
• Developmental changes happen gradually
• They become apparent over time
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Development Is Interrelated• Acquiring new skills requires gains in
several areas– Physical development– Cognitive development– Social development– Emotional development
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For Reflection
• As a teen, in what ways have you developed physically? cognitively? socially? emotionally?
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Development Varies Among Individuals• Many factors affect development• Each person’s progress is unique
– Different rates– Slightly different time schedules
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Objectives• Define a developmental theory.• Apply developmental theories to
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Theories of Development
• Researchers formulate developmental theories by– analyzing behavior and development– observing people– performing experiments– considering earlier research studies
continued
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Theories of Development
• Developmental theories help teachers– understand what students are capable of
and why– get a broader picture than limited
experiences and observations provide
• Many developmental theories exist
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Heredity Versus Environment• Nature (heredity)
versus nurture (environment)
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Heredity Versus Environment• Both influence development• Researchers question how large a part
each plays in development• Genes affect
– biological factors– intellectual potential– environment a person seeks out
continued
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Heredity Versus Environment
• Behaviors involve multiple genes affected by a variety of environmental factors
• No single gene determines behavior
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continued
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Heredity Versus Environment• Environmental factors include
– family—often the greatest effect on development• Parenting techniques• Stimulating home environment
– peers—influence increases in later childhood and adolescence• Offer equal status, unlike adult-child
relationships
continued
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Heredity Versus Environment
– community—where a person lives can affect behavior and career expectations• Relationship with feelings of self-worth• Some offer more cultural opportunities
– media—often blamed for social problems• Also depends on how a person interprets the
message• Effects may not be immediately apparent
continued
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Heredity Versus Environment
– health—some diseases and illnesses interrupt normal development• Availability of health care is also a factor
– nutrition and physical activity—can affect physical, cognitive, social, and emotional development
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For Reflection
• Which do you think has influenced your development more, heredity or environment?
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Behaviorist Theories
• Behaviorism: behavior determined by forces in the environment beyond individuals’ control
• People’s thoughts, feeling, and actions depend on experience rather than genetics or free will
• Infants are “blank screens”
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Pavlov’s Classical Conditioning• Classical conditioning—behaviors are
associated with responses– Pavlov rang bell when feeding dog– Eventually when Pavlov rang bell, dog
salivated even if no food was given
• Classical conditioning may occur without training
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Skinner’s Operant Conditioning• Operant conditioning—people repeat
behaviors that have positive results• Reinforcement should be removed
gradually in unpredictable patterns• Negative reinforcement (punishment)
reduces unwanted behaviors
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Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory
• People of all ages observe and imitate others’ behavior
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continued
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Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory• Reactions to rewards and punishments
are filtered by perceptions, thoughts, and motivation
• Each person’s response is based on personal reactions and the way the individual processes information
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Piaget’s Cognitive Theory
• Four stages of cognitive development• At each stage, individuals incorporate
what they learn into skills developed in previous stages
• Children base their thinking on what they learn through their senses
continued
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Piaget’s Cognitive Theory
Age Stage DescriptionInfancy(Birth to age 2)
Sensorimotor Learn through senses
Toddler(Ages 2 to 7)
Preoperational Communicate through language
Early childhood (Ages 7 to 11)
Concrete operational
Think logically, solve problems
Adolescence and adulthood (Age 12 and up)
Formal operational Think logically and abstractly, make predictions
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Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory• Children are social beings• Develop through interactions with
parents, teachers, other students• Social interaction is critical to
cognitive development
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Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory• Eight stages• At each stage, people face and must
successfully resolve a psychological or social conflict
• Unsuccessful resolution affects future stages of development
continued
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Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory
Stage/Age Task
Infancy Trust versus mistrust
Toddler Autonomy versus shame and doubt
Early childhood Initiative versus guilt
Middle childhood Industry versus inferiority
Adolescence Identity versus role confusion
Young adulthood Intimacy versus isolation
Middle adulthood Generativity versus self-absorption
Older adulthood Integrity versus despair
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For Reflection
• Which of Erikson’s stages have you already successfully completed? How do you know?
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Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development
• Everyone follows the same progression
• Not everyone attains the highest level
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continued
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Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development• Preconventional morality—depends on
whether behavior will be punished or rewarded
• Conventional morality—motivated by society’s laws and rules
• Postconventional morality—decisions based on principles and motivated by integrity
continued
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Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development• Kohlberg observed only men and boys,
no females• Researchers such as Carol Gilligan
believe women use ideas such as caring as a factor in making moral decisions
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Objective
• Analyze how developmental theories impact teaching.
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Which Theory Is Correct?
• Each theory is valid to some extent• Some theories may be more sound than
others• Conflict between theories leads to more
valid insights• Teachers can benefit from
understanding several approaches and applying them in the classroom
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For Discussion
• Which theory discussed do you think would be most valuable to you as a teacher? Why?
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Key Points• Principles of development help in
understanding how people change throughout life
• Researchers form developmental theories based on their observations and experiments
• Teachers use these theories to help promote their students’ development
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Review• ____-____ skills depend on the
development of small muscles.Fine-motor• Name four basic principles of human
development.Development is relatively orderly; is a
gradual, continual process; is interrelated; varies among individuals
continued
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Review• Which behaviorist developed a theory of
operant conditioning?B.F. Skinner• What are the four stages of Piaget’s
cognitive theory?sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete
operational, formal operational