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IntroductiontoComputerSystems
1.IntroductiontoComputerTechnology
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5.ComputingEnvironments
QCourseCompletionQuiz
1.2.ComponentsinaComputerSystem
Acomputerconsistsoffollowingcomponents:
Hardware
Software
Firmware
1.2.1.Hardware
Hardwareconstitutesthetangiblepartsofcomputerlikeitskeyboard,mouse,VisualDisplayUnit(VDUormonitor), circuits etc. It isbestdescribedas all thephysicalpartsof a computer, thepartsyoucanactuallyseeandtouch.
Hardwareconstitutesthefollowingpartsofcomputer:
I.Caseorbodyofcomputer
II.Powersupply
III.Inputperipherals
i.Mouse
ii.Keyboard
IV.Outputperipherals
i.Monitor
ii.Printer
V.MemoryDevice
VI.Motherboard
i.CentralProcessingUnitii.RAMiii.Ports
VII.Expansioncards
Pintu KumarHighlight
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Outofthecomponentslistedabove,inthissession,wewillfocusourdiscussiononthefollowingpartsofhardwareonly:
I.Mouse
II.Keyboard
III.Monitor
IV.MemoryDevice
V.CentralProcessingUnit
1.2.1.1.Mouse
AMouse is an input device and probably has at least two buttons on it. The left button is called theprimarymouse button, the right button is called the secondarymouse button or just the rightmousebutton.TherecanbeasmallwheelcalledScrollerbetweenthe twomousebuttons.Themousecanbeusedasfollows:
Click:Pointtoanitem,thentap(pressandrelease)theleftmousebutton.Likeyouclicklinksonawebsite.
Doubleclick:Pointtoanitemandpresstheleftmousebuttontwiceinrapidsuccession.
Rightclick:Pointtoanitem,thentaptherightmousebutton.
Drag:Pointtoanitem,thenholddowntheleftmousebuttonasyoumovethemouse.Thenreleasetheleftmousebuttontodroptheitem.
Rightdrag:Pointtoanitem,thenholddowntherightmousebuttonasyoumovethemouse.
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Thenreleasetherightmousebuttontodroptheitem.
1.2.1.2.Keyboard
AKeyboardisaninputdeviceandisusuallyusedwhenweneedtotypesometextinputorfillaform.Variouskeysareexplainedbelow.
Thefunctionkeyshavesomedefinitefunctiondependingontheapplicationorprogramthatyouareusingonyourcomputer.TherearetwelvefunctionkeysfromF1toF12.F1canalwaysbeusedtodisplayhelpforyourcurrentapplication,F2canbeusedtochangenameofanyfile,F3canbeusedtosearchanytextorfileonthecomputer.Similarlyeachfunctionkeycanbeusedtoperformaspecificaction.
ThedirectionkeysorArrowkeyscanbeusedtomovethetypingcursor(theblinkingshortverticallineonmonitorthatindicatesthepositionoftextinsertion)atdesiredlocation.
ThenumerickeyscanbeusedtoenternumbersifwehavepressedtheNumLockkeywhichcanbeindicatedbythelightonLockKeyindicators.Otherwise,theNumerickeysbehaveasdirectionkeysandallowsyoutochangeyourcursorlocation.
CtrlandAltkeysaregenerallyusedincombinationwithotherkeystoperformsomespecifictaskthatis,youcanpressallthesecombinationkeystogethertoproduceasingleinput.
ShiftKeyisalsoaspecialkeywhichcanbeusedtochangethelowercaselettertouppercaseandviceversawhiletyping.Itisalsousedtodisplaytheparenthesis(),thequestionmark(?),theexclamationpoint(!)andthecolon(:).Also,ithelpsindisplayingotherspecialcharacterslike@,$,#thatarepresentonthehorizontalnumerickeypad.
Tabkeyallowsyoutomovethecursorbyafixednumberofspaces.Itishelpfulifyouwanttowritesomethinginatabulatedform.Itcanalsobeusedtomovetothenextinputfieldwhilefillingaform.
CapsLockKeysetsaninputmodeinwhichtypedlettersareuppercase(incapitalletters)bydefault.Thekeyboardremainsincapslockmodeuntilthekeyispressedagain.Itcanbeusefulwhenyouaretypingaheadingorfillingaformwhichrequiresonlycapitalletters.
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EnterKeycausesaformoranyothercomputeroperationtoperformitsdefaultfunction.ThisistypicallyanalternativetopressinganOKbutton.Itcanalsobeusedtomovetothenextline'sstartingpositionwhiletyping.
Esc(Escape)keycanbeusedtocancelataskortogobacktoaprevioustask.
1.2.1.3.Monitor
Monitor, also called as VDU (Visual Display Unit) is the primary output device. It looks like aTelevisionandhassimilarpurposeofdisplayingvideosoroutputofprograms.Monitorsarebuiltusingtechnologies likeCathodeRayTube(CRTmonitors referGlossary)andThinFilmTransistorLiquidCrystal Display (TFT LCD monitors refer Glossary). We now generally have these monitors orscreensmadeofTFTLCD.
1.2.1.4.MemoryDevices
Thesearethedeviceswhichstoretheinformation.
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Thetermprimarymemoryisusedfortheinformationinphysicalsystemswhichfunctionsathighspeed.For example, it is capable of performing complex calculations and displaying the results at the sametime.
Secondarymemorydevicesarephysicaldevicesforprogramanddatastoragewhichareslowtoaccessbutofferhighermemorycapacity.
Primarymemorystoredonsecondarymemoryiscalledvirtualmemory.
RAM (refer Figure 1.14, Glossary), and Computer cache (refer Glossary) are examples of Primarymemory storage.Magnetic tapes,CompactDisks (CDs),DigitalVersatileDisks (DVDs referFigure1.15)areallexamplesofSecondaryMemoryStorage.
Thememoryisorganizedintomemorycellseachstoringonebinarybit(0or1).Thememorycellsaregrouped into words of fixed length, for example 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64 or 128 bit. Eachword in thememory can be accessed by a binary address (referGlossary) ofN bit,making it possible to store 2raisedbyNwords.
1.2.1.5.CentralProcessingUnit
The Central Processing Unit (CPU) or the computer processor performs calculations, processesinformation,storesdatainmemoryandcontrolstheflowofdata.Theconventionalprocessorsaresmallinsizeandhaveallthecircuitsintegratedonasinglechip.Becauseofitssmallsize,theprocessorisalsoknownasmicroprocessor.ItisalsocalledtheBrainofcomputer.
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Aminimalhypotheticalmicroprocessormightonlyincludeanarithmeticlogicunit(ALU)andacontrollogicsection.
TheALUperformsmathematicaloperationssuchasadditionoftwonumbers,andlogicaloperationssuchasANDorOR(referGlossary).EachoperationoftheALUsetsoneormoreflagsinastatusregister(asmallmemorywithintheCPU),whichindicatestheresultofthelastoperation.
Thecontrollogicsectionretrievesinstructioncodesfrommemory,andinitiatesthesequenceofoperationsthattheALUrequirestocarryouttheinstruction.Itmayhappenthatasingleoperationcodeaffectsmanyregisters(referGlossary)atthesametime.Itislikeexecutingaflowchart(referGlossary)anddependingontheconditionencounteredintheflowchartanappropriatedecisionwillbetakenandtheflowwilljumptosomeotheroperationtobetriggeredintheALU.
GarrettAiResearch'sCentralAirDataComputer(CADC)(1968),TexasInstruments(TI)TMS1000(1971September)andIntel's4004(1971November)arethethreeprojectsthatdeliveredamicroprocessorataboutthesametime.
Wealsohavemulticoreprocessorsthathaveasinglechipcontainingmorethanonemicroprocessor.Thiseffectivelymultipliestheprocessor'spotentialperformancebythenumberofcores(theindependentactualcentralprocessingunits).
Thefirstdualcoreprocessors(microprocessorshavingtwoseparatemicroprocessorsonsingleIntegratedChipreferFigure1.16)forpersonalcomputerwereannouncedin2005.
Asof2013,dualcoreandquadcoreprocessors(microprocessorshavingfourseparatemicroprocessorsonsingleIntegratedChip)arewidelyusedinhomePCsandlaptopswhilesix,eight,ten,twelveandsixteencoreprocessorsarecommonintheprofessionalandenterprisemarketswithworkstationsandservers(referGlossary).
1.2.2.Software
Softwareisthenonmaterialpartofcomputerlikedata,programs,protocolsetc.Itisanonphysicalcomponentthatrunsonyourcomputerandcanbechangedbyasetofprogrammedinstructions.
ForexampleyouwatchamovieonaDVDusingtheDVDdriveinyourcomputer.HeretheDVDandDVDdrivearebothhardware,buttheprograminyourcomputerthatyouusetowatchthismovieiscalledsoftware.ThusasmovieisstoredonaDVD,similarlythereisaprogramlikeMediaPlayerstoredonyourcomputertowatchthatmovie.Theapplicationthatyouarecurrentlyusingtoreadthistextis
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alsoasoftware.
Softwarecanbecategorizedintothreetypesasfollows:
SystemSoftware
UtilitySoftware
ApplicationSoftware
1.2.2.1.SystemSoftware
It is the software used tomanage and control the hardware components and which allow interactionbetween the hardware and the other types of software (refer Figure 1.17). Themost obvious type ofsystemsoftwareisthecomputer'soperatingsystem.WewillseeOperatingSystemindetail.
AlltheprogramsandsoftwarerunoncomputerusingthemainsoftwareTheOperatingSystem.SomepopularmodernoperatingsystemsareAndroid,iOS,Unix,Linux,MacOSX,MicrosoftWindowsandIBMz/OS(referFigure1.18).
Operatingsystemhasvariouscategoriesaslistedbelow:
Realtime:Realtimeoperatingsystemsoftenusespecializedschedulingalgorithms(referGlossary).Themainobjectiveofrealtimeoperatingsystemsistheirquickandpredictable
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responsetoevents.Theirdesigniscalledeventdrivenortimesharingdesign.Aneventdrivendesignsystemswitchesbetweentasksbasedontheirprioritiesorexternaleventswhiletimesharingoperatingsystemsswitchtasksbasedonclockinterrupts.
Multiuser:Amultiuseroperatingsystemallowsmultipleuserstoaccessacomputersystematthesametime.TimesharingsystemsorInternetserversareexamplesofmultiusersystemsastheyenablemultipleuseraccesstoacomputerthroughthesharingoftime.
Multitasking:Amultitaskingoperatingsystemallowsmorethanoneprogramtorunatagiventime.Multitaskingcanbeoftwotypes:preemptiveandcooperative.
Preemptivemultitaskingistheactoftemporarilyinterruptingataskbeingcarriedoutbyacomputersystem,withtheintentionofresumingthetaskatalatertime.UnixlikeoperatingsystemssuchasSolarisandLinuxsupportpreemptivemultitasking.Forexample,youaretalkingonalandlinephonetosomeoneandthedoorbellrings.Inthiscaseyouwouldkeepthephonecalleronholdandvisitthepersonondoorandthencomebackandcontinuewiththetelephonecall.Itshowsherethattheringingofthedoorbellwasataskhavinghigherpriorityforwhichyoucouldsuspendthecurrentnormalpriorityphonecall.Cooperativemultitaskingisachievedbyrelyingoneachprocesstogivetimetotheotherprocessesinadefinedmanner.16bitversionsofMicrosoftWindows(MicrosoftWindows1.0to3.0and9xversionswhichstillsupporttheolderwindowsversions.Thesesystemsusuallyhangorstoprespondingincaseonerunningprogramdoesnotcooperatetoyieldtheprocessortosomeotherprogram)usedcooperativemultitasking.MacOSversionsbeforetoOSXusedtosupportcooperativemultitasking.
Singletasking:ASingleTaskingsystemhasonlyonerunningprogram(referGlossary).ThePalmOSforPalmhandheldcomputersisanexampleofasingleuserandsingletaskoperatingsystem.
Distributed:Adistributedoperatingsystemmanagesagroupofindependentcomputersandmakesthemappeartobeasinglecomputer.Thenetworkedcomputersworkingasagroupincooperation,makeadistributedsystem.
Embedded:Embeddedoperatingsystemsaredesignedtobeusedinembeddedcomputersystems.ThesearedesignedtooperateonmachineslikePDAswithlessautonomy.Theyoperatewithalimitednumberofresources,areverycompactandextremelyefficientbydesign.Minix3andWindowsCEareexamplesofembeddedoperatingsystems
1.2.2.2.UtilitySoftware
ItissoftwaresuchasantivirussoftwarelikeNortonandMcAfee,orMicrosoftSecurityEssentialswhichhelp to maintain and protect the computer system but may not directly interface with the hardware.UtilitieslikeWinziphelptocombineandcompressdatafilessothattheyoccupylessmemoryandcanbeeasilysentinmails.
1.2.2.3.ApplicationsSoftware
Alsoknownasapps,thesearedesignedtoallowtheuserofthesystemcompleteaspecifictaskorsetof
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tasks.Appsincludeprogramslikewebbrowsers,gamesandofficesoftware.Theyareusuallythereasonyouboughtthecomputersysteminthefirstplace(referFigure1.19).
1.2.3.Firmware
It is the combination of persistentmemory (long term or permanent storagewhich is preserved evenwhenthepowersupplyisunavailable),programcodeandthedatastoredinit.
Itissoftwarestoredinhardware.
Examplesincludeembeddedsystemsliketrafficlightsandremotecontrol.
Letusunderstandfirmwareusingremotecontrol.Whenyouopenaremotecontrolyouseeasetofcircuitswhichalongwiththebodyoftheremotecontrolconstitutesthehardwarepart.Nowyoucanmoveorswitchchannelsusingtheremotecontroloryoucanputachildlockforthesame.Alsoyoucanusetheswapbuttonontheremotecontroltogobacktothepreviousviewedchannel.Sotheremotecontrolisabletorememberwhichisthemostrecentchannelyouviewedoryourcolorpreferences.Thispartconstitutesthesoftwareanddatastoredinyourremotecontrol.
Changingthefirmwareofadevicemayrarelyorneverbedoneduringitslifetime.Somefirmwarememorydevicesarepermanentlyinstalledandcannotbechangedatall.Deviceslikeprinters,scanners,camerasandUSBdriveshavefirmwarestoredinternally.
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RelatedMaterial/VideoLinks:
Hardware:http://nptel.ac.in/courses/106106092/3
Software:http://nptel.ac.in/courses/106106092/2
Firmware:http://nptel.ac.in/courses/108102045/
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CPUmustoffercontroltootherprocesses.Itiscalledcooperativebecauseallprogramsmustcooperateforittowork.forexample:Ifoneprogramdoesnotcooperate,itcanhogtheCPU.Incontrast,preemptivemultitaskingforcesapplicationstosharetheCPUwhethertheywanttoornot.
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